FILED
United States Court of Appeals
Tenth Circuit
August 10, 2009
PUBLISH Elisabeth A. Shumaker
Clerk of Court
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
TENTH CIRCUIT
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
No. 08-3220
DAVID C. WITTIG and DOUGLAS
T. LAKE,
Defendants-Appellants.
Appeal from the United States District Court
for the District of Kansas
(D.C. No. 5:03-CR-40142-JAR-1)
Maxwell Carr-Howard, Husch Blackwell Sanders LLP, Kansas City, Missouri
(Patrick A. McInerney and Lyndsey J. Conrad with him on the briefs) for
Defendant-Appellant Douglas T. Lake.
Jeffrey D. Morris, Jeremy S. Weis, and Christina Birgensmith, Berkowitz Oliver
Williams Shaw & Eisenbrandt LLP, Kansas City, Missouri; and Paula M.
Junghans, Zuckerman Spaeder, Washington, D.C., for Defendant-Appellant David
C. Wittig.
Richard L. Hathaway, Senior Litigation Counsel, United States Attorney’s Office,
Topeka, Kansas (Marietta Parker, Acting United States Attorney, and Christine E.
Kenney, Assistant United States Attorney, with him on the brief) for Plaintiff-
Appellee.
Before MURPHY, McKAY, and GORSUCH, Circuit Judges.
GORSUCH, Circuit Judge.
David Wittig and Douglas Lake continue to labor under an indictment for
allegedly looting their former company, Westar Energy, Inc. Their first trial
ended in a hung jury. A second trial yielded convictions, but we reversed those
convictions on appeal. With respect to the substantive counts of wire fraud and
money laundering, we held that the government had failed to produce sufficient
evidence (actually, any evidence) of an essential element. We therefore ordered
the defendants acquitted of those offenses. The government’s error on the
substantive wire fraud counts, we found, also implicated the adequacy of the
instructions given the jury on the remaining charges against the defendants:
circumvention of internal controls and conspiracy. Accordingly, we reversed the
defendants’ convictions on those counts as well, but because the basis of our
reversal had nothing to do with the sufficiency of the evidence, we remanded the
case for a possible retrial.
On remand, the defendants argued that any further trial on the conspiracy
charges should be barred by the Fifth Amendment’s Double Jeopardy Clause;
alternatively, and at the least, they argued that the district court should restrict the
government’s proof at any new trial to avoid double jeopardy problems. The
district court denied the defendants’ requests, and they responded with this
interlocutory appeal. To the extent that the defendants’ appeal seeks to anticipate
and restrict the evidence the government may produce at trial, however, we have
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no jurisdiction to hear their arguments at this stage. In an interlocutory
proceeding, we can only vindicate, as a matter of law, the double jeopardy right
not to be tried for a second time on the same charge; we have no power to issue
orders in limine forbidding the admission of this or that piece of evidence or
testimony in some potential future trial. To the extent that the defendants do seek
dismissal of the conspiracy charges against them, we hold, consistent with our
last ruling and the district court’s judgment, that double jeopardy doesn’t
categorically foreclose a new trial because the conspiracy charges in the
indictment are considerably broader in scope than the wire fraud charges on
which defendants were acquitted. At the same time, we readily acknowledge that
today’s opinion may not represent the last word on double jeopardy in this case.
If, as the defendants predict, the government’s proof of conspiracy at trial is
narrower than its indictment and seeks to rehash only matters on which the
defendants have already been acquitted, more will remain to be said. But all that
depends on a guess about the future, and the future must be left to the future. For
the present, we are obliged to affirm.
I
The facts underlying this prosecution are set out extensively in United
States v. Lake, 472 F.3d 1247 (10th Cir. 2007). For our purposes in this appeal, it
is necessary to rehearse only part of the story.
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A
Over a decade ago, in 1995, David Wittig left a New York investment bank
to join Kansas’s largest public utility, Westar Energy, Inc., as an executive in
charge of corporate strategy. In that role, he developed a plan to diversify
Westar’s assets by acquiring various unregulated businesses. Westar initially
attempted to acquire ADT, a national home-security company. While the
acquisition ultimately didn’t pan out, Westar still did well, making some $856
million trading in ADT stock. Later, Westar successfully acquired Protection
One, another home-security company, and bought stock in Guardian International,
a security-alarm business. At least initially, this diversification strategy was
hugely successful, adding billions to Westar’s net assets and driving its stock
price up dramatically, as high as $48 per share in 1998. In early 1999, Mr. Wittig
was elected President, CEO, and Chairman of Westar’s Board. Around the same
time, Douglas Lake, also a New York banker, joined the company as Executive
Vice President and Chief Strategic Officer.
Then Westar’s health took a turn for the worse. Westar’s new subsidiary,
Protection One, suffered accounting irregularities and became the subject of an
SEC investigation. Its stock price, along with that of its parent Westar, fell
sharply. In an effort to staunch the bleeding, Westar split off its public utility
from its unregulated businesses and attempted to merge it with another entity (the
“Split-Merge Transaction”). But in 2001, the Kansas Corporation Commission
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blocked the merger and (rather than approving Westar’s pending request for a rate
increase) ordered Westar to cut utility rates by $20 million. As a result, Westar’s
share price plummeted to $9 a share by the end of 2002, around the time Messrs.
Wittig and Lake left the company.
In 2004, the United States Attorney for the District of Kansas obtained a
forty-count indictment against the defendants. The indictment alleges that the
defendants were not just unskilled or unlucky corporate managers, but criminals.
