F I L E D
United States Court of Appeals
Tenth Circuit
PUBLISH SEP 15 1998
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
TENTH CIRCUIT PATRICK FISHER
Clerk
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellant,
v. No. 97-6310
JAMES S. ANDERSON,
Defendant-Appellee.
Appeal from United States District Court
for the Western District of Oklahoma
(D.C. No. 96-CR-129)
Arlene Joplin, Assistant United States Attorney (Patrick M. Ryan, United States
Attorney, Edward J. Kumiega and Daniel G. Webber, Jr., Assistant United States
Attorneys, on the brief), Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, for the appellant.
Frank J. Petrella, Tucker, Georgia, for the appellee.
Before PORFILIO, KELLY, and BRISCOE, Circuit Judges.
BRISCOE, Circuit Judge.
The government appeals the district court’s order granting James
Anderson’s motion to suppress evidence seized in a warrantless search. We
exercise jurisdiction pursuant to 18 U.S.C. § 3731 and affirm.
I.
Anderson was arrested after a successful FBI sting operation. The goal of
the sting operation was to identify and prosecute members of the Internet chat
room known as the “Orchid Club” for interstate trafficking of child pornography.
The Orchid Club investigation began in California and proceeded to Oklahoma
City with the arrest of Paul Buske in June 1996. Following his arrest, Buske
cooperated with the government in an undercover capacity by contacting a fellow
Orchid Club member who used the pseudonym “AnnBoleyn” and arranging to
trade him child pornography. “AnnBoleyn” was to send Buske blank videotapes
to use to tape child pornography. Buske would then send the tapes back to
“AnnBoleyn” at a prearranged mail box. The FBI suspected Anderson was
“AnnBoleyn” and arranged for a controlled delivery of blank tapes to the
specified mail box and secured a search warrant for Anderson’s home in Duluth,
Georgia. These suspicions were confirmed when Anderson picked up the tapes
sent to “AnnBoleyn.”
The tapes were to be delivered on Friday, July 5, 1996, but were delayed
until Saturday, July 6, because of the Fourth of July holiday. The mail box
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business where the tapes were delivered was closed on Saturday, but Anderson
had arranged for the business to leave the package at an adjoining coffee shop.
Anderson went to the coffee shop on Saturday, July 6, to pick up the package.
FBI agents, including Agent Bradley, observed Anderson pick up the package and
drive away in his car. Instead of traveling to his home, Anderson drove to his
place of employment. Anderson was Vice President of Research and
Development for ATD Corporation. Anderson used his key card to enter the ATD
office building, taking the tapes with him, and the door locked behind him.
As the agents were concerned Anderson would view the tapes and suspect
the involvement of law enforcement when he discovered the tapes were blank,
they decided to immediately arrest him. They knocked on the office building
doors and activated a siren on a patrol car, but Anderson did not respond. The
agents did not know Anderson is hearing impaired and that he did not hear the
knocks or the siren because he was not wearing his hearing aids. When Anderson
failed to respond, the agents became concerned he was destroying the tapes and
other child pornography evidence. Agent Bradley testified his concern was
heightened because he thought the building might contain an incinerator. He
based this belief on his knowledge that ATD Corporation was involved in the
research and development of heat resistant materials. The agents’ concern that
Anderson would destroy evidence was also based on Agent Bradley’s previous
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experiences in investigating Orchid Club members. Agent Bradley had found
members of the group to be extremely suspicious and fearful of being “set up” by
agents. As a result of his prior investigations of Orchid Club members, Agent
Bradley also knew they tended to keep their collections in one location. If
Anderson had decided to view the tapes at his office, the agents were concerned
his entire collection was stored there and that he would destroy all evidence if he
was alerted to their presence.
Acting on these concerns, the agents broke into the office building and
began searching for Anderson. Anderson did not hear them calling his name.
Agent Bradley noticed a light under the closed door of Room 222, an interior
office. Room 222 had a single door leading to the hallway, a narrow sidelight
window next to the door and one other window. Agent Bradley could not see into
the room because the door was closed and the curtains were drawn over the
sidelight window with a towel attached to the curtains to further block any view
into the room. Agent Bradley opened the unlocked door without knocking and
found Anderson preparing to watch one of the videotapes.
