United States v. Green

PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.  No. 08-4088
PHILLIP WAYNE GREEN,
Defendant-Appellant.


UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, 
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
 No. 08-4090
COURTNEY OMAR BOYD, a/k/a
Omar,
Defendant-Appellant.

Appeals from the United States District Court
for the Eastern District of Virginia, at Newport News.
Walter D. Kelley, Jr., District Judge.
(4:06-cr-00005-WDK-FBS-7; 4:06-cr-00005-WDK-FBS-3)

Argued: October 29, 2009

Decided: April 5, 2010

Before TRAXLER, Chief Judge, and GREGORY and
DAVIS, Circuit Judges.
2 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Davis wrote the major-
ity opinion, in which Chief Judge Traxler joined. Judge Greg-
ory wrote a separate opinion dissenting in part.

COUNSEL

ARGUED: Marcia G. Shein, LAW OFFICE OF MARCIA G.
SHEIN, PC, Decatur, Georgia; Lawrence Hunter Woodward,
Jr., SHUTTLEWORTH, RULOFF, SWAIN, HADDAD &
MORECOCK, PC, Virginia Beach, Virginia, for Appellants.
Richard Daniel Cooke, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES
ATTORNEY, Richmond, Virginia, for Appellee. ON
BRIEF: Dana J. Boente, Acting United States Attorney,
Alexandria, Virginia; Eric M. Hurt, Assistant United States
Attorney, OFFICE OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY,
Newport News, Virginia, for Appellee.

OPINION

DAVIS, Circuit Judge:

Appellant Courtney Omar Boyd ("Boyd") was convicted by
a jury in the Eastern District of Virginia on two counts of a
multi-count indictment: (1) conspiracy to distribute and pos-
sess with intent to distribute five kilograms or more of
cocaine and more than five grams of crack cocaine, in viola-
tion of 21 U.S.C. § 846, and (2) money laundering conspir-
acy, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). Appellant Phillip
Wayne Green ("Green" or "Appellant Green") was convicted
on the drug conspiracy count described above after a joint
trial with Boyd. In these consolidated appeals from final judg-
ments of sentence, Boyd challenges numerous rulings of the
district court, including but not limited to its denial of his
motion for judgment of acquittal and its denial of his pretrial
motion to suppress evidence. Appellant Green limits his
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 3
appellate challenge to a contention that the district court erred
when it denied his motion for judgment of acquittal. For the
reasons set forth within, we find no merit in the Appellants’
contentions. Accordingly, we affirm.

I.

This prosecution arose from a largely family-based, years-
long drug distribution network in which members of the con-
spiracy transported multi-kilogram quantities of cocaine by
automobile from South Florida to the Tidewater Region of
Virginia. On January 11, 2006, a grand jury returned a 16-
count indictment against seven individuals: Fitz Gerald
Green, Rohan Green, Glasford Green (the three of whom are
brothers and may be referred to jointly hereafter as "the Green
brothers"), Gladstone McIntosh, Gladstone Duncan, and the
Appellants Boyd and Green (the latter of whom is not related
to the Green brothers). J.A. 39-74.1 All of the Green brothers
named in the indictment pled guilty pursuant to plea agree-
ments and testified against the Appellants, as did others who
were also involved in the criminal network but were charged
separately. The Appellants were charged as follows: Boyd, in
three indictment counts, namely drug conspiracy, money
laundering conspiracy, and use of a communication facility
("the telephone count") in furtherance of the drug conspiracy,
in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846, 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h), and 21
U.S.C. § 843, respectively; Green, in six indictment counts,
namely drug conspiracy, money laundering conspiracy, use of
a communication facility ("the telephone count") in further-
ance of the drug conspiracy, and three separate substantive
counts of possession with the intent to distribute and distribu-
tion of cocaine, in violation of 21 U.S.C. § 846, 18 U.S.C.
1
The indictment also contained a request for forfeiture, in a minimum
amount of $22.5 million, of all proceeds and property traceable therefrom
in respect to the criminal activity alleged. Although the district court
entered forfeiture orders as to each of the Appellants, they raise no issue
on appeal as to those orders.
4 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
§ 1956(h), 21 U.S.C. § 843, and 21 U.S.C. § 841(a)(1) and
(b)(1)(B)(ii), respectively.

On October 25, 2006, the Appellants were arraigned and
pled not guilty. Appellant Boyd filed a timely pretrial motion
to suppress $54,020 in United States currency agents had
seized from his Florida home on the morning of his arrest. On
August 16, 2007, the district court conducted an evidentiary
hearing on the motion. For reasons stated on the record at the
conclusion of the hearing, the court found that the currency
had been seized in plain view during a constitutionally per-
missible protective sweep of Boyd’s home; it therefore denied
the motion to suppress. J.A. 172-77, 179.2 On August 20,
2007, jury selection began, during which Boyd made a Batson
objection based on the Government’s use of its peremptory
challenges to strike teachers from the jury venire.3 J.A. 180.
After argument by counsel, the district court overruled the
objection, reasoning that the strikes were not constitutionally
prohibited. J.A. 188-89.4

The trial proceeded and on August 28, 2007, the Govern-
ment rested its case. Each of the Appellants moved for a judg-
ment of acquittal pursuant to Fed. R. Crim. P. 29, arguing
that, in various respects, the evidence adduced by the Govern-
ment at trial was insufficient to prove any of the charges
against them. J.A. 682-87. The district court reserved ruling
on the motions for judgment of acquittal. Boyd then presented
evidence and rested. Green rested without presenting evi-
dence. After the Appellants renewed their motions for judg-
ment of acquittal, the Government withdrew Count 12 (the
telephone count) as to Boyd and Count 3 (money laundering
conspiracy) as to Green. J.A. 360-70, 692, 695, 699. The dis-
2
Boyd challenges the district court’s suppression ruling on appeal and
we examine it infra at 23-26.
3
See Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S. 79 (1986).
4
Boyd challenges the district court’s Batson ruling on appeal and we
examine it infra at 27-28.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 5
trict court further deferred ruling on the Rule 29 motions. J.A.
687.

In connection with the jury charge, Boyd’s counsel timely
excepted to the district court’s failure to include Boyd’s "the-
ory of defense" instruction. J.A. 377; 710-11.5 During closing
argument, Boyd objected when counsel for the Government
commented on certain behaviors engaged in by Boyd’s coun-
sel during the trial. The district court overruled the objection.6

The jury returned guilty verdicts on both counts submitted
to them as to Boyd: drug conspiracy and money laundering
conspiracy. The jury found Green guilty only of the drug con-
spiracy; it found Green not guilty on the telephone count, and
it failed to reach a verdict as to the three substantive drug dis-
tribution counts. The district court declared a mistrial on the
latter counts.

On September 28, 2007, Boyd filed a renewed motion for
judgment of acquittal and a motion for a new trial. J.A. 30,
387A. Green also renewed his own motion for judgment of
acquittal. J.A. 388-90. After hearing extensive argument from
counsel, the district court denied those motions on December
7, 2007. J.A. 391-419, 439, 446.7 The same day, the district
court conducted a sentencing hearing. The court sentenced
Boyd to 360 months of imprisonment on the drug conspiracy
count and 240 months of imprisonment on the money laun-
dering conspiracy count, to be served concurrently, and a
period of supervised release. J.A. 475. The court sentenced
Green to 151 months of imprisonment and a period of super-
5
Boyd challenges the district court’s rejection of his requested instruc-
tion on appeal and we examine the issue infra at 27-30.
6
Boyd challenges the district court’s ruling on his objection to the Gov-
ernment’s closing argument on appeal and we examine the issue infra at
28-30.
7
We examine the propriety of the district court’s rulings on the motions
for judgment of acquittal infra at 9-23.
6 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
vised release. J.A. 431. The district court entered its judg-
ments on December 20, 2007. Green and Boyd filed timely
Notices of Appeal and we consolidated the appeals. We have
jurisdiction pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1291.