According to the government, Mr. Wittig and Mr. Lake conceived and executed a
wide-ranging scheme to loot Westar for their own benefit. In particular, the
government alleges that the defendants’ real motivation behind the Split-Merge
Transaction was to collect millions in compensation that it says would be owed
them under change-in-control provisions in their contracts had the merger gone
through. Other components of the alleged scheme include profiting from
complicated transactions in shares of Guardian International that resulted in a
$4.2 million loss to Westar, as well as:
acceleration of a $5.37 million signing bonus to Mr. Wittig that was to
have been paid over a 10-year period beginning in 2010; improper
payment of relocation expenses; improper loans from Westar;
acquisition of a split-dollar life-insurance contract at far greater cost to
Westar than the bonus it was ostensibly to replace; and personal use of
Westar aircraft. To accomplish this looting, the defendants misled the
Board of Directors and connived to remove two Board members who
asked challenging questions (the two resigned voluntarily).
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Lake, 472 F.3d at 1252. The indictment charges seven counts of wire fraud, 18
U.S.C. § 1343; seventeen counts of laundering the proceeds of the wire fraud; 18
U.S.C. § 1957, fourteen counts of circumvention of internal controls (by failing to
disclose use of corporate aircraft on internal Westar reports and obstructing
company investigations of aircraft use), 15 U.S.C. §§ 78m(b)(5) & 78ff; and one
count of conspiracy to commit the three substantive offenses of wire fraud, money
laundering, and circumvention, 18 U.S.C. § 371. The fortieth count seeks
forfeiture of all assets acquired through the conspiracy, wire fraud, and money
laundering. 18 U.S.C. § 981(a)(1)(C); 28 U.S.C. § 2461(c); see also Appendix
(Indictment).
The defendants’ first trial on this indictment ended in a hung jury. See
United States v. Wittig, 425 F. Supp.2d 1196, 1204 (D. Kan. 2006). Six months
later, the government retried the defendants. This time, the jury convicted Mr.
Wittig on all counts and Mr. Lake on thirty counts. It also found that some, but
not all, of the assets listed in count 40 should be forfeited. The defendants then
appealed to us, seeking a judgment of acquittal on the substantive offenses (but
not on the conspiracy charge, Lake, 472 F.3d at 1263-64) because, they alleged,
insufficient evidence supported the jury’s verdict.
B
We reversed. With respect to the wire fraud and money laundering
charges, we concluded that the government failed to produce sufficient evidence
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to sustain the convictions. As we explained, the difficulty for the government
was that defrauding one’s employer does not itself violate federal law. Wire
fraud requires the government to establish three elements beyond a reasonable
doubt: “(1) a scheme to defraud; (2) an interstate wire communication; and (3) a
purpose to use the wire communication to execute the scheme.” Lake, 472 F.3d at
1255; United States v. Janusz, 135 F.3d 1319, 1323 (10th Cir. 1998). This last
element the government failed to prove. The only interstate wires charged in the
wire fraud counts of the indictment were four 10-K Annual Reports and three 14A
Proxy Statements submitted by Westar to the Securities and Exchange
Commission during the defendants’ tenure (the “SEC Reports”). The
government’s sole allegation concerning these reports was that the defendants
failed to disclose, as compensation, the value of their personal use of corporate
aircraft.
But under the rule in Parr v. United States, 363 U.S. 370 (1960), mailings
(or, in this case, wires) cannot be for the purpose of executing a fraud when they
are made only in response to an “imperative command of duty imposed by . . .
law,” unless they are also false or fraudulent. Id. at 391; accord Lake, 472 F.3d
at 1256. It was undisputed that the SEC Reports are just that kind of wire:
filings that federal law commands must be sent to the SEC. Lake, 472 F.3d at
1252. And there was no evidence that the SEC Reports were anything other than
truthful. The version of SEC Regulation S-K in force at the time required
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disclosure of an officer’s perquisites, of which personal use of a company jet is
one, only if their collective value exceeds “the lesser of either $50,000 or 10% of
the total of annual salary and bonus reported for the named executive officer.”
Lake, 472 F.3d at 1257; 17 C.F.R. § 2298.402(b)(2)(iii)(C)(1) (1999). In this
case, the relevant number is $50,000. The regulation provides that “[p]erquisites
and other personal benefits shall be valued on the basis of the aggregate
incremental cost to the [corporation] and its subsidiaries.” Lake, 472 F.3d at
1258; 17 C.F.R. § 229.402, Instructions to Item 402(b)(2)(iii)(C). The
government introduced no evidence—none—of the aggregate incremental cost to
Westar created by the defendants’ personal airplane use. Instead, it told the jury
all about the value to the defendants, as measured by the replacement cost of
charting a private jet for each flight on which, for instance, one of the defendants’
spouses accompanied them without a business purpose. Calculated this way, the
value to each defendant was about $1 million. Lake, 472 F.3d at 1253. But this
figure was and remains irrelevant to the charge of wire fraud. No matter how
high the value to the defendants, the SEC Reports cannot have been false unless
the cost to the corporation exceeded $50,000. And because there was no evidence
of that, it was impossible to conclude that the reports contained anything “false,
fraudulent, or even misleading.” Id. at 1260. Accordingly, the government had
not proven that “a purpose of submitting the reports was in any fashion to further
-8-
the alleged fraudulent scheme. The reports (which, for all we can tell, were
correct) were filed because they had to be.” Id.
We therefore reversed the defendants’ convictions for wire fraud for lack of
sufficient evidence. Id. And because it is impossible to be guilty of money
laundering unless the “[allegedly laundered] property is, in fact, derived from
specified unlawful activity,” id. (quoting United States v. Dazey, 403 F.3d 1147,
1163 (10th Cir. 2005)), the failure of the wire fraud counts was also fatal to the
money laundering charges. A reversal for lack of evidence terminates jeopardy,
so retrial on these counts was barred by the Double Jeopardy Clause. Id.; see also
Burks v. United States, 437 U.S. 1, 18 (1978).