Anderson signed a written waiver of his Miranda rights, made
incriminating statements to the agents detailing his involvement with child
pornography on the Internet, and admitted he had child pornography stored in his
office. Anderson then gave consent to search his office, Room 218. The agents
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did not perform a general search of Anderson’s office, but rather recovered the
pornography from the location identified by Anderson. Shortly thereafter,
Anderson and the agents went to Anderson’s home and the agents executed the
search warrant. Upon arrival at his home, Anderson told his wife the agents were
there because he possessed child pornography. Anderson then showed the agents
where he had stored the disks and tapes of child pornography. While at
Anderson’s home, approximately four hours after entry into his office building,
Anderson signed a written consent to search both his office building and his
home.
Anderson was indicted on August 6, 1996, for engaging in a conspiracy to
knowingly receive and distribute child pornography via the Internet, in violation
of 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(2)(b), and two counts of knowingly transporting and
shipping child pornography, in violation of 18 U.S.C. § 2252(a)(1). Anderson
moved to suppress the evidence seized from his place of employment and his
residence, as well as statements made by him at both locales. The district court
found Anderson had standing to seek suppression and ordered suppression of the
evidence seized from Anderson’s office building and the statements made while
he was interrogated at his office building. The court denied suppression of
evidence seized from his home and statements he made to his wife in the presence
of the agents because the search of his home was made pursuant to a valid warrant
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and his statements there were spontaneous and not the result of any police
questioning.
In suppressing the evidence seized and statements taken at the office
building, the district court concluded Anderson had standing to assert his Fourth
Amendment rights. The court concluded Anderson’s actions demonstrated a
subjective expectation of privacy in Room 222. The court then concluded this
expectation was reasonable by first finding a corporate officer may assert a
reasonable expectation of privacy to his or her corporate office, and since
Anderson was a corporate officer with a master key to the corporate building and
offices therein, except for the president’s office, he had standing to assert a
Fourth Amendment claim to the entire building. While we disagree with the
district court’s holding that a corporate officer with a key to the building has
standing to assert a Fourth Amendment claim to the entire building, we ultimately
agree with the district court that Anderson had standing to seek suppression of the
evidence and statements obtained as a result of the search of Room 222, but we
reach that conclusion by a different route. See United States v. Winningham , 140
F.3d 1328, 1332 (10th Cir. 1998) (court can affirm district court on different basis
as long as there is support in the record). We also agree with the district court
that the government did not establish the existence of exigent circumstances
justifying the warrantless entry into the office building.
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The government appeals that portion of the district court’s order granting
suppression of evidence seized from Room 222 and statements made during that
seizure. The government contends Anderson lacks standing to challenge the
search of an area within his corporate office building when Anderson has shown
neither proprietary nor possessory interest in Room 222, nor a business nexus
between his work and Room 222. The government also contends there was
sufficient evidence to establish exigent circumstances to justify the warrantless
entry into the office building.
II.
Standing
We must first determine whether Anderson has standing to challenge the
search and seizure of items from Room 222 . “Whether a defendant has standing
to challenge a search is a legal question subject to de novo review.” United
States v. Shareef , 100 F.3d 1491, 1499 (10th Cir. 1996).
The Fourth Amendment guarantees “the right of the people to be secure in
their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and
seizures.” U.S. Const. amend. IV. A warrantless search is unreasonable, and
therefore unconstitutional, if the defendant has a legitimate expectation of privacy
in the area searched. “Determining whether a legitimate or justifiable expectation
of privacy exists . . . involves two inquiries.” United States v. Leary , 846 F.2d
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592, 595 (10th Cir. 1988). First, the defendant “must show a subjective
expectation of privacy in the area searched, and second, that expectation must be
one that ‘society is prepared to recognize as “reasonable.”’” Id. (quoting Hudson
v. Palmer , 468 U.S. 517, 525 (1984)). The “ultimate question” is whether one’s
claim to privacy from the government intrusion is reasonable in light of all the
surrounding circumstances. Id. Thus, Anderson was required to establish he had
a subjective expectation of privacy in Room 222 and that society would recognize
that subjective expectation of privacy as reasonable.
Anderson entered the ATD office building during a holiday weekend and
there were no other employees in the building. He used his corporate key card to
enter the building and the door locked behind him. Once he was inside Room
222, he closed the door. The blinds and curtains were closed over one window,
the curtains were closed over the sidelight window, and Anderson had attached a
towel over the sidelight window curtains to further block any view into the room.