II.

As previously indicated, most of the testimonial evidence
against the Appellants came from other participants involved
in the years-long enterprise to supply "wholesale" quantities
of cocaine from South Florida to dealers in Virginia. In addi-
tion to highly detailed inculpatory testimony from the Green
brothers, who were co-defendants in the same indictment as
the Appellants and who transacted numerous drug deals with
both of the Appellants, the jury heard from two additional
cooperating witnesses who testified pursuant to plea agree-
ments: Brenton Shand (a cousin of the Green brothers) and
Raymond Edwards. Despite vigorous cross-examination of
the cooperating witnesses by counsel for the Appellants, the
jury was entitled to credit so much of their testimony as it
found to be accurate, truthful, and probative, and to find, ulti-
mately, that the Government established the vast bulk of its
allegations beyond a reasonable doubt. We briefly summarize
some of that evidence.

Brenton Shand began cooperating with the Government
after he was arrested in June 2001 in Newport News, Virginia.
At the time of Shand’s arrest, law enforcement officers recov-
ered $300,000 in drug proceeds and three to four kilograms
of cocaine from his residence. Shand testified that Appellant
Green had delivered the cocaine to him. Shand had first met
Green in Florida in 1996 through a drug dealer who had pre-
viously supplied Shand with drugs. During that early 1996-98
period, Shand sometimes worked with Fitz Gerald Green to
unload cocaine from cars driven to Virginia from South Flor-
ida. The cars were packed at the Florida residence of Rohan
Green and then driven to Virginia by various individuals,
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 7
among them, Gladstone McIntosh and Appellant Green.8 Dur-
ing 1996 and 1997, Green drove multiple carloads of cocaine
to Newport News from Florida, where he picked up the drugs
from Rohan and Fitz Green. In early 2001, Shand relocated on
a temporary basis to Florida because he believed (correctly)
that he was being investigated in Virginia by law enforcement
as a result of his narcotics activity. While in Florida, Appel-
lant Green contacted him about distributing 30 kilograms of
cocaine. Green wanted Shand to drive with the drugs to Vir-
ginia. Shand agreed to sell the drugs but ultimately did not
drive the drugs to Virginia from Florida. During the summer
of 2001, Appellant Green and Shand met in Newport News
and Green delivered six kilograms of cocaine to Shand over
the course of three days. The Government theorized that it
was some of this cocaine that law enforcement officers seized
when Shand was arrested in June 2001.

Fitz and Rohan Green had multiple sources of cocaine in
Florida. Among them was Appellant Boyd, whom Shand had
met in 2000 at Rohan Green’s residence in Florida on an
occasion when Boyd delivered 24 kilograms of cocaine at a
cost of approximately $480,000. Those drugs were trans-
ported by Gladstone McIntosh from Florida to Virginia and
distributed in Virginia by Shand and others. Boyd sometimes
made drug deliveries in Florida (for further shipment to Vir-
ginia) on behalf of a man known as Aldwyn Powell, a/k/a
"Po," when the latter was unavailable. Powell was the owner
of Steppers, a Jamaican restaurant in Florida, where Boyd was
employed and where he sometimes played dominoes with
Shand. Shand acknowledged that he and Boyd never dealt
drugs directly with each other.

Raymond Edwards was an active member of the drug dis-
8
The jury heard testimony from a government agent that in a post-arrest
statement, Appellant Green admitted to agents that on several occasions
during 1997 and 1998, he received kilogram packages of narcotics in Flor-
ida and delivered them by automobile in Virginia.
8 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
tribution network until he was arrested in December 2002.
Edwards and Boyd were introduced to one another by "Po"
sometime during late 1998 or early 1999. Edwards sometimes
purchased 10 to 15 kilograms of cocaine from Boyd as often
as twice a week between 1999 and late 2002 for $16,000 per
kilogram. Edwards provided Boyd with a tan Honda Accord
with Virginia license plates. Boyd (or other participants in the
distribution network) would secret the cocaine in the rear
quarter panels of the Honda. Edwards would drive the drugs
he obtained from Boyd in Florida to Glasford Green’s resi-
dence in Williamsburg, Virginia, where he and Glasford
Green would unload the drugs from the secret compartments
in the car. After the drugs had been distributed in Virginia, the
cash proceeds were hidden in the secret compartments for the
return trip to Rohan Green’s Florida residence and, ultimately,
to pay for prior drug shipments and to purchase additional
product for further transportation to Virginia.

In addition to the cooperating witnesses mentioned above,
the Government also called several law enforcement wit-
nesses. Special Agent David Miller testified, inter alia, in
support of the money laundering conspiracy count. In particu-
lar, Agent Miller testified that he reviewed Boyd’s federal
income tax records for 1999 through 2004 as well as certain
of Boyd’s bank and mortgage records. J.A. 265, 266. He iden-
tified discrepancies between Boyd’s stated income on his tax
filings and the amount of expenditures and deposits that Boyd
had made. J.A. 279-83. In 2001, Boyd had $23,806 in expen-
ditures in excess of reported income. J.A. 287. In 2002 and
2003, Boyd had $43,898 and $29,905 in expenditures, respec-
tively, in excess of his reported income. J.A. 289, 291. In
2004, the excess expenditures were $1,849.00. J.A. 292. Spe-
cial Agent Miller limited his analysis of expenditures to trans-
actions by Boyd in the purchase and sale of real property; he
did not take account of ordinary living expenses, e.g., food,
clothing, and utilities. J.A. 292. The jury was entitled to infer
that had other routine expenses been included in Agent Mil-
ler’s analysis, the discrepancy between reported income and
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 9
declared income was even greater than that testified to by
Agent Miller.

On cross-examination of Agent Miller, Boyd’s counsel
sought to draw attention to other sources of income or funds
available to Boyd that were not considered by Special Agent
Miller, including funds from Boyd’s spouse, as well as certain
alleged disbursements to Boyd by a man named Eli Gordon
who owned Eli’s Foreign Cars ("Eli’s"). With respect to Eli’s,
there was evidence that Boyd received (and submitted in sup-
port of some of his real property mortgage applications) what
purported to be one or more form W-2s showing wages paid
to him by Eli’s. There was further evidence, however, that
Eli’s never submitted the alleged W-2s to the Internal Reve-
nue Service or otherwise reported any such payments. J.A.
292-327. Thus, the jury was entitled to find that the alleged
W-2s were false and fraudulently generated.

Because the district court denied Boyd’s motion to suppress
evidence (discussed infra), the jury also learned that agents
seized $54,020 in United States currency, wrapped in rubber
bands, from under Boyd’s bed on the morning of his arrest.
Thus, viewing the evidence in its totality, the jury could rea-
sonably have inferred that Boyd had substantial unreported
income, and that the income was likely derived from his
involvement in narcotics trafficking.

III.

Each of the Appellants argues that the district court erred
when it denied his motion for judgment of acquittal. As
explained herein, we reject their contentions.

We review de novo the district court’s denial of a motion
for judgment of acquittal pursuant to Rule 29 of the Federal
Rules of Criminal Procedure. United States v. Ryan-Webster,
353 F.3d 353, 359 (4th Cir. 2003). "[A]ppellate reversal on
grounds of insufficient evidence . . . will be confined to cases
10 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
where the prosecution’s failure is clear." Burks v. United
States, 437 U.S. 1, 17 (1978). "In determining whether the
evidence was sufficient to support a conviction, a reviewing
court must determine whether ‘any rational trier of fact could
have found the essential elements of the crime beyond a rea-
sonable doubt.’" United States v. Madrigal-Valadez, 561 F.3d
370, 374 (4th Cir. 2009) (quoting Jackson v. Virginia, 443
U.S. 307, 319 (1979)).

