Aktieselskabet Af 21. November 2001 v. Fame Jeans Inc.

United States Court of Appeals
FOR THE DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA CIRCUIT

Argued March 13, 2008 Decided April 29, 2008

No. 07-7105

AKTIESELSKABET AF 21. NOVEMBER 2001,
APPELLANT

v.

FAME JEANS INC.,
APPELLEE

Appeal from the United States District Court
for the District of Columbia
(No. 06cv00585)

Monica P. McCabe argued the cause for appellant. With
her on the briefs were Oliver N. Blaise, III and Mary E.
Gately.

Robert L. Byer argued the cause for appellee. With him
on the brief were Lewis F. Gould, Jr., Barry Golob, Maxim A.
Voltchenko, and Matthew C. Mousley.
 2

Before: HENDERSON, ROGERS and BROWN, Circuit
Judges.

Opinion for the court filed by Circuit Judge BROWN.

BROWN, Circuit Judge: For some reason, a pair of jeans
labeled Jack & Jones will sell for the equivalent of $96.
Clearly there is magic in the name, and Fame Jeans tried to
capture that magic by registering Jack & Jones as a trademark
in the United States. Aktieselskabet (Bestseller),1 which
generated the magic by selling Jack & Jones jeans elsewhere
in the world, opposed Fame’s trademark application. After
the Trademark Trial and Appeal Board (TTAB) granted
summary judgment to Fame, Bestseller filed this action in
district court, alleging several new grounds for its opposition.
The district court dismissed Bestseller’s complaint, holding
the new grounds waived because Bestseller failed to present
them to the TTAB and because Bestseller’s complaint failed
to meet a new pleading standard the court thought Bell
Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly, 127 S. Ct. 1955 (2007), required.
Bestseller appeals the dismissal. We hold the district court
should hear new claims in a trademark opposition, and we
disagree with the district court’s interpretation of Twombly.
Even so, some of Bestseller’s claims are legally flawed.
Accordingly, we affirm in part and reverse in part.

I

Bestseller, a Danish corporation, has been selling Jack &
Jones jeans since 1990. By 2005, its business with the brand
had expanded to include jeans, T-shirts and jackets,
distributed in Europe, the Middle East, South America, and
Asia. In the European Union alone, Bestseller sold nineteen
1
Throughout its filings, Appellant refers to itself as Bestseller, the
name of its corporate parent. We follow the same convention.
 3

million articles of branded clothing in 2005. It has registered
Jack & Jones and related marks in forty-six countries, and it
owns twenty-one domain names incorporating variations of
the name.

In 2003, Bestseller decided to expand into North
America; its competitor Fame Jeans appears, so far, to have
stalled that expansion into the United States by assiduous
effort at the U.S Patent and Trademark Office (PTO).
Bestseller planned to begin operations in Canada, from which
it would develop the brand into the United States.
Accordingly, it applied to register the Jack & Jones mark in
Canada in August 2004 and in the United States on December
6, 2004. Unfortunately for Bestseller, Fame had already
applied to register Jack & Jones in the United States on
January 9, 2004. As of their respective filing dates, neither
party had tested the susceptibility of American consumers to
the allure of Jack & Jones by actually trying to sell any jeans
under the brand. Fame, therefore, filed its application under
Lanham Act § 1(b), 15 U.S.C. § 1051(b), avowing its intent to
use the trademark in commerce. Bestseller, on its part, filed
under Lanham Act § 44(e), 15 U.S.C. § 1126(e), swearing it
intended to use the mark and citing its 1990 Danish
registrations.

Nine days after filing its U.S. application to register Jack
& Jones, Bestseller filed an opposition to Fame’s application
to register the mark, alleging that Fame’s registration was
likely to cause confusion with Bestseller’s Jack & Jones mark
and interfere with Bestseller’s application to register the
mark. On January 30, 2006, the TTAB granted summary
judgment on Bestseller’s opposition. First, the TTAB pointed
out Bestseller had admitted it never used the mark in
commerce in the United States, and it explained foreign use
alone gave Bestseller no right of priority here. Second, the
 4

TTAB held Bestseller’s December 6, 2004, application junior
to Fame’s January 9, 2004, application.