Clearly he believed he would be alone and left undisturbed. Accordingly, we
conclude Anderson had a subjective expectation of privacy in Room 222.
Whether Anderson’s subjective expectation of privacy is one society is
prepared to recognize as reasonable is a more difficult inquiry. “Given the great
variety of work environments . . . the question whether an employee has a
reasonable expectation of privacy [in his work area] must be addressed on a case-
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by-case basis.” O’Connor v. Ortega , 480 U.S. 709, 718 (1987); see also Henzel v.
United States , 296 F.2d 650, 653 (5th Cir. 1961) (“This is not to say that every
employee of a corporation can attack the illegal seizure of corporate property. . . .
Each case must be decided on its own facts.”). In addressing this question, we are
mindful that the “‘expectation of privacy in commercial premises . . . is different
from, and indeed less than, a similar expectation in an individual’s home.’” Leary ,
846 F.2d at 597 n.6 (quoting New York v. Burger , 482 U.S. 691, 700 (1987)).
It is well established that an employee has a reasonable expectation of
privacy in his office. See Mancusi v. DeForte , 392 U.S. 364, 369 (1968); Leary ,
846 F.2d at 595 (“There is no doubt that a corporate officer or employee may
assert a reasonable or legitimate expectation of privacy in his corporate office.”);
Specht v. Jensen , 832 F.2d 1516, 1520 (10th Cir. 1987). Therefore, Anderson
clearly had standing to challenge the search of his office. However, Room 222
was not Anderson’s office. 1
Therefore, we must determine to what extent an
employee has standing to challenge the search of an area in his workplace that is
not his office. We begin by acknowledging, as at least one other circuit has done,
1
Room 222 was an empty room with no files or a desk, or even a
telephone. There was no name plate on the door. There is no indication in the
record that Anderson used the room on a regular basis or even on a single
occasion before July 6, 1996. A company official testified that Room 222 was a
vacant room that could be used by all personnel. Anderson testified the room was
vacant and “had no use at all.” Appellant’s App. at 98.
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that a corporate employee does not have standing to challenge the search of
corporate offices or other property merely because the employee has access to or
control over certain areas. See United States v. Baron-Mantilla , 743 F.2d 868,
870 (11th Cir. 1984) (mere possession of a key to the premises searched is
insufficient to confer standing).
Most cases that discuss employee standing involve seizure of work-related
documents from the workplace. In such cases, the relationship or “nexus” of the
employee to the area searched is an important consideration in determining
whether the employee has standing. See United States v. Mohney , 949 F.2d 1397,
1403-04 (6th Cir. 1991) (en banc) (defendant did not have standing to challenge
seizure of documents which he did not prepare when they were stored in offices
he rarely visited); United States v. Taketa , 923 F.2d 665, 670-71 (9th Cir. 1991)
(defendant did not have standing to challenge search of coworker’s desk in
adjoining office even though he had access to it, but he did have standing to
challenge search of his own desk); United States v. Chuang , 897 F.2d 646, 649-51
(2d Cir. 1990) (defendant could not challenge seizure of documents found in
another employee’s office); United States v. Torch , 609 F.2d 1088, 1091 (4th Cir.
1979) (defendant did not have standing to challenge search of building when he
was not present at time of search, he did not work for building owner although he
occasionally used the building, he did not have assigned work area, and the desk
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he occasionally used was not locked and all employees had access to it); United
States v. Britt , 508 F.2d 1052, 1056 (5th Cir. 1975) (corporate president did not
have standing to challenge seizure of documents from off-site warehouse because
he failed to demonstrate a “nexus between the area searched and [his] work
space”).
We endorse the “business nexus” test to the extent we share the belief that
an employee enjoys a reasonable expectation of privacy in his work space.
Certainly, an employee should be able to establish standing by demonstrating he
works in the searched area on a regular basis. However, we do not believe the
fact that a defendant does or does not work in a particular area should
categorically control his ability to challenge a warrantless search of that area.
Instead, the better approach is to examine all of the circumstances of the working
environment and the relevant search. See Mancusi , 392 U.S. at 368 (performing
standing inquiry “in light of all the circumstances”). There are numerous
circumstances which are highly relevant when considering whether an employee
should have standing to contest the search and seizure of items from his
workplace for which the “business nexus” test does not account. 2
2
Contrary to the dissent’s assertion that we have failed to reference any
case in which a defendant has been determined to have standing in the absence of
a nexus between the area searched and the defendant’s work space, see Dissenting
Op. at 1, we cite United States v. Mancini , 8 F.3d 104, 108 (1st Cir. 1993)
(continued...)