"We review the sufficiency of the evidence to support a
conviction by determining whether there is substantial evi-
dence in the record, when viewed in the light most favorable
to the government, to support the conviction." Id. (citation
omitted). "Substantial evidence" is "evidence that a reason-
able finder of fact could accept as adequate and sufficient to
support a conclusion of a defendant’s guilt beyond a reason-
able doubt." United States v. Burgos, 94 F.3d 849, 862 (4th
Cir. 1996) (en banc) (citation omitted). Further, a reviewing
court may not assess the credibility of witnesses, but rather
"must assume that the jury resolved all contradictions in testi-
mony in favor of the Government." United States v. United
Med. & Surgical Supply Corp., 989 F.2d 1390, 1402 (4th Cir.
1993).

A.

Each of the Appellants was convicted of drug trafficking
conspiracy under 21 U.S.C. § 846. To obtain a conviction for
a drug conspiracy, the Government must prove the following
essential elements: (1) an agreement between two or more
persons to engage in conduct that violates a federal drug law;
(2) the defendant’s knowledge of the conspiracy; and (3) the
defendant’s knowing and voluntary participation in the con-
spiracy. United States v. Wilson, 135 F.3d 291, 306 (4th Cir.
1998). Once the Government proves a conspiracy, the evi-
dence need only establish a slight connection between a
defendant and the conspiracy to support conviction. See
United States v. Brooks, 957 F.2d 1138, 1147 (4th Cir. 1992).
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 11
The Government is not required to prove that a defendant
knew all his co-conspirators or all of the details of the con-
spiracy; moreover, guilt may be established even by proof that
a defendant played only a minor role in the conspiracy.
United States v. Burgos, 94 F.3d 849, 861 (4th Cir. 1996) (en
banc). Nor does proof of guilt require a showing that a defen-
dant personally committed an overt act. United States v.
Cardwell, 433 F.3d 378, 391 (4th Cir. 2005).

1.

Here, the district court did not err in denying Green’s
motion for judgment of acquittal. Green purports to identify
three separate reasons why the district court should have
granted his Rule 29 motion. He contends first that the guilty
verdict on the drug conspiracy count is fatally inconsistent
with the jury’s acquittal of him on the related telephone count
and its inability to reach a verdict on the substantive drug traf-
ficking counts. Furthermore, in arguments that we regard as
simply two ways of saying the same thing, he contends (1)
that the Government failed to prove that he committed an
overt act in furtherance of the drug conspiracy within the
applicable five year period of limitations, see 18 U.S.C.
§ 3282(a), and (2) that the evidence established as a matter of
law that he withdrew from the conspiracy more than five
years before the grand jury returned the indictment.9 We find
these contentions unpersuasive.
9
The Government contends, albeit without much conviction, that Green
has waived both his limitations and withdrawal defenses by failing to pre-
sent them below. It has long been settled that a limitations defense must
be affirmatively raised by the defendant. See United States v. Williams,
684 F.2d 296, 299 (4th Cir. 1982) ("The statute of limitations set forth in
18 U.S.C. § 3282 is not jurisdictional. It is an affirmative defense that may
be waived."), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 1110 (1983) (citations omitted). In his
brief, Green makes the rather curious assertion that, "[u]nfortunately, the
jury was not adequately instructed regarding the statute of limitations,"
Appellants’ Br. 54, but he does not assign error to the district court’s jury
instructions. In any event, as we discuss in text, although Green’s articula-
12 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
The lynchpin of Green’s first contention is the fact that the
jury failed to reach a verdict on the indictment counts charg-
ing the three specific June 2001 distributions from Green to
Shand in Newport News, Virginia. Green contends that, cou-
pled with the jury’s acquittal of him on the related telephone
count, the jury’s failure to reach a verdict on the June 2001
distribution counts means that Shand’s testimony must be
rejected altogether as not probative on the drug conspiracy
count, the sole count on which Green was convicted.

Green’s contention lacks merit. Shand testified, inter alia,
that Green delivered cocaine to him in Virginia from 1998
until 2001, and specifically, after a telephone conversation
between them, on several occasions in June 2001. The jury
was entitled to credit all, part, or none of this (and any) testi-
mony. Although we doubt that the jury’s acquittal of Green
on the telephone count is in any meaningful sense "inconsis-
tent" with its guilty verdict on the drug conspiracy count,10 it
has long been settled that inconsistent jury verdicts do not call

tion of his contentions has been less than pellucid, the real basis for
Green’s contention is something of an amalgam: because the evidence
shows as a matter of law that he withdrew from the conspiracy more than
five years before the return of the indictment, the district court should
have granted his motion for judgment of acquittal on the ground of limita-
tions.
We discern no waiver by Green. In particular, because the indictment
showed on its face that the alleged conspiracy continued into the period
of limitations, Green was not obliged to file a pretrial motion to dismiss
the indictment. See United States v. Upton, 352 F. Supp. 2d 92, 96 (D.
Mass. 2005), aff’d, 559 F.3d 3 (1st Cir. 2009), cert. denied, 130 S. Ct. 397
(2009). Raising the "limitations" issue at the close of the Government’s
case as an element of his Rule 29 motion for judgment of acquittal was
sufficient to preserve the issue for appeal. Cf. id., 559 F.3d at 9-10.
10
The Government failed to produce at trial telephone toll records in
support of the telephone count charged against Green although its theory
was that Green and Shand had communicated about the June 2001 drug
deal using mobile telephones. Thus, the failure to produce the toll records
might fully explain the acquittal on the telephone count.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 13
into question the validity or legitimacy of the resulting guilty
verdicts. United States v. Powell, 469 U.S. 57, 64 (1984);
Dunn v. United States, 284 U.S. 390, 393 (1932); United
States v. Blankenship, 707 F.2d 807, 810 (4th Cir. 1983). We
decline Green’s invitation to speculate as to the reasons for
the jury’s inability to reach a verdict on the substantive drug
distribution counts.

As for Green’s assertion that the Government failed to
prove he committed an overt act in furtherance of the conspir-
acy within five years of the return of the indictment, we have
already noted that the Government is not required to prove the
commission of an overt act by a defendant convicted of con-
spiracy. Cardwell, 433 F.3d at 391. This is especially true in
a drug trafficking conspiracy under 21 U.S.C. § 846, for
which Congress has not imposed an overt act requirement at
all. See United States v. Shabani, 513 U.S. 10, 15 (1994). In
fact, this argument is simply a reformulation of Green’s prin-
cipal argument: that the trial evidence shows as a matter of
law that Green withdrew from the conspiracy more than five
years before the indictment was returned, and therefore the
district court should have granted his motion for judgment of
acquittal on the ground of limitations. However it is cast, the
contention lacks merit.

To be sure, the cooperating witnesses substantially agreed
that sometime in 1997 or 1998, after repeated incidents of
missing money and missing drugs that had been entrusted to
Appellant Green, Green’s coconspirators threatened him with
physical harm if not death. Indeed, there was testimony that
the Green brothers forced Appellant Green to transfer to them
two parcels of real property Appellant Green owned in
Jamaica as compensation for their losses. After this transfer,
Appellant Green apparently took a hiatus from active partici-
pation in the drug distribution network, at least as to any deal-
ings directly with the Green brothers.