Bestseller sought district court review of the TTAB
decision, under Lanham Act § 21(b), 15 U.S.C. § 1071(b). In
its complaint, Bestseller renewed its allegation that it had
prior rights to the Jack & Jones mark due to its § 44(e)
application, and it also claimed to have used the mark in the
United States. In addition, Bestseller argued the court should
apply equitable principles to give it rights in the mark, since it
has used the mark around the world for seventeen years and
Fame has never used it anywhere. Bestseller also added new
claims that Fame’s § 1(b) application was void ab initio for
lack of bona fide intent to use the mark and that Fame
misrepresented its intent to the PTO. The district court
dismissed all the claims. The new claims it held waived; it
agreed with the TTAB that Bestseller’s § 44(e) application
was too late; and it thought the misrepresentation claim fell
short of its putative Twombly standard.

II

This Court reviews the dismissal of a complaint de novo.
Stewart v. Nat’l Educ. Ass’n, 471 F.3d 169, 173 (D.C. Cir.
2006). We first discuss two threshold issues on which the
district court based most of its analysis.

A

Although a district court owes a certain degree of
deference to the TTAB’s findings of fact, both parties may
introduce new evidence in a § 21(b) action. Material Supply
Int’l, Inc. v. Sunmatch Indus. Co., 146 F.3d 983, 989 (D.C.
Cir. 1998) (citing 3 J. THOMAS MCCARTHY, MCCARTHY ON
TRADEMARKS AND UNFAIR COMPETITION § 21:20 (1997)).
 5

The question before us is whether a party may also introduce
new issues not brought before the TTAB. We join several of
our fellow circuits in allowing new issues in § 21(b) actions.
See, e.g., PHC, Inc. v. Pioneer Healthcare, Inc., 75 F.3d 75,
80 (1st Cir. 1996); CAE, Inc. v. Clean Air Eng’g, Inc., 267
F.3d 660, 674 (7th Cir. 2001).

District courts have broad authority to review trademark
decisions by the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO),
both before and after the registration of a mark. They may
order the PTO to cancel a registration “in whole or in part” or
to restore a canceled registration, Lanham Act § 19, 15 U.S.C.
§ 1119, and during a civil action for infringement, a
registration is only prima facie evidence that the registrant
owns a valid mark, Lanham Act § 15, 15 U.S.C. § 1115(a);
Am. Online, Inc. v. AT&T Corp., 243 F.3d 812, 817–18 (4th
Cir. 2001). In addition, district courts may authorize the PTO
to register or to deny registration to a pending mark. 15
U.S.C. § 1071(b)(1). Courts use this power to remedy
erroneous decisions of the TTAB in any of the various kinds
of proceeding committed to it, including oppositions,
cancellation petitions, and interferences. For a person
challenging a TTAB decision, a civil action in district court is
an alternative to review by the Court of Appeals for the
Federal Circuit. Id.

The proceedings differ in important ways, with Federal
Circuit review taking the form of an appeal and the district
court alternative being an ordinary civil action. In a Federal
Circuit appeal, the PTO transmits its record to the court,
which “shall review the decision from which the appeal is
taken on the record.” 15 U.S.C. § 1071(a)(4). In an ex parte
case, the PTO must also explain the grounds for its decision,
“addressing all the issues involved in the appeal.” 15 U.S.C.
§ 1071(a)(3). By contrast, in a § 21(b) action, the PTO does
 6

not automatically transmit its record to the court; rather, any
party may, on its own motion, enter the record into evidence.
Once entered, “[t]he testimony and exhibits” of the PTO
record “have the same effect as if originally taken and
produced in the suit.” 15 U.S.C. § 1071(b)(3). The district
court then decides de novo whether the application at issue
should proceed to registration, or the registration involved
should be canceled, or “such other matter as the issues in the
proceeding require, as the facts in the case may appear.” 15
U.S.C. § 1071(b)(1); see Material Supply, 146 F.3d at 990.