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Ownership of an item does not confer “automatic standing.” However, the
Supreme Court has long recognized that property ownership is a “factor to be
considered in determining whether an individual’s Fourth Amendment rights have
been violated.” United States v. Salvucci , 448 U.S. 83, 91 (1980); Rawlings v.
Kentucky , 448 U.S. 98, 105 (1980) (“[P]etitioner’s ownership of the drugs is
undoubtedly one fact to be considered in [determining whether he has standing]”);
see also United States v. Benitez-Arreguin , 973 F.2d 823, 827 (10th Cir. 1992)
(“In analyzing the case of a bailee, we consider the factors that generally might
give any defendant a legitimate expectation of privacy, including ownership ,
lawful possession, or lawful control of the property or place searched.”)
(emphasis added); United States v. Erwin , 875 F.2d 268, 270-71 (10th Cir. 1989)
(“Although ownership of the item seized is not determinative, it is an important
consideration in determining the existence and extent of a defendant’s Fourth
2
(...continued)
(defendant worked downstairs and seized items were found in storage space in
attic), where the court emphasized the importance of (1) the fact that the items
seized were at least partially personal possessions, (2) the fact that defendant was
mayor of the city, (3) the fact that the attic was in the same building as
defendant’s office, (4) the fact that the mayor had taken steps to insure his
privacy in the items seized. As in the present case, there was no indication the
mayor had ever worked in the attic or regularly used the attic before the evidence
was seized, the attic was located far from the mayor’s office, and the attic was
accessible by numerous employees (the entire maintenance and personnel
departments). Further, we cite several additional cases where courts have found
no standing where there was no business nexus, but each case also emphasized the
items seized were not personal possessions.
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Amendment interests.”). Thus, a court is more apt to find an employee has
standing to challenge the seizure of personal items or the search of an area where
personal items are stored than the search or seizure of work-related documents or
materials. This is true even when an employee brings personal possessions into
the workplace where they are obviously not as secure as they would be at home.
See United States v. Mancini , 8 F.3d 104, 108 (1st Cir. 1993) (court emphasized
seized books were at least partially personal possessions); cf. Williams v. Kunze ,
806 F.2d 594, 599-600 (5th Cir. 1986) (in denying standing, court emphasized
seized records were corporate property); State v. Richards , 552 N.W.2d 197, 205
(Minn. 1996) (finding defendant did not have standing when “nothing about the
[seized] items or the manner in which they were stored reveals anything of
personal or private nature”); State v. Worrell , 666 P.2d 703, 706 (Kan. 1983)
(court emphasized defendant stored no personal property in warehouse where he
was asserting standing). In O’Connor , the Supreme Court discussed the effect on
the issue of standing when property seized from a defendant’s workplace is
personal property rather than business property :
Because the reasonableness of an expectation of privacy, as
well as the appropriate standard for a search, is understood to differ
according to context, it is essential first to delineate the boundaries
of the workplace context. The workplace includes those areas and
items that are related to work and are generally within the employer’s
control. At a hospital, for example, the hallways, cafeteria, offices,
desks, and file cabinets, among other areas, are all part of the
workplace. These areas remain part of the workplace context even if
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the employee has placed personal items in them, such as a
photograph placed in a desk or a letter posted on an employee
bulletin board.
Not everything that passes through the confines of the business
address can be considered part of the workplace context, however .
An employee may bring closed luggage to the office prior to leaving
on a trip, or a handbag or briefcase each workday. While whatever
expectation of privacy the employee has in the existence and the
outward appearance of the luggage is affected by its presence in the
workplace, the employee’s expectation of privacy in the contents of
the luggage is not affected in the same way. The appropriate
standard for a workplace search does not necessarily apply to a piece
of closed personal luggage, a handbag or a briefcase that happens to
be within the employer’s business address.
480 U.S. at 715-16 (emphasis added). See also Wayne R. LaFave, Search &
Seizure § 11.3(d) (“Particularly in an otherwise close case, a court may be
influenced by the defendant’s relationship to or interest in the particular item
seized. It may be significant, therefore, that this item is a personal possession of
the defendant and not something connected with the operation of the business.”).