Notwithstanding these circumstances, the evidence of an
internal conflict between Appellant Green and other members
14 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
of the conspiracy does not remotely support Appellant
Green’s contention that he affirmatively withdrew from the
drug conspiracy and abandoned its purposes. To the contrary,
as we have said, the jury was entitled to find, as it did find,
that the overall conspiracy persisted well into the 2002 period
(if not beyond) and, specifically, that Green’s active personal
involvement in the conspiracy resumed at some point and
continued as late as June 2001, within the five years preced-
ing the return of the indictment in January 2006. Thus,
Green’s assertion that evidence of threats he endured from his
coconspirators is sufficient to establish his withdrawal from
the conspiracy and his abandonment of its objectives as a mat-
ter of law is misplaced. This court has explained:

Once a conspiracy is established, however, it is
presumed to continue unless or until the defendant
shows that it was terminated or he withdrew from it.
Hyde v. United States, 225 U.S. 347, 369-70, 32
S.Ct. 793, 803, 56 L.Ed. 1114 (1912). A mere cessa-
tion of activity in furtherance of the conspiracy is
insufficient. United States v. Goldberg, 401 F.2d
644, 648 (2d Cir. 1968), cert. denied, 393 U.S. 1099,
89 S.Ct. 895, 21 L.Ed.2d 790 (1969). The defendant
must show affirmative acts inconsistent with the
object of the conspiracy and communicated in a
manner reasonably calculated to reach his co-
conspirators. United States v. United States Gypsum
Co., 438 U.S. 422, 464-65, 98 S.Ct. 2864, 2887-88,
57 L.Ed.2d 854 (1978). The burden of proving with-
drawal rests on the defendant. United States v. Gil-
len, 599 F.2d 541, 548 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 444
U.S. 866, 100 S.Ct. 137, 62 L.Ed.2d 89 (1979).

United States v. Walker, 796 F.2d 43, 49 (4th Cir. 1986)
(emphasis added); see also United States v. Bennett, 984 F.2d
597, 609 (4th Cir.) ("Once it is proven that a defendant was
a member of the conspiracy, the defendant’s membership in
the conspiracy is presumed to continue until he withdraws
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 15
from the conspiracy by affirmative action."), cert. denied, 508
U.S. 945 (1993) (quoting United States v. West, 877 F.2d 281,
289 (4th Cir. 1989)). The evidence before the district court
did not remotely satisfy the Walker standard for withdrawal.

In sum, we conclude that the district court did not err in
rejecting Green’s suggestion that the evidence of his
1998/1999 "expulsion" from the drug conspiracy constitutes
a "withdrawal" from the conspiracy. The record evidence
shows that Green may have been temporarily inactive as a
result of his theft of product and proceeds from other mem-
bers of the conspiracy. This inactivity, however, does not sup-
port his assertion that he withdrew from the conspiracy and
abandoned its objectives, let alone that he did so outside of
the period of limitations. We find, therefore, that the district
court correctly denied Green’s motion for judgment of acquit-
tal.11

2.

Appellant Boyd’s challenge to his conviction on the drug
conspiracy charge fares no better than Green’s challenge.
Indeed, the record before us shows conclusively that Boyd’s
ostensible sufficiency-of-the-evidence challenge to his con-
viction on the drug conspiracy charge has been waived. At the
conclusion of his argument on the Rule 29 motions, counsel
for Boyd stated the following to the district court:

So . . . that leav[es] us with [the drug conspiracy.]
That’s a jury question, quite frankly, Judge. I’d like
to say it’s not. I’d like to say I’m entitled to a judg-
ment of acquittal, but there are also — it’s my
responsibility to be candid with the Court. I don’t
11
In a recent unpublished opinion, United States v. Wilkins, No. 08-
4372, 2009 WL 4458531, *5 (4th Cir. Dec. 4, 2009), we considered, and
rejected, the very same argument that Green makes in this case on facts
substantially the same as those here.
16 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
believe there is a basis under which the Court should
properly grant a 29 [sic] on that.

J.A. 695 (alterations added). Boyd was correct to make the
above concession, for, as we have noted in summarizing the
testimony of his coconspirators, the record reflects that over-
whelming evidence was presented sufficient to establish the
existence of the charged drug conspiracy and Boyd’s knowing
membership and active participation in the conspiracy.12

B.

Only Boyd was convicted of money laundering conspiracy.
To obtain a conviction for money laundering conspiracy
under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h), the Government must prove the
following essential elements: (1) the existence of an agree-
ment between two or more persons to commit one or more of
12
Despite his abandonment of the claim of insufficient evidence to
prove his knowing membership in the drug conspiracy, Boyd argues on
appeal that he was a member of a "Florida conspiracy," not the "Virginia
conspiracy" established by the Government’s proof. See Appellants’ Br.
17-18. This contention is belied by the trial evidence, which we need not
repeat here. We have previously articulated our standard of review for suf-
ficiency of the evidence, as well as the elements of a drug conspiracy.
Here, the Government presented overwhelming direct and circumstantial
evidence that Boyd participated in the drug conspiracy as one of the main
Florida-based suppliers of cocaine to a robust Virginia market. Bertrand
Shand, Raymond Edwards, and Fitz Green all directly implicated Boyd as
an integral part of a network that moved cocaine from Florida to Virginia
in return for money shipped from Virginia to Florida. While it is true that
Boyd never entered Virginia himself, as a member of a drug conspiracy
aimed at supplying the Virginia market, evidence of his physical presence
in Virginia was unnecessary. Similarly, Boyd’s assertion before us that he
did not know the ultimate destination of the drugs he delivered in Florida
is both factually and legally immaterial, even if, despite any evidence to
support the assertion, the assertion of such lack of knowledge were true.
(Recall, for example, that Edwards testified that he provided a tan Honda
bearing Virginia tags to Boyd in which to store drugs for transport.)
Accordingly, there was sufficient evidence here to prove Boyd’s involve-
ment in the overall drug distribution conspiracy proven at trial.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 17
the substantive money laundering offenses proscribed under
18 U.S.C. § 1956(a) or § 1957; (2) that the defendant knew
that the money laundering proceeds had been derived from an
illegal activity; and (3) the defendant knowingly and voluntar-
ily became part of the conspiracy. United States v. Singh, 518
F.3d 236, 248 (4th Cir. 2008) (citation omitted). Congress has
provided for venue of the money laundering conspiracy
offense described in § 1956(h) in 18 U.S.C. § 1956(i), which
provides as follows in pertinent part:

(i) Venue.—(1) Except as provided in paragraph (2),
a prosecution for an offense under this section or
section 1957 may be brought in—

****

(2) A prosecution for an attempt or conspiracy
offense under this section . . . may be brought in the
district where venue would lie for the completed
offense under paragraph (1), or in any other district
where an act in furtherance of the attempt or conspir-
acy took place.

18 U.S.C. § 1956(i). Thus, under this provision, venue over
the money laundering conspiracy charge would lie in the
Eastern District of Virginia, inter alia, if any member of the
money laundering conspiracy committed an overt act in fur-
therance of the conspiracy there.

1.

In regard to his conviction on the charge of money launder-
ing conspiracy, Boyd mounts a three-pronged attack. He con-
tends that the Government failed to adduce sufficient
evidence to prove: (1) "that [Boyd] conspired with anyone to
launder drug proceeds," Appellant’s Br. 30; (2) "that any of
the transactions about which evidence was presented actually
involved drug proceeds," id.; or (3) that the Eastern District
18 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
of Virginia was a proper venue. Id. at 39. We reject each of
these contentions.

In advancing his arguments on the alleged insufficiency of
the evidence as to the money laundering conspiracy charge,
Boyd seeks to limit us to an examination of the testimony of
Special Agent Miller and, in particular, the scant evidence of
Boyd’s apparent interactions with Eli Gordon of Eli’s Foreign
Cars. See supra at 8-9. But such a cramped view of the Gov-
ernment’s evidence of money laundering conspiracy is wholly
unwarranted. First, as the Government points out, the indict-
ment’s money laundering conspiracy count (Count 3)
expressly incorporated by reference all of the 66 overt acts
charged in the indictment’s drug conspiracy count (Count 2).
Second, all of the defendants charged in the indictment were
named in both the drug conspiracy and in the money launder-
ing conspiracy. Thus, it is apparent that the grand jury alleged
that acts aimed at obtaining the proceeds from trafficking in
illegal narcotics also comprised acts taken in furtherance of
the parallel money laundering conspiracy, i.e., that earning
revenue from the drug trafficking conspiracy was part of the
overall money laundering conspiracy.