We further concluded that the government’s misunderstanding of the nature
of the defendants’ reporting obligations infected the jury’s instructions on the
other two charges: circumvention of internal controls and conspiracy. With
respect to circumvention, the government alleged that the defendants, as part of
an ongoing effort to prevent public reporting of their activities, failed to disclose
their private use of aircraft on Westar’s internal Director & Officer Reports
(“D&O Reports”) and used their authority to forbid an internal audit of company
aircraft use. It was undisputed that the defendants were required to list their
aircraft use on the D&O Reports but did not; the only issue at trial was whether
they possessed the necessary intent to “knowingly circumvent or knowingly fail
to implement a system of internal accounting controls or knowingly falsify [a
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qualifying corporate record].” Lake, 472 F.3d at 1261 (quoting 15 U.S.C.
§ 78m(b)(5)). And this question of intent boiled down to whether the aircraft use
was a material fact. At trial, the government argued that the value to the
defendants of aircraft use was so high that they must have thought it was a
material fact. But that overlooked the very real possibility that, because the
relevant test for SEC reporting is cost to the corporation rather than value to the
officer, the defendants omitted their aircraft use because they knew its cost to
Westar was beneath the SEC’s reporting requirement, and therefore not a material
fact. The jury was never instructed on the cost-to-the-corporation test, making it
impossible to evaluate the defendants’ intent fairly. In order to assess whether
the defendants thought their aircraft use was material, the jury needed to know
whether it actually was material. The same problem obtained with respect to the
conspiracy convictions. We found that “[t]he jury could not accurately evaluate
the conspiracy allegations without being informed regarding what was required to
be in the SEC filings.” Id. at 1263. Finding the jury instructions faulty, but not
that the evidence against them was necessarily insufficient to sustain the
defendants’ convictions, we reversed these counts and remanded them without
prejudice to a new trial. Because no convictions remained by this point to
support the forfeiture count, we reversed it as well and remanded it for a new trial
as well.
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On remand, the government expressed its intent to pursue a third trial on
the charges that remain: the substantive offenses of circumvention and
conspiracy, the latter of which really encompasses three possible
theories—conspiracy to commit wire fraud, conspiracy to commit money
laundering, and conspiracy to commit circumvention of internal controls. The
government also sought again to pursue forfeiture of assets. The defendants
responded with a motion to dismiss, raising several challenges to the proposed
trial, all based in one way or another on the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth
Amendment. Chiefly, they claimed that double jeopardy’s collateral estoppel
component bars their trial for conspiracy. They also sought to preclude the
government from seeking forfeiture of those assets the previous jury found non-
forfeitable and to restrict the evidence the government may introduce about when
their alleged conspiracy began. In all, the substantive offense of circumvention
was the only charge on which the defendants did not seek dismissal. The district
court denied the defendants’ motion, and this interlocutory appeal followed.
II
A
Our jurisdiction to entertain the defendants’ interlocutory appeal is based
on, and limited by, the collateral order exception to the final judgment rule. We
normally hear appeals only from final judgments terminating proceedings before
the district court. 28 U.S.C. § 1291. But in Cohen v. Beneficial Life Ins. Co., 337
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U.S. 541, 546-47 (1949), the Supreme Court recognized that an otherwise
interlocutory order qualifies as an effectively “final” one when it (1) finally
decides (2) a question collateral to the merits of the underlying proceeding, and
(3) the decision involves an important right that would be “lost, probably
irreparably” if appellate review were deferred to the end of the case.
A motion to dismiss charges in an indictment because of double jeopardy is
such an order. Abney v. United States, 431 U.S. 651, 659-61 (1977). The right at
stake in a double jeopardy claim is independent of the merits of the underlying
charges; it is the right not to be “subjected to the hazards of trial and possible
conviction more than once for an alleged offense.” Green v. United States, 355
U.S. 184, 187 (1957). This right is irretrievably lost if the district court denies a
motion to dismiss and the defendants proceed to trial. Abney, 431 U.S. at 660-61;
United States v. Wood, 950 F.2d 638, 642 (10th Cir. 1991) (per curiam). We
therefore have jurisdiction to hear this appeal to the extent it seeks to vindicate
the double jeopardy right not to be tried.
But that isn’t the end of the matter. Two limits on our interlocutory
jurisdiction also bear on this appeal. First, we are not authorized to review other
grounds for dismissal besides the Double Jeopardy Clause. Abney, 431 U.S. at
662-63 (“[Jurisdiction] do[es] not extend beyond the claim of former jeopardy
and encompass other claims presented to . . . the district court in passing on the
accused’s motion to dismiss.”). In other words, we have no “pendent” appellate
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jurisdiction. Rather, every issue presented on appeal must itself “fall within
Cohen’s collateral-order exception.” Id. at 663.
Second, we are not authorized to award other relief besides dismissal.
While Abney tells us we can review “a pretrial order denying a motion to dismiss
an indictment on double jeopardy grounds,” id. at 662 (emphasis supplied), it
does not confer authority on us to pass on the admissibility of evidence not yet
presented. This principle is of particular relevance to this case because the
defendants’ challenge arises out of the collateral estoppel prong of the Double
Jeopardy Clause. See Ashe v. Swenson, 397 U.S. 436, 445 (1970). Collateral
estoppel precludes relitigation not only of ultimate issues already determined by a
final judgment between the same parties. Id. at 443. The doctrine is also
sometimes deployed in criminal cases to do something other than dismiss an
indictment. Sometimes, a defendant will argue that collateral estoppel requires
suppression of particular pieces of evidence, or the striking of a specific overt act
alleged in an indictment, because introduction of such evidence to prove the
charges will trench on a previous judgment of acquittal. We have, however, no
interlocutory appellate jurisdiction to review the district court’s disposition of the
latter sorts of arguments. Our jurisdiction extends only to vindicate the right not
to be tried at all, not the right to be tried in a particular way.