Moreover, we believe an employee has a greater expectation of privacy in
items in his immediate control, regardless of the business connection he may or
may not have to the room where the items are found. See United States v. Brien ,
617 F.2d 299, 306 (1st Cir. 1980) (citing as one factor supporting existence of
standing the fact that defendant was present during search); LaFave § 11.3(d)
(“Generally, it may be said that the fundamental inquiry is whether the particular
defendant had a protected expectation of privacy, and that in making this
determination it is useful to consider such factors as whether the defendant was
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present at the time of the search .”) (emphasis added); cf. United States v.
Cardoza-Hinojosa , 140 F.3d 610, 616 (5th Cir. 1998) (emphasizing defendant left
scene aware building was not locked); Taketa , 923 F.2d at 671 (emphasizing fact
that defendant was not present at time of search in ruling defendant did not have
standing); Torch , 609 F.2d at 1091 (same). Focusing on the defendant-
employee’s control over the seized item at the time of the seizure is consistent
with the approach taken by the Supreme Court in Mancusi . In Mancusi , the
defendant claimed he had standing to challenge seizure of records from an office
he shared with others. The Court noted defendant shared his office with others
and the seized records were not located in an area of the room which was
“reserved for his personal use,” but ultimately held defendant had standing. In
reaching this conclusion, the Court emphasized defendant worked in the area and
defendant “ had custody of the papers at the moment of their seizure .” 392 U.S. at
369 (emphasis added).
Finally, we find the “business nexus” test problematic in that it does not
take into account any actions the individual challenging the seizure may or may
not have taken to maintain privacy with respect to the item. We believe it is
appropriate to consider whether an employee took steps to keep his personal
property private in the workplace in determining whether the employee had a
reasonable expectation of privacy in the area searched. See Mancini , 8 F.3d at
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110 (court focused on fact that mayor had clearly marked seized books as private
property); cf. Cardoza-Hinojosa , 140 F.3d at 616 (defendant did not have standing
to challenge search of shed where circumstances revealed a “careless (if not
nonexistent) effort” to maintain privacy interest therein); United States v.
Alewelt , 532 F.2d 1165, 1168 (7th Cir. 1976) (defendant did not have standing to
challenge seizure of his coat which he stored on a coat rack in general working
area of public building); Richards , 552 N.W.2d at 205 (court emphasized
defendant stored personal item in workplace without marking it as his own); see
also LaFave § 11.3(d) (“Assessment of a defendant’s privacy expectation vis-a-vis
the item may also be aided by considering if he dealt with that item in a fashion
which reflects an effort on his part to maintain privacy .”) (emphasis added);
Specht , 832 F.2d at 1520 (highlighting fact that defendant closed his office doors
and drapes when he left his office).
Therefore, in determining whether an employee has standing to challenge
seizure of an item from the workplace, we do not limit our analysis to the
“business nexus” test. Rather, we will consider all of the relevant circumstances,
including (1) the employee’s relationship to the item seized; (2) whether the item
was in the immediate control of the employee when it was seized; and (3) whether
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the employee took actions to maintain his privacy in the item. 3
Anderson entered the locked ATD office building on a Saturday, during a
holiday weekend, with the videotapes. These tapes were not ATD property but
were Anderson’s personal possessions. He took the tapes into Room 222, shut the
door behind him, and covered the sidelight window. He clearly took these actions
to maintain his privacy. Anderson maintained control over the videotapes and did
not abandon the tapes or even try to store the tapes in the room. In fact, he was
still in possession of the tapes when the agents searched Room 222 and seized
them. Under these circumstances, we conclude Anderson’s subjective expectation
of privacy was an expectation that society would recognize as reasonable. We
hold Anderson has standing to challenge the government’s search and seizure of
items from Room 222, as well as the statements Anderson made in relation to that
3
The government argues the so-called “apartment cases” control. See ,
e.g. , United States v. Nohara , 3 F.3d 1239, 1242 (9th Cir. 1993). We disagree.
These cases stand for the proposition that a tenant does not have a reasonable
expectation of privacy in common areas such as the hallways of an apartment
building. There are significant differences between a tenant’s relationship to a
hallway in his apartment building and Anderson’s relationship to Room 222.