We are mindful that, as with proof of a drug conspiracy, a
money laundering conspiracy does not require proof of an
overt act, Whitfield v. United States, 543 U.S. 209, 219
(2005), and so we do not suggest that proof of an overt act is
an essential element of a money laundering conspiracy
offense under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h). Nevertheless, as this case
shows, proof of overt acts can be useful for, among other
things: (1) showing that a conspiracy begun more than five
years before the return of an indictment continued into a
period within the statute of limitations; (2) showing that a par-
ticular defendant knowingly joined (or remained a member
of) a conspiracy; and (3) establishing that venue exists in a
particular federal judicial district. See id. at 218. We know of
no reason that a grand jury is prohibited from charging that,
under the circumstances presented by particular evidence,
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 19
engaging in a drug conspiracy was part and parcel of engag-
ing in a parallel money laundering conspiracy, notwithstand-
ing that no overt act is required to prove either conspiracy.

This rather aggressive tack on the Government’s part is not
unprecedented. See, e.g., United States v. Bolden, 325 F.3d
471, 490-92 (4th Cir. 2003) (overt acts alleged in indictment
count charging mail fraud scheme incorporated by reference
into indictment count charging money laundering conspiracy;
convictions affirmed). Accordingly, it is no exaggeration to
observe that, given the manner in which the two overlapping
conspiracy counts have been framed in the case before us, vir-
tually all of the evidence presented in support of the drug con-
spiracy count prosecuted pursuant to 21 U.S.C. § 846 was
potentially probative of Boyd’s alleged involvement in the
money laundering conspiracy prosecuted pursuant to 18
U.S.C. § 1956(h). Notably, Boyd has never raised any objec-
tion to the facial validity of the indictment itself or to the dis-
trict court’s jury instructions on the two conspiracy counts of
the indictment. This absence of any objection shows that the
Government’s broad theory of this prosecution, embraced by
the grand jury that returned the indictment, was permissibly
embraced by the trial jury, as well. Accordingly, it is not
appropriate for us to consider only the evidence of Boyd’s
interactions with Eli’s in assessing whether substantial evi-
dence supports the jury’s guilty verdict on the charge of
money laundering conspiracy.

2.

In light of the above analysis, it is apparent that the funda-
mental flaw in Boyd’s attack on his money laundering con-
spiracy conviction is that Boyd treats the offense of
conviction as if it were a substantive money laundering
offense rather than what it is: conspiracy to commit a money
laundering offense. As the Government readily concedes, any
substantive money laundering violation by Boyd could not
have been prosecuted in the Eastern District of Virginia, but
20 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
only in Florida, where Boyd resided, where he engaged in real
estate transactions, and where he engaged in transactions with
Eli Gordon of Eli’s, each, allegedly, using proceeds from his
drug trafficking activity. See United States v. Cabrales, 524
U.S. 1, 5-6 (1998) (determining venue for substantive money
laundering offenses). Clearly, the Government adduced evi-
dence of Boyd’s specific Florida transactions (through the tes-
timony of Agent Miller and the related documents) to bolster
its claim that, like the Green brothers and other members of
the overall criminal network involved here, Boyd not only
intended to make money from dealing drugs, but also
intended to use those drug proceeds in financial transactions
with the specific intent to "promote" further drug deals and/or
to "conceal" the "nature, the location, the source, the owner-
ship, or the control of the proceeds of" the drug dealing activ-
ity. See 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a)(1)(B)(i); see generally Bolden,
325 F.3d at 490-92 (explaining the elements of "promotion
money laundering" and "concealment money laundering"). As
Judge King explained in Bolden:

In the common understanding, money laundering
occurs when money derived from criminal activity is
placed into a legitimate business in an effort to
cleanse the money of criminal taint. The money
laundering statute, however, as codified at 18 U.S.C.
§ 1956(a)(1), proscribes a much broader range of
conduct, specifically prohibiting four distinct types
of money laundering activity. In order to contravene
§ 1956(a)(1), a defendant must, first of all, know that
the property involved in a "financial transaction"
represents the "proceeds" of some "specified unlaw-
ful activity." If this "proceeds" element is satisfied,
a money laundering violation occurs when a defen-
dant conducts or attempts to conduct a financial
transaction:

(1) intending to promote the carrying on of speci-
fied unlawful activity ("promotion money launder-
ing"); or
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 21
***

(3) knowing that the financial transaction is
designed to conceal the nature of the proceeds of
specified unlawful activity ("concealment money
laundering").

Id. at 486-87; see also United States v. Wilkinson, 137 F.3d
214, 221 (4th Cir. 1998).

Plainly, the underlying object of the money laundering con-
spiracy charged here, i.e., the substantive money laundering
offense intended to be completed, was, as the indictment
alleged in part, J.A. 55, "concealment money laundering."
The evidence presented through Agent Miller and summa-
rized, supra at 8-9, was sufficient (whether or not it was,
strictly speaking, necessary) to bolster the Government’s
showing that the drug traffickers had the specific intent to do
something with the proceeds of their drug trafficking activi-
ties other than merely spend the money on ordinary living
expenses, or even on extravagances. Cf. United States v. Nich-
olson, No. 04-4794, 176 Fed. App’x. 386, 395 (4th Cir. April
18, 2006) (Michael, J., concurring in part and dissenting in
part) ("Spending money is legal. Laundering money by con-
cealing is not.").

Most assuredly, the Government is not required to prove
beyond a reasonable doubt that a defendant actually possessed
narcotics to show beyond a reasonable doubt his knowing
membership in a drug trafficking conspiracy. United States v.
Collazo, 732 F.2d 1200, 1205-06 (4th Cir. 1984), cert. denied,
469 U.S. 1105 (1985). Similarly here, the Government was
not required to prove beyond a reasonable doubt Boyd’s par-
ticipation in any actual financial transaction knowingly using
drug trafficking proceeds while intending to conceal the "na-
ture, the location, the source, the ownership, or the control of"
drug trafficking proceeds in order to prove beyond a reason-
able doubt Boyd’s knowing participation in the charged
22 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
money laundering conspiracy which had, as its object, exactly
that.13 Thus, the testimony of Agent Miller regarding the real
estate transactions, the tax returns, and the W-2s from Eli’s,
coupled with the inculpatory testimony of Boyd’s numerous
co-conspirators and the evidence of the large amount of
rubber-banded cash seized from under Boyd’s bed, was more
than sufficient to permit a reasonable juror to find beyond a
reasonable doubt: (1) the existence of an agreement between
two or more persons to commit "concealment money launder-
ing" as proscribed under 18 U.S.C. § 1956(a); (2) that Boyd
knew that at least some of the money intended to be used in
the financial transactions constituted proceeds derived from
the very drug conspiracy in which he was a knowing partici-
pant; and (3) that Boyd knowingly and voluntarily became
part of the money laundering conspiracy having those pur-
poses and objects. See Singh, 518 F.3d at 248. Accordingly,
we reject Boyd’s conclusory assertions that the evidence
failed to prove the money laundering conspiracy charge
because it failed to show "that [Boyd] conspired with anyone
to launder drug proceeds" (it did), or "that any of the transac-
tions about which evidence was presented actually involved
drug proceeds" (there was substantial direct and circumstan-
tial evidence that the funds Boyd employed in those transac-
tions almost certainly included drug proceeds).14 Likewise, we
13
We do not mean to say that the evidence of Boyd’s Florida financial
transactions was insufficient to prove substantive money laundering viola-
tions beyond a reasonable doubt. We simply point out that the Govern-
ment was not required to shoulder that burden to prove the money
laundering conspiracy charged in this case.
14
Whatever skepticism we may harbor, notwithstanding the Govern-
ment’s expansive charging decision, as to whether the evidence would be
sufficient to prove that "promotion money laundering" was an object of
the money laundering conspiracy contained in the indictment is of no
moment. See Griffin v. United States, 502 U.S. 46, 51 (1991) (holding that
the Due Process Clause does not require a general guilty verdict on a
multi-prong conspiracy be set aside if the evidence is inadequate to sup-
port conviction as to one of the objects); United States v. Moye, 454 F.3d
390, 399-402 (4th Cir. 2006). Similarly, we need not speculate as to
whether the money laundering conspiracy charge would be sustained
absent the evidence related to Eli’s and the fraudulent W-2s.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 23
reject Boyd’s challenge to venue. Undoubtedly, the jury rea-
sonably could have found, as it did, that Boyd’s coconspira-
tors in the money laundering conspiracy, including but not
limited to one or more of the Green brothers, committed overt
acts in furtherance of the money laundering conspiracy in the
Eastern District of Virginia. No more was required to support
venue in that district. 18 U.S.C. § 1956(i)(2).