Put differently, we have no jurisdiction over collateral estoppel arguments
that “would merely restrict proof but not make conviction impossible.” United
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States v. Head, 697 F.2d 1200, 1205 (4th Cir. 1982); see also United States v.
Powell, 632 F.2d 754, 758 (9th Cir. 1980) (no jurisdiction to review motion to
strike overt acts from indictment); United States v. Mock, 604 F.2d 336, 340 (5th
Cir. 1979) (no jurisdiction over motion to suppress evidence). A defendant who
seeks to use collateral estoppel to restrict the proof the government might seek to
use must “stand trial, object to the evidence and then raise the issue on appeal
following conviction.” Santamaria v. Horsley, 133 F.3d 1242, 1250 (9th Cir.
1998) (en banc) (Kozinski, J., concurring).
B
These principles require us to dismiss two of the defendants’ challenges.
First, the defendants claim that collateral estoppel bars the government from
seeking to prove that their conspiracy began in 1995, before the dates of certain
specific acts of wire fraud for which Mr. Lake was acquitted in the last trial. On
its face, this is merely an effort to restrict the government’s proof at trial. Even if
the argument is correct (and we do not pass on its merits), it would not entitle the
defendants to dismissal of any charge.
Second, we must dismiss as well the defendants’ challenge to the forfeiture
count. At the last trial, the jury found that some of the assets the government
wished to seize were not traceable to criminal conduct, and the government did
not appeal. Both parties before us misunderstand the legal consequences of the
government’s failure to appeal that verdict. The defendants argue that double
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jeopardy now bars their retrial for forfeiture of those assets. The government,
remarkably, believes that because we reversed the jury’s other forfeiture findings
(that is, those allowing seizure), all of the jury’s findings are deprived of their
preclusive effect because the district court’s “judgment” was reversed.
Appellee’s Br. at 45.
Neither of these descriptions is correct. Double jeopardy does not apply to
the forfeiture findings because forfeiture is a component of a sentence rather than
an “offense” for which the defendants were tried. Monge v. California, 524 U.S.
721, 730-31 (1998) (sentencing issues do not generally implicate double jeopardy
protection); Libretti v. United States, 516 U.S. 29, 42 (1995) (forfeiture is part of
a sentence). As for the government’s theory that issue preclusion can never apply
when some other party successfully appeals some other issue in the same case, we
have our doubts. See In re Scrivner, 535 F.3d 1258, 1266 (10th Cir. 2008); In re
Albrecht, 233 F.3d 1258, 1261 (10th Cir. 2000) (noting doctrine of direct
estoppel). At a minimum, there remains a colorable question whether the jury’s
findings are now the law of the case because the government failed to appeal
them. See In re Scrivner, 535 F.3d at 1266; Palmer v. Kelly, 17 F.3d 1490, 1495
(D.C. Cir. 1994). But either way, we have no jurisdiction to decide this now.
Neither issue preclusion nor the law of the case doctrine implicates rights
collateral to the merits of the underlying proceeding; rather, they are defenses
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on the merits that should be resolved by the district court in the first instance,
subject to appeal at the end of the case.
The government also asks us to dismiss the defendants’ remaining and
principal argument that they are entitled to dismissal of the conspiracy charges.
The government argues that we lack jurisdiction over this part of the defendants’
appeal because dismissal of the conspiracy charge would still leave the necessity
of a trial on the substantive circumvention counts (which the defendants have not
moved to dismiss). In the government’s view, then, even if this appeal is
successful, it will still fail to vindicate the right not to be tried. Mot. to Dismiss
Appeal at 11-12. This argument is wrong. The Double Jeopardy Clause speaks of
being twice in peril for the same “offense,” not on the same indictment. Its
protections may not be defeated merely by adding additional offenses to the
charges. A defendant may no more be subjected to two trials on a single count
than on an indictment comprising many counts. United States v. Ginyard, 511
F.3d 203, 208 (D.C. Cir. 2008); see also United States v. Tom, 787 F.2d 65, 68
(2d Cir. 1986) (interlocutory appeal available in challenge to single count of
indictment); Head, 697 F.2d at 1206 n.9 (same).
Alternatively, the government suggests that we should dismiss the
defendants’ appeal under our supervisory power, pursuant to which we may
“establish summary procedures and calendars to weed out frivolous claims of
former jeopardy.” Abney, 431 U.S. at 662 n.8. This argument, too, is misplaced.
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The defendants’ principal double jeopardy claim is not frivolous; in the end, it
may even prove correct. As we will explain, all we decide today is that the
argument does not entitle defendants to dismissal at this time. The district court,
or this court in a later appeal, may well uphold the defendants’ double jeopardy
argument when all the facts are in.
Finally, the government also briefly argues that the defendants’ challenge
to the conspiracy charges is foreclosed by our opinion in Lake. Absent certain
exceptional circumstances, we of course adhere to our prior resolution of
particular issues as the law of the case. In re Antrobus, 563 F.3d 1092, 1098
(10th Cir. 2009) (per curiam). But the law of the case doctrine does not apply
unless an issue has been actually decided, “either explicitly or by necessary
implication.” Copart, Inc. v. Administrative Review Bd., 495 F.3d 1197, 1201
(10th Cir. 2007) (quotation marks omitted); see also Quern v. Jordan, 440 U.S.