While both would presumably have total access to the respective areas, Anderson
also had the authority to exclude others from Room 222. Obviously, a tenant does
not have the authority to exclude others from a common hallway. The right to
exclude others is an important consideration in determining whether an individual
has standing. See Rakas v. Illinois , 439 U.S. 128, 148-49 (1978); Katz v. United
States , 389 U.S. 347 (1967); Jones v. United States , 362 U.S. 257 (1960); LaFave
§ 11.3(c). Anderson did in fact exclude others from Room 222 by closing the
door and covering the sidelight window.
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search.
Exigent circumstances
The warrantless search of the ATD office building was presumptively
unconstitutional unless the government can establish an exception to the warrant
requirement existed at the time the building was searched. “The notion that
emergency circumstances may in appropriate cases make a warrantless search
constitutional if probable cause exists is a clearly established exception to the
warrant requirement.” United States v. Aquino , 836 F.2d 1268, 1270-71 (10th
Cir. 1988). “The existence of exigent circumstances is a mixed question of law
and fact.” United States v. Anderson , 981 F.2d 1560, 1567 (10th Cir. 1992).
“Although we accept underlying fact findings unless they are clearly erroneous,
‘the determination of whether those facts satisfy the legal test of exigency is
subject to de novo review.’” Id. (quoting United States v. Stewart , 867 F.2d 581,
584 (10th Cir. 1989)).
The government bears the burden of proving exigency. United States v.
Wicks , 995 F.2d 964, 970 (10th Cir. 1993). In assessing whether the burden was
met, we are guided by the realities of the situation presented by the record. We
should evaluate the circumstances as they would have appeared to prudent,
cautious, and trained officers. Id. There is no absolute test for determining
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whether exigent circumstances are present because such a determination
ultimately depends on the unique facts of each controversy. However, we have
recognized certain general factors. Id.
An exception to the warrant requirement that allows police
fearing the destruction of evidence to enter the home of an unknown
suspect should be (1) pursuant to clear evidence of probable cause,
(2) available only for serious crimes and in circumstances where the
destruction of evidence is likely, (3) limited in scope to the minimum
intrusion necessary to prevent the destruction of evidence, and (4)
supported by clearly defined indications of exigency that are not
subject to police manipulation or abuse.
United States v. Carr , 939 F.2d 1442, 1448 (10th Cir. 1991) . Finally, we should
remember that, “[a]s an exception to the warrant requirement, exigent
circumstances must be ‘jealously and carefully drawn.’” Anderson , 981 F.2d at
1567 (quoting Aquino , 836 F.2d at 1270).
Since the agents witnessed Anderson retrieve the controlled package from
the coffee shop and carry the package into the ATD office building, there was
probable cause to believe Anderson had committed a crime at the time the agents
entered the office building. Further, distribution and production of child
pornography are serious crimes. See United States v. Moore , 916 F.2d 1131,
1139 (6th Cir. 1990) (“Child pornographers commit serious crimes which can
have devastating effects upon society and, most importantly, upon children who
are sexually abused.”). However, whether the agents conducted a limited search
of the building is a closer question. Agent Bradley testified he and the other
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agents searched for Anderson throughout the building and, after he was located,
the agents conducted a search of Room 222 and a limited search of Anderson’s
office. However, the initial search for Anderson, broad as it was, was at least
partially necessary because of Anderson’s hearing impairment. The later search
of Anderson’s office was based on his consent.
The decisive consideration in this case is the government’s failure to
demonstrate the presence of any “circumstances where the destruction of evidence
is likely” or any “clearly defined indications of exigency.” Carr , 939 F.2d at
1448. To constitute “exigent” circumstances, the government must present
something more than an unfounded belief by law enforcement officers on the
scene that the suspect is becoming suspicious or nervous. See , e.g. , United States
v. Scroger , 98 F.3d 1256, 1259-60 (10th Cir. 1996), cert. denied 117 S. Ct. 1324
(1997) (defendant answered door with drug manufacturing equipment in hand;
defendant’s hands were stained, an indication of drug manufacturing; and there
was a strong odor of drugs from the house); Carr , 939 F.2d at 1446-49 (officers
smelled drugs and heard commotion and shouting inside room); Aquino , 836 F.2d
at 1273 (suspects were released, creating possibility news of police involvement
in operation would spread, and drug courier’s phone rang during the delay);
United States v. Chavez , 812 F.2d 1295, 1299-1301 (10th Cir. 1987) (garage
doors shut and lights off when police arrived); see also Wicks , 995 F.2d at 971
-20-
(collecting cases).