Fame presses the general rule that judicial review of
agency action is limited to the issues presented before the
agency. But this rule usually arises from statutes providing
for judicial review, Sims v. Apfel, 530 U.S. 103, 107–08
(2000), and it is certainly subject to statutory modification,
Time Warner Entm’t, Co. v. FCC, 144 F.3d 75, 79 n.5 (D.C.
Cir. 1998); cf. Darby v. Cisneros, 509 U.S. 137, 153–54
(1993) (APA governs exhaustion). Just so here: the Lanham
Act directs a district court to conduct a new trial to decide
whether an applicant is entitled to a registration. In that
proceeding, the court may consider both new issues and new
evidence that were not before the TTAB. This statutory
mandate becomes clear from a comparison of § 21(b),
containing the “issues in the proceeding” language, with the
analogous provision in the Patent Act, 35 U.S.C. § 145, which
lacks that phrase. Both statutes direct a district court to
decide “as the facts in the case may appear.” The “case” in
question refers to the district court action, not the prior events
at the PTO, with the consequence that the court should decide
on the facts before it, even though they were not before the
PTO. Accordingly, in both patent and trademark cases, a
party may introduce new evidence. Am. Steel & Wire Co. of
N.J. v. Coe, 105 F.2d 17, 19 (D.C. Cir. 1939) (patent);
Material Supply, 146 F.3d at 989 (trademark). While new
 7

issues, on the other hand, are barred in a patent case,
DeSeversky v. Brenner, 424 F.2d 857, 858 (D.C. Cir. 1970),
under § 21(b), the district court is also to decide “as the issues
in the proceeding may require.” 15 U.S.C. § 1071(b)(1)
(emphasis added). Like “case,” the word “proceeding” refers
to the district court action. Thus, in a § 21(b) action, a district
court should decide on the issues before it, including new
issues.

Indeed, this conclusion seems unavoidable, since a
district court does not necessarily receive the TTAB record.
Rather, the record “shall be admitted on motion of any party.”
15 U.S.C. § 1071(b)(3). By comparison, in judicial review
under the Administrative Procedure Act, a court shall “review
the whole record,” which of course the court receives as a
matter of course. 5 U.S.C. § 706; see also CHARLES A.
WRIGHT & CHARLES H. KOCH, JR., FEDERAL PRACTICE AND
PROCEDURE: JUDICIAL REVIEW OF ADMINISTRATIVE ACTION
§ 8306, at 73 (2006) (“It is black letter law that . . . review in
federal court must be based on the record before the agency
. . . .”). If, in an inter partes matter like an opposition, in
which the PTO may choose not to participate, 15 U.S.C.
§ 1071(b)(2), no party introduced the TTAB record, a district
court would not even be able to identify the issues raised
before the TTAB, much less hold other issues waived.

Moreover, the Lanham Act establishes a fluid
relationship between the TTAB and the courts, in which the
TTAB does not have the authority of an ordinary agency.
Unlike an ordinary agency, whose decisions we would review
under the deferential standards of APA § 706, the PTO’s
decision to register a trademark is subject to later collateral
attack during which registration is only prima facie evidence
of the mark’s validity, rebuttable by a preponderance of the
evidence. See Colt Def. LLC v. Bushmaster Firearms, Inc.,
 8

486 F.3d 701, 708 (1st Cir. 2007); Tie Tech., Inc. v. Kinedyne
Corp., 296 F.3d 778, 783 (9th Cir. 2002); Am. Online, 243
F.3d at 817.2 Further, whereas ordinarily parties must exhaust
their administrative remedies before seeking judicial review
of agency decisions, the Lanham Act provides an independent
civil action to cancel a completed trademark registration
without first petitioning the PTO. 15 U.S.C. § 1119; Ditri v.
Coldwell Banker Residential Affiliates, Inc., 954 F.2d 869,
873 (3rd Cir. 1992); Windsurfing Int’l Inc. v. AMF Inc., 828
F.2d 755, 758 (Fed. Cir. 1987). In addition, two of our sister
circuits have even interpreted § 21(b) as allowing a court, in
appropriate circumstances, to adjudicate a registration while
the application is still pending at the PTO. Pioneer
Healthcare, 75 F.3d at 80–81; Goya Foods, Inc. v. Tropicana
Prods., Inc., 846 F.2d 848, 854 (2d Cir. 1988). When the
statute does not require exhaustion of the administrative
procedure itself, it would be odd to require exhaustion on
particular issues during that procedure.