332, 347 n.18 (1979). The defendants’ current double jeopardy arguments were
not before the Lake panel and thus were not explicitly ruled on. Indeed, the Lake
court expressly declined to consider any double jeopardy challenge to a retrial for
conspiracy. Lake, 472 F.3d at 1263-64. The law of the case does not extend to
issues a previous court declines to decide. See generally 18B Charles Alan
Wright et al., Fed. Prac. & Proc. § 4478 (2d ed. 2002). Neither has the
government sought to suggest that the defendants unduly delayed or waived their
arguments in this appeal by raising questions about the double jeopardy
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implications of their acquittals for the first time on remand. Accordingly, we
proceed to the merits of the defendants’ motion to dismiss.
III
Double jeopardy “protects a man who has been acquitted from having to
‘run the gantlet’ a second time.” Ashe, 397 U.S. at 446 (quoting Green, 335 U.S.
at 190). Included among double jeopardy’s protections is the doctrine of
collateral estoppel. Id. at 445; see also United States v. Oppenheimer, 242 U.S.
85, 88 (1916) (recognizing criminal collateral estoppel). Collateral estoppel is a
principle of finality. It means that “when an issue of ultimate fact has once been
determined by a valid and final judgment, that issue cannot again be litigated
between the same parties in any future lawsuit.” Ashe, 397 U.S. at 443. To apply
the doctrine here, we must ask two questions: First, is the issue the defendants
wish to foreclose from trial the actual basis for their prior acquittal? Second, is
the same issue necessary to the prosecution’s case in this proceeding? See id. at
444-45. If both questions yield affirmative answers, collateral estoppel bars
retrial of the issue. 1
1
The second part of the test will only be met if the fact must be proved
beyond a reasonable doubt in the new trial; if the issue is subject to a lower
standard of proof, the government is not precluded from relitigating it. Dowling
v. United States, 493 U.S. 342, 349 (1990).
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A
The first step of the analysis is easy to perform in this case. Though
normally the more elusive inquiry of the two—owing to the vagaries of general
jury verdicts—the reason for the defendants’ acquittal on the substantive wire
fraud charges in this case is easily discerned from our opinion in Lake. There, we
explained that the government failed to introduce any evidence that the value of
the defendants’ personal use of Westar aircraft—measured correctly by the
marginal cost imposed on the corporation by such use—exceeded $50,000.
Accordingly, there was no evidence that the SEC Reports were false. Without
that evidence, the government could not establish that the reports were “for the
purpose of executing” a scheme to defraud; instead, they are conclusively
presumed to have been for the purpose of executing the command of our
securities laws that accurate reports be filed.
B
Turning to the second step, we must ask whether this same issue must be
relitigated in order to convict the defendants of the conspiracy charges against
them. In what follows we consider this question with respect to each of the three
species of conspiracy alleged in the indictment: conspiracy to commit wire fraud,
money laundering, and circumvention of internal controls.
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1
We begin with conspiracy to commit wire fraud. To win a conviction for
this offense, the government has to prove several things. 2 But one thing the
government doesn’t have to do is relitigate the value of the defendants’ airplane
use or anything else about the SEC Reports. While the substantive wire fraud
counts in the indictment were limited to allegations about the defendants’ airplane
use and the wires used to report that use to the SEC, see Appendix at 17 (First
Superseding Indictment counts 16-22), the conspiracy count (count 1) describes a
much wider ranging fraudulent scheme to cheat Westar out of money and its
intangible right to honest services by any number of means. The conspiracy
count contains fully twenty paragraphs alleging overt acts committed by the
defendants in furtherance of the conspiracy; only one of these paragraphs pertains
to the use of corporate aircraft. For example, the indictment alleges that, as part
of their conspiracy, the defendants abused Westar’s relocation reimbursement
program, Appendix at 9, plotted to remove corporate directors that were critical
of them, id. at 10, pushed for the Split Merge-Transaction to enrich themselves
2
In particular, it must show that: “(1) the defendant entered into an
agreement; (2) the agreement involved a violation of the law; (3) one of the
members of the conspiracy committed an overt act; (4) the overt act was in
furtherance of the conspiracy’s object; and (5) the defendant willfully entered the
conspiracy.” United States v. Weidner, 437 F.3d 1023, 1033 (10th Cir. 2006).
Further, “a conspiracy conviction requires ‘at least the degree of criminal intent
necessary for the substantive offense itself.’” Id. (quoting United States v.
Morehead, 959 F.2d 1489, 1500 (10th Cir. 1992)).
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rather than Westar, id. at 14, and “subvert[ed] the Board’s direction to reduce
executive compensation” by collecting pay for serving on the board of Westar’s
subsidiary, Protection One, id. at 11.
Whether the government actually has evidence to support any of these
allegations, or whether any of this conduct was actually unlawful, are matters that
will surely be tested at trial. At this stage, the question before us is limited to
whether, under the indictment as drawn and viewing the matter “with realism and
rationality” rather than “with the hypertechnical and archaic approach of a 19th
century pleading book,” Ashe, 397 U.S. at 444, the government could establish
that defendants engaged in a conspiracy to commit wire fraud without relitigating
the same issue on which they were acquitted in the substantive wire fraud counts.
Because the allegations of a conspiracy to commit wire fraud contained in the
indictment encompass a great deal more putatively unlawful conduct than the
substantive wire fraud counts do, the answer to this question is unavoidably yes.
The defendants point out that the indictment contains no mention of
specific wires used by the conspirators other than those associated with the SEC
Reports and mentioned in the substantive wire fraud counts. But to secure a
conviction even on a substantive wire fraud charge, the Supreme Court has
explained that a defendant need not specifically intend the use of this or that wire;
the requirement is satisfied “[w]here [he] does an act with knowledge that the use
of the [wires] will follow in the ordinary course of business, or where such use
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can reasonably be foreseen, even though not actually intended.” Pereira v.