To support its likelihood of destruction of evidence and exigency
arguments, the government essentially points to three factors: (1) Agent Bradley’s
belief that Anderson’s entire child pornography collection was being stored inside
the office building; (2) Agent Bradley’s concern about the presence of an
incinerator in the office building; and (3) Anderson’s failure to respond to the
agents knocking on the office doors or to the patrol car siren. Based on his
previous law enforcement experience, it may have been reasonable for Agent
Bradley to believe other contraband was stored inside the office building.
Nevertheless, that factor alone was insufficient to justify a warrantless entry and
search. Anderson , 981 F.2d at 1567-68. As for the presence of an incinerator,
that was simply speculation on the part of Agent Bradley and there were no
objective indications that an incinerator (or any other item) was being used to
destroy evidence. With respect to the third factor, we are not convinced
Anderson’s failure to respond to the knocks or the siren could have led a
reasonable officer to conclude destruction of evidence was imminent. We note
Anderson was inside a large, two-story, multi-room office building and there was
no evidence the agents knew precisely where he was in the building. Under these
circumstances, we are not convinced Anderson (whether hearing impaired or not)
reasonably could have been expected to hear the knocks or the siren or to respond
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to them.
As an additional matter, we are concerned with the potential for
government manipulation under the facts of this case. The agents testified at the
suppression hearing they were concerned Anderson would destroy any evidence
stored in the office building if he was alerted to their presence. However,
notwithstanding this alleged concern, the agents proceeded to knock on the doors
and activate a siren to alert Anderson to their presence. In short, the agents
helped create the circumstances they allegedly believed would cause Anderson to
attempt to destroy evidence.
For these reasons, we believe the district court correctly concluded “the
government presented no evidence that would permit a ‘prudent, cautious’ officer
to assume that destruction of evidence was imminent or that an emergency was
occurring in the building.” Appellant’s App. at 77. Thus, exigent circumstances
did not exist at the time of the warrantless search of the ATD office building.
III.
The government’s search of Room 222 was unconstitutional. Accordingly,
the items seized during that search and the statements Anderson made at the
office building must be suppressed. See Wong Sun v. United States , 371 U.S.
471 (1963). The district court’s order suppressing evidence seized from the ATD
office building and statements made by Anderson while he was being interrogated
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at his office building is AFFIRMED.
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No. 97-6310, United States v. James S. Anderson.
KELLY , Circuit Judge, dissenting.
The court determines that Mr. Anderson has standing to challenge the
search and seizure of evidence from Room 222. I disagree that Mr. Anderson has
standing with respect to Room 222 or any corporate common areas. Mere
possession of videotapes in an unlocked room that Mr. Anderson neither worked
in, nor used regularly, is not sufficient to confer standing. Although the factors
the court relies upon are relevant to the inquiry, see United States v. Cardoza-
Hinojosa , 140 F.3d 610, 615 (5th Cir. 1998), they cannot alone support standing
for a workplace search in these circumstances absent a demonstrated “nexus
between the area searched and the work space of the defendant,” United States v.
Britt , 508 F.2d 1052, 1056 (5th Cir.), cert. denied , 423 U.S. 825 (1975). Such a
nexus is nonexistent in this case. It is telling that the court cites no case
involving a workplace where standing was found in the absence of such a nexus. 1
1
United States v. Mancini , 8 F.3d 104 (1st Cir. 1993), is not to the
contrary. In that case, the defendant mayor had standing to challenge a search of
the town’s archive attic, located above the mayor’s office, and seizure of his 1987
appointment calendar which contained entries of both a personal and public
nature. The attic contained boxes of town records, as well as a box labeled
“Mayor’s Appointment Books.” The court emphasized the physical relationship
between the mayor’s office and the archive attic, as well as the direction and
control that the mayor, who had the position for nineteen years, exercised over
access. Mancini 8 F.3d at 110. This court is mistaken that “there was no
indication the mayor had ever . . . regularly used the attic before the evidence was
seized . . . .” Ct. Op. at 11-12, n.2. To the contrary, the certificates of occupancy
that the mayor allegedly issued in exchange for a $2,000 payment were stored in
(continued...)
Merely because work-related documents are not involved in this case does not
mean that we can overlook the nature of the area searched.