****

For all of these reasons, the district court did not err in
denying the motions for judgment of acquittal.

IV.

We next consider Boyd’s contention that the district court
erred in denying his motion to suppress the cash seized from
his bedroom. We conclude that the district court’s determina-
tions should not be disturbed.

A.

In assessing a trial court’s ruling on a motion to suppress,
we review factual findings for clear error and legal determina-
tions de novo. See Ornelas v. United States, 517 U.S. 690,
699 (1996); United States v. Wardrick, 350 F.3d 446, 451 (4th
Cir. 2003). When a motion to suppress has been denied in the
court below, we review the evidence in the light most favor-
able to the Government. United States v. Seidman, 156 F.3d
542, 547 (4th Cir. 1998).

B.

Federal Bureau of Investigation agents and local law
enforcement officers, acting pursuant to an arrest warrant
issued on the basis of the indictment returned in this case,
went to Boyd’s Florida home in September 2006 to arrest
Boyd. J.A. 84-86. The officers knocked and arrested Boyd
24 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
when he opened the door. Several officers entered the resi-
dence because they saw other individuals moving about
inside. J.A. 78, 81, 105. Once inside the residence, the offi-
cers discovered several other individuals, including Boyd’s
spouse and teenage son, J.A. 106, 116-17, each of whom they
secured in the living room. J.A. 118, 120-21.

The officers promptly conducted a protective sweep of the
entire residence, during which one of them looked under the
bed in the master bedroom. Partially under the bed, the officer
noticed an open plastic bag with "bundles of money inside."
J.A. 86-88. The case agent, FBI Special Agent Rene Ovalle,
read Boyd his rights, asked Boyd if he understood them, and
began questioning Boyd.15 J.A. 109-10, 129-31. Special Agent
Ovalle asked Boyd about the money, and he replied that it
was almost $60,000 and was to be used to pay off his wife’s
automobile loan and to purchase additional automobiles. J.A.
79-80, 110. Agent Ovalle seized the cash, which amounted to
$54,020. The cash was bound in rubber bands and packaged
in envelopes and black plastic bags. J.A. 645.

After considering the evidence presented by the Govern-
ment at the hearing on Boyd’s motion to suppress, the district
court ruled from the bench. It found that there was reasonable
cause for the officers effecting Boyd’s arrest to conduct a pro-
tective sweep of the Boyd residence during their presence on
and about the premises. The court determined that a cursory
inspection of the space beneath the bed in the master bedroom
was reasonable because a person could have hidden there.
Moreover, the court found and concluded that the currency
was discovered in plain view and properly seized.

Boyd contends that the police unlawfully extended their
protective sweep of his home to his bedroom and under his
15
Special Agent Ovalle questioned Boyd without obtaining an express
waiver of rights under Miranda but Boyd does not raise any Miranda issue
on appeal. J.A. 129.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 25
bed. Boyd argues that since the police should not have been
looking under Boyd’s bed, as there was no reasonable fear for
their safety from anyone hiding there, they did not lawfully
find the money. Also, he argues, because the amount of
money could not be ascertained without disturbing it, its
incriminating character was not "immediately apparent" as
required to justify a plain view seizure of evidence. Accord-
ingly, Boyd contends, the seized money should have been
suppressed. We disagree.

C.

Where law enforcement officers possess an arrest warrant
and probable cause to believe a suspect is in his home, the
officers may enter and search anywhere in that residence in
which the suspect might be found. Maryland v. Buie, 494 U.S.
325, 332-33 (1990). Where officers enter a residence in
search of a suspect, they may satisfy themselves that: "the
house in which a suspect is being, or has just been, arrested
is not harboring other persons who are dangerous and who
could unexpectedly launch an attack." Id. at 333. Accord-
ingly, a protective sweep may be conducted in the interest of
officer safety.

A protective sweep — where the circumstances justify it —
does not entitle officers to conduct a full search of the prem-
ises, but rather extends only to a limited inspection of spaces
where a person may actually be found. Id. at 335. Further-
more, the sweep may last no longer than needed "to dispel the
reasonable suspicion of danger" and no longer than needed to
arrest the suspect and leave the premises. Id. at 335-36. We
have expressly indicated that searching under beds is within
the ambit of a protective sweep. United States v. Stanfield,
109 F.3d 976, 988 (4th Cir. 1997). Accordingly, here, the offi-
cers’ protective sweep, which encompassed a look under
26 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
Boyd’s bed, was appropriate, and the district court did not err
in so concluding.16

Furthermore, the evidence in the record fully justified the
district court’s finding that the officer who discovered the
cash horde did not need to move or jostle the items under the
bed to see it. He observed it in plain view. "[T]he plain-view
doctrine authorizes warrantless seizures of incriminating evi-
dence when (1) the officer is lawfully in a place from which
the object may be plainly viewed; (2) the officer has a lawful
right of access to the object itself; and (3) the object’s incrimi-
nating character is immediately apparent." United States v.
Jackson, 131 F.3d 1105, 1109 (4th Cir. 1997) (citing Horton
v. California, 496 U.S. 128, 136-37 (1990)); United States v.
Williams, 41 F.3d 192, 196 (4th Cir. 1994)). Here, the officer
was lawfully in a place from which the money could be
plainly viewed, and he had a lawful right to access the money.
Unmoored from its context, the incriminating character of
what looks to be a large sum of money in a bag under a bed
may not be immediately apparent. However, given the reason
that the officers secured the arrest warrant and went to Boyd’s
residence in search of him, the money’s incriminating charac-
ter, as probable proceeds from narcotics transactions and thus
the fruit of illegal activity, could be immediately inferred.
Accordingly, the district court did not err in denying Boyd’s
motion to suppress the cash seized from under his bed.
16
The parties disputed before the district court whether Boyd was
arrested just inside the threshold of his home and then brought outside, on
the one hand, or was arrested outside the threshold and then moved to the
lawn or driveway of the residence, on the other hand. In the view we take
of the case, the propriety of the protective sweep does not turn on this
issue. Rather, the officers were fully justified in entering the residence
even if Boyd was seized outside the threshold. The officers clearly saw
that other persons were inside the residence, persons who posed a potential
threat of harm to them, if they were not secured, even after Boyd himself
had been taken into custody. Once inside the premises, the officers and
agents acted reasonably in electing to conduct, and in their conduct of, the
protective sweep.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 27
V.