United States, 347 U.S. 1, 8-9 (1954). Here, of course, the conspiracy count
extends well beyond the airplane issue and associated SEC Reports. To make out
its conspiracy claim, then, the government need only show that, in furtherance of
some aspect of this broader conspiracy, the use of the wires followed in the
ordinary course of business or was reasonably foreseeable. Reliance on the
particular wires associated with the airplane business and SEC Reports and
charged in the substantive wire fraud counts is not necessary. 3
The principal authorities on which the defendants rely—Sealfon v. United
States, 332 U.S. 575 (1948), and United States v. Ohayon, 483 F.3d 1281 (11th
Cir. 2007)—are distinguishable precisely because the conspiracy alleged in those
cases did not cover conduct beyond that alleged in the underlying substantive
counts. While recognizing that a conspiracy count is separate from the
underlying substantive offense (so the mere fact of acquittal on one charge does
3
While Pereira arose in the mail fraud context, interpretations of the mail
fraud statute are, of course, authoritative on questions of wire fraud, Pasquantino
v. United States, 544 U.S. 349, 355 n.2 (2005), and we ourselves have previously
held it sufficient for wire fraud that a defendant “participated in devising the
scheme to defraud in which use of interstate wires foreseeably would follow,”
United States v. Puckett, 692 F.2d 663, 669 (10th Cir. 1982). Further, though
Judge Learned Hand thought otherwise, see United States v. Crimmins, 123 F.2d
271 (2d Cir. 1941), the Supreme Court has explained that the government need
not prove a higher degree of criminal intent respecting a jurisdictional element
(here, use of interstate wires) in order to establish conspiracy than is required for
the underlying substantive offense, United States v. Feola, 420 U.S. 671 (1975);
see also United States v. Reed, 721 F.2d 1059, 1061 (6th Cir. 1983).
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not automatically bar prosecution for the other), United States v. Felix, 503 U.S.
378, 391 (1992); see also United States v. Yearwood, 518 F.3d 220, 227 (4th Cir.
2008), these cases noted that, on their peculiar facts, the alleged conspiracy did
no more than track the substantive underlying fraud, such that any effort to prove
one offense would, as a practical matter, implicate an issue needed to prove the
other.
In Sealfon, the Supreme Court held that acquittal for conspiracy to commit
fraud collaterally estopped the government from pursuing the substantive fraud
itself because, under the operative indictment in that case, “the core of the
prosecutor’s case was in each case the same.” 332 U.S. at 580. The indictment
alleged that Sealfon had conspired with his co-defendant, Greenberg, to defraud
the United States. The only real evidence of Sealfon’s participation in the alleged
conspiracy was a letter Sealfon had written to a government agency containing
some false representations. Id. at 567-77. But the jury acquitted him of
conspiracy, and the Court concluded this was a finding that the letter was not
written and sent “pursuant to an agreement with Greenberg to defraud.” Id. at
580. When the government then turned around and tried Sealfon for substantive
fraud on an aiding and abetting theory, the gist of its case was the same: the
defendant aided and abetted Greenberg by sending the false letter. As the Court
observed, that was just another way of rephrasing the same thing the government
failed to prove the first time; practically speaking, “[Sealfon] could be convicted
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of either offense only on proof that he wrote the letter pursuant to an agreement
with Greenberg. Under the evidence introduced, [Sealfon] could have aided and
abetted Greenberg in no other way.” Id.; see also id. (“[Retrial] was a second
attempt to prove the agreement which at each trial was crucial to the
prosecution’s case and which was necessarily adjudicated in the former trial to be
non-existent.”).
Ohayon is similar. In that case, the defendant was originally charged with
the attempted distribution of drugs. But the jury acquitted him for the reason that
he did not know the bags in his possession contained drugs. Ohayon, 483 F.3d at
1287. The Eleventh Circuit concluded that it would be impossible for the
government to prove that a defendant who didn’t know he was carrying drugs was
nonetheless “aware of the essential nature” of a drug-distribution conspiracy,
which is one of the things the government must prove. Id. at 1291; cf. United
States v. Johnson, 645 F.2d 865, 868 n.2 (10th Cir. 1981) (government must
produce sufficient evidence that defendant is aware of conspiracy’s general
scope).
The point of these cases is that, when the only way the government can
prove one of the elements of a conspiracy offense is to prove the same facts
decided against it in a prior trial on a substantive offense, collateral estoppel bars
the attempt. That circumstance doesn’t pertain here. The conspiracy count in this
case, unlike the conspiracy counts alleged in Sealfon and Ohayon, covers a great
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deal of conduct not captured by the substantive wire fraud counts. To convict the
defendants of the conspiracy to commit wire fraud alleged in this indictment, the
government would never have to make mention to the jury of any of the matters
(airplanes or the Securities and Exchange Commission) that resulted in the
defendants’ acquittal on the substantive wire fraud counts after their earlier trial.
Even if this is so, the defendants suggest that the government lacks
evidence to back up its broader conspiracy allegations. Whatever the indictment
may say, the defendants predict, the government will be forced to rely again on
the SEC Reports and airplane use to secure a conviction; it has nothing to back up
its allegations of a larger wire fraud conspiracy. Certainly the fact that in the last
trial the government relied so heavily on airplanes and SEC Reports to prove its
substantive and conspiracy charges, rather than on the many other transactions
mentioned in the conspiracy count of the indictment, does make one wonder
whether the government really does have any other proof. But at this stage, our
interlocutory appellate jurisdiction limits us to asking whether the crime charged
in the indictment requires proof of the issue conclusively decided in Lake, and
cannot be focused on the admissibility of this or that piece of evidence. Given
the relative breadth of the conspiracy allegations compared with the wire fraud
counts in this case, we cannot say a retrial is legally impossible.