Nor does Wilson Jones Co. v. Gilbert & Bennett Mfg.
Co., 332 F.2d 216, 218 (2d Cir. 1964) (as amended), persuade
us to the contrary. That case relied on Gold Seal Co. v.
Weeks, 129 F. Supp. 928, 937 (D.D.C. 1955), which itself
mistook this circuit’s existing rule against considering new

2
We do not mean to suggest that we would not defer to the
TTAB’s findings of fact during § 21(b) review. After Dickinson v.
Zurko, which prescribed “substantial evidence” review of the
PTO’s fact-finding in patent examinations, 527 U.S. 150 (1999),
some courts have applied that standard in trademark cases as well,
e.g. On-Line Careline, Inc. v. Am. Online, Inc., 229 F.3d 1080,
1085 (Fed. Cir. 2000), in place of the older “thorough conviction”
standard. We need not address this issue, because the TTAB
granted summary judgment, making no findings of fact, and
therefore the district court owed it no deference at all. Material
Supply, 146 F.3d at 990.
 9

patent claims, Cherry-Burrell Corp. v. Coe, 143 F.2d 372,
373 (D.C. Cir. 1944), for a rule against new issues. In any
case, Gold Seal arose under a previous version of § 21. At
the time, the Lanham Act cross-referenced 35 U.S.C. § 145 to
provide the procedure for trademark review, but the modern
statute prescribes its own procedures, including the “issues in
the proceeding” language. Compare 15 U.S.C. § 1071
(1952), amended by Pub. L. No. 87-772, § 12, 76 Stat. 769,
771 (1962), with § 1071(b)(1) (2000). Wilson Jones
postdated the amendment, but it relied on Gold Seal without
discussing the change. Section 21(b) in its current form limits
a district court to evaluation of “the application involved” in
the TTAB’s decision but directs the district court to consider
all the relevant issues brought by either party, regardless of
whether those issues were before the TTAB.

B

In addition, this case questions how much detail
Bestseller must allege to avoid dismissal under Rule 12(b)(6)
of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. The district court
performed such an analysis only for Bestseller’s third claim,
for fraudulent misrepresentation, because it dismissed
Bestseller’s claim to have made prior use of the mark in the
United States and its claim that Fame’s application was void
ab initio as waived. Since we have concluded § 21(b) does
not provide for issue waiver, our de novo review must
proceed to the adequacy of Bestseller’s allegations.

Ordinarily a sufficient complaint “contain[s] a short and
plain statement of the claim showing that the pleader is
entitled to relief,” enough to give a defendant “fair notice of
the claims against him.” Ciralsky v. CIA, 355 F.3d 661, 668–
70 (D.C. Cir. 2004) (quoting FED. R. CIV. P. 8(a)). In
deciding a 12(b)(6) motion, a court “constru[es] the complaint
 10

liberally in the plaintiff’s favor,” “accept[ing] as true all of
the factual allegations contained in the complaint,” Kassem v.
Wash. Hosp. Ctr., No. 06-7161, 2008 U.S. App. LEXIS 1174,
at *2 (D.C. Cir. Jan. 22, 2008), “with the benefit of all
reasonable inferences derived from the facts alleged,”
Stewart, 471 F.3d at 173. However, the district court
interpreted Twombly as establishing a new threshold for
complaints: enough facts to “clarify the grounds” on which
each claim rests and “nudge[] their claims across the line
from conceivable to plausible.” Aktieselskabet AF 21.
November 2001 v. Fame Jeans, Inc., 511 F. Supp. 2d 1, 18–
19 (D.D.C. 2007). Many courts have disagreed about the
import of Twombly.3 We conclude that Twombly leaves the
long-standing fundamentals of notice pleading intact.