Boyd next contends that the district court erred when it
rejected his challenge to the prosecution’s use of its preemp-
tory strikes to excuse several women because, according to
the prosecutor, they were teachers.17 Boyd argues that since
most teachers in the United States are women, striking the
teachers was merely pretext for gender discrimination. Thus,
according to Boyd, the district court erred when it failed to
sustain his Batson challenge to the Government’s strikes. We
disagree.

We accord great deference to the district court’s finding as
to whether a peremptory challenge was exercised for a pro-
hibited, discriminatory reason; we review that finding for
clear error. Cf. Hernandez v. New York, 500 U.S. 352, 364-65
(1991) (given that a finding of race discrimination turns
largely on credibility determinations, a district court’s find-
ings in a Batson challenge are reviewed for clear error). This
is because a district court is particularly well-suited to resolve
challenges to peremptory strikes of jurors, as it has first-hand
knowledge of the very act in dispute. See McMillon v. United
States, 14 F.3d 948, 953 (4th Cir. 1994); United States v.
Grandison, 885 F.2d 143, 146 (4th Cir. 1989), cert. denied,
495 U.S. 934 (1990).

It is a violation of the equal protection principle for a juror
to be excused in an invidiously discriminatory fashion. J.E.B.
v. Alabama ex. rel. T.B., 511 U.S. 127 (1994) (holding that
making peremptory challenges based solely on a prospective
juror’s sex is unconstitutional); Batson v. Kentucky, 476 U.S.
79 (1986) (holding that a prosecutor’s use of peremptory chal-
lenge to exclude jurors based solely on their race is unconsti-
tutional).
17
The Government stated, when asked what it had against teachers, that
"[t]eachers get in the back, and they like to tell as opposed to listening."
J.A. 180.
28 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
When a party challenges his opponent’s exercise of a
peremptory challenge on equal protection grounds, that party
bears the burden of proving intentional discrimination. Bat-
son, 476 U.S. at 93; Hernandez, 500 U.S. at 373 (O’Connor,
J., concurring). Here, Boyd does not call into question the
bona fides of the prosecutor’s explanation for its strikes: that
it prefers to have no teachers on the jury in a case of this type.
Rather, Boyd essentially seeks an expansion of the Batson
prohibition to cover not only strikes that are intentionally
invidiously discriminatory, but those having a discriminatory
effect. We are not authorized to expand this doctrine beyond
the intentional discrimination boundaries dictated by the
Supreme Court and into the realm of discriminatory effect.
See Washington v. Davis, 426 U.S. 229, 239 (1976) (viola-
tions of the Equal Protection Clause arise only on a showing
of intentional discrimination). Thus, the district court did not
err when it declined to sustain Boyd’s Batson challenge. See
United States v. Johnson, 4 F.3d 904, 913-14 (10th Cir. 1993)
(holding that all teachers may be removed from a jury venire),
cert. denied, 510 U.S. 1123 (1994); United States v. Davis, 40
F.3d 1069, 1077 (10th Cir. 1994) (same).

VI.

Next, Boyd contends that he was prejudiced when the dis-
trict court declined to give his "theory of defense" jury
instruction. We disagree.

We review the district court’s decision to give or refuse to
give a jury instruction for abuse of discretion. United States
v. Passaro, 577 F.3d 207, 221 (4th Cir. 2009). "[W]e do not
view a single instruction in isolation; rather we consider
whether taken as a whole and in the context of the entire
charge, the instructions accurately and fairly state the control-
ling law." Id. (quoting United States v. Rahman, 83 F.3d 89,
92 (4th Cir. 1996)). "As long as the instructions have an evi-
dentiary foundation and are accurate statements of the law,
the district court should include instructions ‘to instruct the
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 29
jury in the defendant’s theory of defense.’" United States v.
Dornhofer, 859 F.2d 1195, 1199 (4th Cir. 1988) (quoting
United States v. Mitchell, 495 F.2d 285, 287-288 (4th Cir.
1974)).

A refusal to give a requested theory of defense
instructions is reversible error only if the instruction
‘(1) was correct, (2) was not substantially covered by
the court’s charge to the jury, and (3) dealt with
some point in the trial so important that the failure
to give the requested instruction seriously impaired
the defendant’s ability to conduct his defense.’

Passaro, 577 F.3d at 221 (quoting United States v. Lewis, 53
F.3d 29, 32 (4th Cir. 1995)).

Boyd requested the district court to give the following
instruction:

Mr. [Boyd] has denied the charges in the indict-
ment based on his plea of not guilty. Mr. [Boyd]
contends that he was not involved in the criminal
acts with which he is charged and that he was falsely
implicated by those who were involved.

Those who have accused Mr. [Boyd] of being
involved in this Conspiracy to Possess with Intent to
Distribute Cocaine are motivated to falsely accuse
him in an effort to better their own circumstances.

All of the government witnesses who testified that
Mr. [Boyd] was involved in the criminal acts alleged
had the opportunity to meet him under innocent cir-
cumstances that were completely unrelated to any
criminal conduct on his part.

With respect to the evidence of unexplained
wealth presented by the government, Mr. [Boyd]
30 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
contends that such evidence is indicative of the fact
that he may not have accounted for all of his income
on his Federal Tax Returns, but does not prove that
any of the funds about which the government pre-
sented evidence, were derived from drug related
activity.

J.A. 387A.

The district court refused to give the instruction. It noted
that the instruction requested by Boyd was generally correct
in its statements of legal principles. However, the court fur-
ther noted that the law does not go so far as to include within
jury instructions counsel’s specific argument on those points
of law. The court stated that it had "covered credibility and all
other points in a more general fashion." J.A. 377, 710-11.

The district court did not abuse its discretion. Despite
Boyd’s contention that his proposed instruction may have
more adequately presented his defense theory, the first three
paragraphs of his proposed instructions were clearly covered
by the instructions given by the district court, a point that
Boyd concedes. Appellants’ Br. 33; see J.A. 378-83.
"[A]lthough a more specific instruction might have been
desirable to [Boyd], it cannot be said that the district judge
abused his discretion in this instance." United States v. Patter-
son, 150 F.3d 382, 388 (4th Cir. 1998); United States v. Guay,
108 F.3d 545, 550 (4th Cir. 1997).18
18
Although the points made in the last paragraph of Boyd’s proposed
instruction were not specifically covered by any of the district court’s
instructions, we cannot say that that paragraph "dealt with some point in
the trial so important that the failure to give the requested instruction seri-
ously impaired the defendant’s ability to conduct his defense." Lewis, 53
F.3d at 32. Perhaps more fundamentally, it seems to us that the assertion
that unexplained, unreported cash is, categorically, not probative of illegal
activity, including drug trafficking, is an incorrect statement of the law.
Such evidence is indeed circumstantial evidence of illegal activity other
than tax offenses.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 31
VII.

Finally, Boyd complains that during closing arguments, the
Government improperly commented on his counsel’s behav-
ior during the trial.19 Boyd’s counsel objected, and the district
court overruled the objection. Boyd argues that commenting
on defense counsel is improper and that here the comment
was so prejudicial that it denied Boyd a fair trial. We dis-
agree.

A trial court has broad discretion to control closing argu-
ment, and we review its rulings on objections for abuse of dis-
cretion. United States v. Ollivierre, 378 F.3d 412, 417 (4th
Cir. 2004) (citations omitted), vacated on other grounds by
Ollivierre v. United States, 543 U.S. 1112 (2005). If a trial
court abuses its discretion in addressing an objection to clos-
ing argument, that abuse will justify reversal of a conviction
only if it constitutes prejudicial error. Id. (citing United States
v. Young, 470 U.S. 1, 13 n.10 (1985)).