Finally, the defendants argue that, even supposing the indictment’s
conspiracy charges are broader than the substantive wire fraud counts, the
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government should still be barred from proceeding. This argument is based on a
particular reading of a Sixth Circuit case, Saylor v. Cornelius, 845 F.2d 1401 (6th
Cir. 1988). In Saylor, the defendant was charged with one count of murder, but
the indictment contemplated three theories of his liability for the crime: murder
as a principal, as an accomplice, and by conspiracy. Id. at 1402. For whatever
reason, only the conspiracy theory was charged to the jury; the instructions
omitted the other theories, and the prosecution registered no objection. Id. When
the resulting conviction based on conspiracy was reversed for insufficient
evidence, the government then sought to try the defendant again, this time on a
theory of accomplice liability. Id. at 1403. The Sixth Circuit held that this
violated the Double Jeopardy Clause. Id. Jeopardy with respect to the
accomplice liability theory terminated when the jury returned its verdict, even
though it was not instructed on that theory. Otherwise, the court said, “the
prosecution could proceed on several theories of liability through a trial, and,
simply by withholding instructions on any one of them, reserve that theory for
retrial at a later date.” Id. at 1404. But see United States v. Davis, 873 F.2d 900,
904-05 (6th Cir. 1989) (retreating from Saylor); State v. Wright, 127 P.3d 742,
746-47 (Wash. App. 2006) (criticizing Saylor as unpersuasive).
Messrs. Wittig and Lake urge us to adopt Saylor and read it as barring the
government from pursuing them for conspiracy on any other “theory” of the case
besides the one the government pursued at the last trial involving the SEC
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Reports and airplanes. Because this expansive view of Saylor and the Double
Jeopardy Clause is inconsistent with the Supreme Court’s guidance, however, we
cannot oblige them. In Richardson v. United States, 468 U.S. 317 (1984), the
defendant sought, after a mistrial declaration, to preclude his retrial on the basis
that insufficient evidence was presented to show his guilt in the first proceeding.
The Court rejected this argument, explaining that “a trial court’s declaration of a
mistrial following a hung jury is not an event that terminates the original jeopardy
to which petitioner was subjected. . . . Regardless of the sufficiency of the
evidence at petitioner’s first trial, he has no valid double jeopardy claim to
prevent his retrial.” Id. at 326. Put differently, double jeopardy cannot be an
available basis for relief when the original jeopardy has not yet terminated.
In our case, the conspiracy count, reversed for instructional error, was
effectively mistried. As such, jeopardy has not yet terminated and there is no
double jeopardy bar to retrial on the indictment as presented by the grand jury;
questions about the sufficiency of the government’s proof must await the new
trial’s results. Neither can the fact that the government may not have produced
sufficient evidence of a particular theory at the defendants’ earlier mistrial in this
case have any more legal significance than the government’s failure to produce
sufficient evidence of an entire crime did in the mistrial at issue in Richardson.
Until jeopardy terminates, the government is free to pursue any theory of the
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crime available to it under the indictment so long as that theory is not barred for
some other reason (such as collateral estoppel).
Our conclusion parallels the Fifth Circuit holding in United States v.
Miller, 952 F.2d 866 (5th Cir. 1992). Miller involved two defendants whose
convictions for mail fraud were reversed on appeal for instructional error (thus, as
here, effectively mistried). The defendants argued, as here, that double jeopardy
barred the government from retrying them on a new theory of the crime.
Recognizing that Richardson foreclosed this argument, the Fifth Circuit explained
that, because jeopardy had not terminated by virtue of the reversal for
instructional error, it was of no moment that the government had not produced, at
the first trial, sufficient evidence of the mail fraud theory it wished to pursue at a
new trial. “The central concept of Richardson is that there is no double jeopardy
unless the original jeopardy has terminated; and it is abundantly clear that a
reversal for instructional error is no more a termination of jeopardy than a
mistrial where the jury is unable to agree.” Id. at 872 (emphasis supplied).
Having said all this, we recognize that Saylor may still have a persuasive
application, if a more limited one than the defendants suggest. The Eighth Circuit
has suggested that Saylor should apply to bar retrial when the earlier mistrial
“terminates without a determination of guilt or innocence on a charge as a result
of a deliberate, tactical decision by the prosecution.” United States v.
Cavanaugh, 948 F.2d 405, 416 (8th Cir. 1991). Such a reading—requiring some
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deliberate decision on the part of the government—is more consistent with the
Supreme Court’s cases. While mistrials do not normally terminate jeopardy, the
Court has recognized an exception when “governmental conduct . . . is intended
to ‘goad’ the defendant into moving for a mistrial.” Oregon v. Kennedy, 456 U.S.
667, 676 (1982). So while it is inconsistent with Richardson to prohibit the
government from changing its theory of the case just because a case has mistried,
it might be equally consistent with Kennedy to prohibit the government from
intentionally withholding a theory of liability from the jury in order to get a
second chance at proving that theory if things aren’t going so well in round one.
The difficulty for the defendants in this case is that no allegation of prosecutorial
misconduct has been made here, so we need not reach the question. 4
4
The facts of the Eighth Circuit’s Cavanaugh case illustrate why this
understanding of Saylor may be sensible. Cavanaugh involved eleven defendants
charged with a series of mob assaults leading to murder. There were two separate
available theories of the crime: either there was “one continuous criminal act of
assault culminating in murder,” or else “there were two distinct crimes—murder
and a separate felonious assault.” Cavanaugh, 948 F.2d at 412. At trial, the
government exclusively pursued the continuous theory of the crime, and
“abandoned” the other theory. Id. at 413. The advantage to the government of
this approach was that the continuous crime theory was the only way of
establishing most of the defendants’ liability for the murder. Id. at 413. The
disadvantage was that, under the continuous theory, the doctrine of merger might
bar punishing the attackers for both assault and murder. Id. at 412. Consistent
with the government’s theory, the jury returned murder convictions without
passing on assault. Id. at 407. But when the murder convictions were later
reversed for insufficient evidence, the government suddenly switched theories,
and tried to pursue convictions for the “separate” offense of assault. The Eighth
Circuit held that double jeopardy barred retrial because “the government’s
deliberate trial strategy caused the first trial to terminate without the jury passing
(continued...)