3
See, e.g., ACA Fin. Guar. Corp. v. Advest, Inc., 512 F.3d 46, 58
(1st Cir. 2008) (Twombly gave 12(b)(6) “more heft”); Iqbal v.
Hasty, 490 F.3d 143, 157–59 (2d Cir. 2007) (“requiring not a
universal standard of heightened fact pleading” but a “flexible
‘plausibility standard’” under which “a conclusory allegation might
. . . need to be fleshed out . . . [in] response to a defendant’s motion
for a more definite statement”); Phillips v. County of Allegheny,
515 F.3d 224, 234 (3d Cir. 2008) (no probability requirement at the
pleading stage); Barclay White Skanska, Inc. v. Battelle Mem’l
Inst., No. 07-1084, 2008 U.S. App. LEXIS 1916, at *9 (4th Cir.
Jan. 29, 2008) (unpublished) (pleading only needs to give “fair
notice”); Lindsay v. Yates, 498 F.3d 434, 440 n.6 (6th Cir. 2007)
(concluding only that Twombly did not overrule Swierkewicz);
Airborne Beepers & Video, Inc. v. AT&T Mobility L.L.C., 499 F.3d
663, 667 (7th Cir. 2007) (“Twombly did not signal a switch to fact-
pleading”); Stalley v. Catholic Health Initiatives, 509 F.3d 517, 521
(8th Cir. 2007) (plaintiff must allege facts “that affirmatively and
plausibly suggest” he has the claimed right, not just “facts that are
merely consistent with such a right”); Skaff v. Meridien N. Amer.
Beverly Hills, L.L.C., 506 F.3d 832, 842 (9th Cir. 2007) (citing
Twombly as instructing courts “not to impose such heightened
[pleading] standards”); Dudnikov v. Chalk & Vermilion Fine Arts,
 11

“Rule 8 is the keystone of the system of pleading” in
federal procedure, and “the functioning of all the procedures
in the federal rules . . . are intertwined inextricably with the
pleading philosophy embodied in Rule 8.” 5 CHARLES A.
WRIGHT & ARTHUR R. MILLER, FEDERAL PRACTICE AND
PROCEDURE § 1202, at 87–88 (3d ed. 2004). The pleadings
serve specific functions of giving notice of “the general
nature of the case and the circumstances or events upon which
it is based,” so the parties can prepare and the court can
dispose of the case properly. Charles E. Clark, Simplified
Pleading, 2 F.R.D. 456, 457, 460 (1943). Accordingly, Rule
8 requires, not a specific quantity of facts, but simply “a short
and plain statement of the claim showing that the pleader is
entitled to relief.” FED. R. CIV. P. 8(a)(2); see also Richard L.
Marcus, The Revival of Fact Pleading Under the Federal
Rules of Civil Procedure, 86 COLUM. L. REV. 433, 439
(1986).

Over the years, courts have tended to drift away from this
standard by imposing various requirements of particularity.
See generally Christopher M. Fairman, Heightened Pleading,
81 TEX. L. REV. 551 (2002). The Supreme Court has
continually pruned back such requirements, with the
admonition that we are not to impose heightened pleading
requirements. See, e.g., Swierkewicz v. Sorema N.A., 534

Inc., 514 F.3d 1063, 1070 (10th Cir. 2008) (courts must “tak[e] as
true all well-pled (that is, plausible, non-conclusory, and non-
speculative) facts alleged in plaintiff’s complaint”); Watts v. Fla.
Int’l Univ., 495 F.3d 1289, 1295–96 (11th Cir. 2007) (courts may
not assess the probability of facts, but a plaintiff must “allege[]
enough facts to suggest, raise a reasonable expectation of, and
render plausible” his claim); McZeal v. Sprint Nextel Corp., 501
F.3d 1354, 1357 (Fed. Cir. 2007) (plaintiff need only “place [a
defendant] on notice as to what he must defend”).
 12

U.S. 506, 511–12 (2002); Leatherman v. Tarrant County
Narcotics Intelligence & Coordination Unit, 507 U.S. 163,
164 (1993); Scheuer v. Rhodes, 416 U.S. 232, 249–50 (1974).
After decades of such consistency, we will not lightly assume
the Supreme Court intended to tighten pleading standards.

Indeed, the Court has indicated quite clearly that it meant
no such thing. Twombly itself reiterated that a complaint
“does not need detailed factual allegations.” 127 S. Ct. at
1964. Further, the Court denied “apply[ing] any ‘heightened’
pleading standard,” because any heightened standard would
have to arise from an amendment of the Federal Rules of
Civil Procedure. Id. at 1973 n.14 (citing Swierkewicz and
Leatherman). Rule 8(a), as the Court reminded, contains only
“the threshold requirement” that the statement of a claim
“show that the pleader is entitled to relief.” Id. at 1966. As
the Court said, Twombly’s complaint failed that basic
requirement, not any higher requirement for allegations that
were “[]sufficiently particularized.” Id. at 1973 n.14. If,
despite this clear language, Twombly itself left any doubt, the
Court subsequently emphasized the continuation of the prior
Rule 8(a) standard: “[S]pecific facts are not necessary,” and a
complaint need only give the defendant fair notice of the
claims. Erickson v. Pardus, 127 S. Ct. 2197, 2200 (2007)
(per curiam).