We have carefully considered this assignment of error and
we find that the district court did not abuse its discretion in
overruling Boyd’s objection to the Government’s fleeting
allusion to defense counsel during closing argument. See
United States v. Chorman, 910 F.2d 102, 113 (4th Cir. 1990);
United States v. Wilson, 135 F.3d 291, 299 (4th Cir. 1998).
19
During closing arguments, the Government stated: "There was a tell-
ing moment in this trial, ladies and gentlemen, when the Court admon-
ished counsel to stop the theater. That’s because what we’ve done here,
ladies and gentlemen, is we’ve had to respond to the theater, the rolling
of eyes, the twirling around." J.A. 387, 714. Defense counsel objected,
stating that this was "improper argument," and the court overruled the
objection. J.A. 387; J.A. 714. The Government went on to ask the jury not
to be distracted and focus on the facts. J.A. 387; J.A. 714-15. In fact, dur-
ing trial, the district court had made a comment to defense counsel when
counsel engaged in certain demonstrative behaviors, e.g., rolling of eyes
at witnesses and a dramatic pirouette.
32 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
VIII.

To summarize our rulings, we conclude that the evidence
was sufficient to support the Appellants’ convictions beyond
a reasonable doubt and that the district court did not err in
denying the motions for judgment of acquittal. Furthermore,
we find that the district court did not clearly err in finding that
the search of Appellant Boyd’s residence, and in particular the
area under the bed in the master bedroom, was a permissible
protective sweep intended to safeguard the officers effecting
Boyd’s arrest. We further conclude that the court correctly
applied the plain view exception to the Fourth Circuit warrant
requirement. Finally, we find no abuse of discretion or error
of law in respect to the district court’s rulings in the manage-
ment of the proceedings below as challenged in these appeals.
Accordingly, we affirm.

AFFIRMED

GREGORY, Circuit Judge, dissenting in part:

I fear that under the majority’s rationale, anytime a partici-
pant in a drug conspiracy undertakes a financial transaction
with money, which cannot be accounted for in his income tax
filing, he is assumed to be in a money laundering conspiracy
with the other members of the drug conspiracy. Because I
believe we must hold the government to its burden of proving
a separate agreement to launder illegally-obtained proceeds, I
dissent from the majority’s opinion in part III.B.

I.

Boyd was charged with violating 18 U.S.C. § 1956(h),
which provides: "Any person who conspires to commit any
offense defined in this section or section 1957 shall be subject
to the same penalties as those prescribed for the offense the
commission of which was the object of the conspiracy." 18
U.S.C.A. § 1956(h) (West 2009). The indictment charged that
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 33
Boyd conspired to commit an offense under section
1956(a)(1), namely either "promotion money laundering,"1 id.
§ 1956(a)(1)(A)(1), or "concealment money laundering,"2 id.
§ 1956(a)(1)(B)(1). Therefore, Boyd must have agreed with
another person to undertake a financial transaction with the
intent to either further the original illegal activity or conceal
the proceeds of it.

In order to prove a violation of section 1956(h), the govern-
ment must show "(1) an agreement to commit money launder-
ing existed between one or more persons; (2) the defendant
knew that the money laundering proceeds had been derived
from an illegal activity; and (3) the defendant knowingly and
voluntarily became part of the conspiracy." United States v.
Singh, 518 F.3d 236, 248 (4th Cir. 2008) (citing United States
v. Alerre, 430 F.3d 681, 693-94 (4th Cir. 2005)). No overt act
need be shown for the conviction; the agreement alone is suf-
ficient. Whitfield v. United States, 543 U.S. 209, 219 (2005).
However, overt acts are often helpful in determining whether
an agreement is reached in the first place. It is unlikely that
the government would have a paper trail which sets out the
agreement to launder money. Rather, the agreement most
often is inferred from circumstantial evidence tending to show
the conspiracy. See United States v. Burgos, 94 F.3d 849, 857
(4th Cir. 1996) (holding that because conspiracies are clan-
destine, resulting in little direct evidence, they are often
proven entirely by circumstantial evidence).

The majority concludes that because the overt acts were
alleged to be the same in the drug and money laundering
1
Promotion money laundering requires that the government "(1) trace
the money at issue to an underlying unlawful activity, and (2) prove that
the money was transferred in order to promote a specified unlawful activ-
ity." United States v. Alerre, 430 F.3d 681, 693 (4th Cir. 2005).
2
Concealment money laundering requires that the government trace the
money at issue to the underlying unlawful activity and additionally that
the defendant transferred the funds to conceal or disguise their illegal ori-
gins. Id. at 693 n.14.
34 UNITED STATES v. GREEN
charges, the conviction on the drug charges necessarily shows
that Boyd additionally conspired with the members of the
drug conspiracy to commit money laundering. I, on the other
hand, see a fundamental lack of evidence that Boyd agreed
with any of the participants in the drug conspiracy to launder
money. In a sufficiency of the evidence challenge, we are to
draw all reasonable inferences from the evidence in favor of
the government. Those inferences, however, must be based on
actual evidence, not merely assumptions about the nature of
drug trafficking crimes.

Agent David Miller testified for the government as to
Boyd’s alleged money laundering activities. His conclusions
were based on a review of Boyd’s tax documents and banking
records. In essence, Miller testified to discrepancies between
Boyd’s spending and the income he reported to the IRS. To
do so, Miller examined Boyd’s tax returns, cash deposits, and
expenditures.3 The crux of the government’s money launder-
ing case was a presentation of the real estate investments
Boyd made which involved down payments and mortgage
obligations greater than the income he reported to the IRS.

The majority concludes that this evidence, along with the
evidence proving that Boyd was part of the drug conspiracy,
was sufficient to uphold the money laundering conviction. It
is telling, however, that the majority never even mentions
what evidence shows the agreement between Boyd and
another person. Instead, the majority simply concludes that
Agent Miller’s testimony was sufficient "to bolster the Gov-
3
Boyd’s main contention on appeal is that Miller did not eliminate other
potential sources of income, particularly his wife’s, when concluding that
Boyd was spending more than he had in lawful reported assets. While I
do not explore this argument in depth given my conclusion about the fail-
ure to prove an agreement, I do note that this type of burden shifting,
whereby the government can prove a prima facie case of money launder-
ing when the defendant spent more money than he reported, raises trou-
bling constitutional questions when the government has charged money
laundering and not tax fraud.
 UNITED STATES v. GREEN 35
ernment’s showing that the drug traffickers had the specific
intent to do something with the proceeds of their drug traf-
ficking activities other than merely spend the money on ordi-
nary living expenses." Maj. Op. at 21 (emphasis in original).
Yet, this is only an assumption that if the defendants had
agreed to drug trafficking, they must have agreed to conceal
the proceeds. However, the only evidence of potential money
laundering shows that Boyd was undertaking transactions
alone. Thus, while the majority resorts to the assumption that
the members of the conspiracy must have jointly decided to
hide their money, I find a total lack of evidence of any such
agreement.

The result of this case, in my opinion, will be to encourage
the government to charge a money laundering conspiracy
every time a drug trafficking conspiracy is charged if there is
evidence that one co-conspirator made any financial transac-
tion. This cannot be what Congress intended in enacting the
separate offense of conspiracy to launder money and requiring
proof of such an agreement.

II.

Because I find insufficient evidence to sustain Boyd’s con-
viction for money laundering conspiracy, I would reverse his
conviction and remand his case for resentencing.4

4
As the government explains in their submission to the Court after oral
argument, see Fed. R. App. Proc. 28(j), if Boyd’s money laundering con-
spiracy conviction was reversed, his sentencing guidelines range on the
drug trafficking charges would change from 360 months–life to 292–360
months, thus necessitating his resentencing by the district court.