Although “the Fourth Amendment protects people, not places,” Katz v.
United States , 389 U.S. 347, 351 (1967), the facts concerning the relationship
between the person and the place searched are important in determining whether
the person has met his or her burden of demonstrating a reasonable expectation of
privacy, see Rakas v. Illinois , 439 U.S. 128, 130-31 n.1 (1978). Whether an
expectation of privacy is legitimate for Fourth Amendment purposes depends
upon “whether the government’s intrusion infringes upon the personal and
societal values protected by the Fourth Amendment.” Oliver v. United States , 466
U.S. 170, 183 (1984). In deciding this issue, the Court considers location--
whether a person or his possessions are in a home, car, curtilage, open field or
office. Without question, the warrant clause of the Fourth Amendment applies to
searches on commercial premises, see Marshall v. Barlow’s, Inc. , 436 U.S. 307,
311-12 (1978); See v. City of Seattle , 387 U.S. 541, 543 (1967), however,
commercial premises differ from personal residences in nature and use, and
therefore Fourth Amendment protection is more limited. See Donovan v. Dewey ,
1
(...continued)
boxes of building department records located in the attic, Mancini , 8 F.3d at 106,
and the mayor also stored boxes containing his files and appointment calendars,
id. at 110. Mancini simply is not a case where there is no connection between the
employee’s work space and the area searched.
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452 U.S. 594, 598-99 (1981). Where commercial premises are not open to the
public, “the reasonable expectation of privacy depends upon the particular nature
and circumstances surrounding the place to be searched.” United States v. Bute ,
43 F.3d 531, 536 (10th Cir. 1994); see See , 387 U.S. at 545.
The district court found that Mr. Anderson was present during a holiday
and had taken steps to maintain his privacy in Room 222 by closing the door,
shutting the blinds and curtains, and by placing a towel over one of the windows.
See Aplt. App. at 75. This court extends the analysis by focusing on one of the
items found in the search of the room, the videotapes in Mr. Anderson’s
possession, and holds that Mr. Anderson has standing to challenge the search and
statements made in connection with it. Under the court’s analysis, Mr. Anderson
would have standing to challenge a search anywhere in the building provided the
item seized was owned and controlled by him, and he had taken steps to maintain
privacy. This analysis relies too heavily on Mr. Anderson’s possession of the
seized videotapes when the primary question must be whether Mr. Anderson had a
legitimate expectation of privacy in the area searched, an objective inquiry. See
United States v. Salvucci , 448 U.S. 83, 92 (1980) (“We simply decline to use
possession of a seized good as a substitute for a factual finding that the owner of
the good had a legitimate expectation of privacy in the area searched.”); Rawlings
v. Kentucky , 448 U.S. 98, 104-06 (1980) (“Had petitioner placed his drugs in
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plain view, he still would have owned them, but he could not claim any legitimate
expectation of privacy.”); United States v. Skowronski , 827 F.2d 1414, 1418
(10th Cir. 1987) (“Whether a person has standing to contest a search on fourth
amendment grounds turns on whether the person had a legitimate expectation of
privacy in the area searched, not merely in the items seized.”). In deciding
standing issues, we must consider all of the circumstances, Rakas , 439 U.S. at 152
(Powell, J., concurring), including Mr. Anderson’s relationship with the area
searched.
Numerous circumstances in this case show the complete absence of any
nexus between Room 222 and Mr. Anderson’s work space, let alone a nexus
between Mr. Anderson and the entire building. Room 222 was not Mr.
Anderson’s office, and no evidence before us suggests that he ever used the room
prior to the incident. It was located far from his office, near several common
areas (a reception area, restrooms, a conference room and a hallway). The room
was vacant, containing no desk, files, or even telephone. It had no particular
function, and was accessible by all employees. Mr. Anderson was found, pants
undone, in the room, with a blank tape in the VCR. Contrary to the court’s
assertion, no evidence before us suggests that Mr. Anderson had the right to
exclude anyone from the room; one does not gain such right merely by closing the
door and covering a window.
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The steps that Mr. Anderson took to ensure privacy may be consistent with
a subjective expectation of privacy, but that is not enough, no matter how
earnestly the steps were taken. In these circumstances, consistent with Mr.
Anderson’s burden to prove standing, I would hold that he lacked standing and
reverse. I therefore respectfully dissent.
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United States v. Anderson
Combined Opinion