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2
Because the government is able to prove a conspiracy to commit wire fraud
without running afoul of Lake, it follows it can also establish a conspiracy to
commit money laundering. The defendants’ contrary contention depends on a
misunderstanding of the nature of a conspiracy charge. Generally, money
laundering is “[t]he act of transferring illegally obtained money through
legitimate people or accounts so that its original source cannot be traced.”
Black’s Law Dictionary 1027 (7th ed. 2004). When a person is charged with the
substantive offense of money laundering, the government has to show that the
defendant knowingly engaged in a monetary transaction in property that in fact
was derived from certain kinds of unlawful activity. United States v. Massey, 48
F.3d 1560, 1565 (10th Cir. 1995) (quoting 18 U.S.C. § 1957(a)). In other words,
you cannot commit money laundering unless there is actually dirty money in need
of cleaning. The defendants mistakenly believe that this principle applies to
conspiracy charges as well. They contend that, because they were acquitted of
the substantive offense of wire fraud, that means all the money they obtained
from Westar was in fact clean; therefore, they can no more have agreed to launder
it than they could have actually laundered it. Put differently, the defendants say
4
(...continued)
on [the assault] charge.” Id. at 417; see also id. (noting that “[t]he prosecution
could have presented the original jury with the theory it now wishes to
advance.”).
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that a conspiracy to launder money must take the form: “Let us launder this
money.”
This argument is mistaken. Agreeing to obtain illegal proceeds and to
launder those proceeds is a criminal money laundering conspiracy. To convict
Messrs. Wittig and Lake, the government must prove “(1) that there was an
agreement between two or more persons to commit money laundering and (2) that
the defendant joined the agreement knowing its purpose and with the intent to
further the illegal purpose.” United States v. Fuchs, 467 F.3d 889, 906 (5th Cir.
2006); see also Wittig, 568 F. Supp.2d at 1293. In other words, the defendants
committed conspiracy if they agreed as follows: “Let us launder the money we
plan to obtain from our wire fraud scheme.” As we explained in the previous
section, proving a conspiracy to commit wire fraud does not require relitigation of
the SEC Reports and airplane use that formed the basis of the defendants’
substantive wire fraud acquittals, and therefore neither does proving that the
defendants agreed to take the additional step of laundering ill-gotten gains. The
conspiracy to commit money laundering, like the conspiracy to commit wire
fraud, could involve any of the many other transactions mentioned in the
indictment.
Neither does it follow that, just because the defendants may not have
succeeded in either committing wire fraud or money laundering, they did not
conspire to do those things. A conspiracy can fail and still be a crime. Cf.
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United States v. Martinelli, 454 F.3d 1300, 1312 (11th Cir. 2006) (“It is by now
abundantly clear that in a money laundering case (or in a money laundering
conspiracy case), the defendant need not actually commit the alleged specified
unlawful activity.”). The conspiracy to commit money laundering charge is
therefore not barred by the acquittal for wire fraud.
3
Finally, the defendants claim that the conspiracy to commit circumvention
of internal controls charge is also barred by collateral estoppel. This challenge is
somewhat peculiar because, unlike the other two species of conspiracy we have
discussed, the defendants have not been acquitted of the underlying substantive
charge of circumvention and they do not challenge the government’s continued
pursuit of that substantive offense. Additionally, neither the substantive
circumvention charge nor the conspiracy to commit circumvention charge relies
on the falsity of the SEC Reports.
Instead, the central issue on both counts is whether certain internal actions
taken by the defendants at Westar—their conceded failure to disclose their
airplane use on the D&O Reports and their refusal to permit an audit, see
Appendix at 15-16 (detailing specific allegations of circumvention)—were taken,
or agreed to be taken, to circumvent the system of internal controls. And
answering this question about the defendants’ mens rea does not require the
relitigation of decided issues. As we have already noted in Lake, the now-
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established fact that the defendants’ airplane use did not need to be reported to
the SEC—and that the SEC Reports were therefore truthful—may be highly
relevant to the defendants’ mens rea, but it is not dispositive. See Lake, 472 F.3d
at 1262. To be sure, it is imperative that the jury be told both that the “only
relevant purpose of the [D&O Reports] was to prepare SEC filings,” and that the
defendants’ omission of their aircraft use from these forms “apparently did not
cause any errors in the reports to the SEC.” Id. at 1262. But as we noted in Lake,
it is at least possible that the defendants may have been operating under a
mistake: they may have wrongly believed that their airplane use was reportable
to the SEC, and therefore deliberately omitted it from the D&O Reports in order
to keep it hidden. Id. at 1262-63. Or there may be some other reason why the
defendants wished to circumvent internal controls. That will be for the
government to prove at trial. But because the government could prove this
conspiracy without disputing that the SEC Reports were in fact true, we see no
basis for dismissing this charge. The only argument the defendants present for
avoiding this result is the one based on Saylor: that the government is stuck with
the theory of circumvention it advanced in the first trial. See Appellant’s Op. Br.
43-44. For the reasons we gave in Part III.B.1, supra, we reject that argument.
***
We grant the government’s motion to dismiss the defendants’ appeal with
respect to the forfeiture counts, and with respect to the government’s plans to
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introduce evidence that the alleged conspiracy began at a particular time. As for
the rest of the appeal, the government’s motion to dismiss under our supervisory
power is denied, and the judgment of the district court is affirmed.
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