The forms accompanying the Federal Rules of Civil
Procedure illustrate the concept of fair notice with numerous
exemplary complaints that “suffice under these rules.” FED.
R. CIV. P. 84; see also Clark, 2 F.R.D. at 464 (“[Q]uite
essential . . . are the illustrative forms.”). In general, a
complaint should simply identify the “circumstances,
occurrences, and events” giving rise to the claim, Twombly,
127 S. Ct. at 1965 n.3 (quoting WRIGHT & MILLER, supra,
§ 1202, at 94, 95), or “inform the opponent of the affair or
 13

transaction to be litigated,” Clark, 2 F.R.D. at 460–61.4 For
example, Form 11, the example complaint for negligence,
says that defendant drove a car against the plaintiff at a
certain time in a certain place. Form 10, for suing on a note,
cites the date of the note, the sum promised, and the interest
rate imposed. Form 18, for patent infringement, recites the
number of the patent allegedly infringed and explains what
product of the defendant’s infringes. Twombly observed that
a direct allegation of conspiracy analogous to the forms
would say who conspired, at what time, to do what. 127 S.
Ct. at 1970 n.10.

Of course, these forms illustrate details that are
sufficient, not necessary. Thus, in Twombly, although the
complaint provided only a conclusory allegation of
conspiracy, the plaintiff could have made out the claim in
other ways. 127 S. Ct. at 1970 (“[T]he complaint leaves no
doubt that plaintiffs rest their § 1 claim on descriptions of
parallel conduct and not on any independent allegation of
actual agreement.”). To the extent direct allegations are
missing, “a complaint must contain . . . inferential
allegations.” Id. at 1969. Twombly determined that a certain
set of factual allegations did not support an inference that the
defendants conspired in violation of the Sherman Act:
“Without more, parallel conduct does not suggest
conspiracy,” and “nothing contained in the complaint invests

4
Since a complaint has always had to meet this standard, it has
never been literally true, as Twombly noted, that a complaint is
adequate unless “no set of facts” consistent with the complaint
could support a claim. 127 S. Ct. at 1968–70 (citing Conley v.
Gibson, 355 U.S. 41, 45–46 (1957)). We have never accepted
“legal conclusions cast in the form of factual allegations,” Kowal v.
MCI Commc’ns Corp., 16 F.3d 1271, 1276 (D.C. Cir. 1994),
because a complaint needs some information about the
circumstances giving rise to the claims.
 14

either the action or inaction alleged with a plausible
suggestion of conspiracy.” Twombly, 127 S. Ct. at 1966,
1971.

In sum, Twombly was concerned with the plausibility of
an inference of conspiracy, not with the plausibility of a
claim. A court deciding a motion to dismiss must not make
any judgment about the probability of the plaintiff’s success,
for a complaint “may proceed even if it appears ‘that a
recovery is very remote and unlikely,’” Id. at 1965 (quoting
Scheuer); a complaint “may not be dismissed based on a
district court’s assessment that the plaintiff will fail to find
evidentiary support for his allegations,” id. at 1969 n.8.
Further, the court must assume “all the allegations in the
complaint are true (even if doubtful in fact),” Twombly, 127
S. Ct. at 1965 (citing Swierkewicz), and the court must give
the plaintiff “the benefit of all reasonable inferences derived
from the facts alleged,” Stewart, 471 F.3d at 173.

III

Bearing in mind these general considerations, we turn to
the claims at issue in this appeal. Bestseller contests Fame’s
pending trademark application on three grounds, and the
district court rejected most of Bestseller’s arguments on the
improper ground that Bestseller failed to raise them before the
TTAB. Nevertheless, we may affirm the dismissals for any
reason properly raised by the parties. Barr v. Clinton, 370
F.3d 1196, 1202 (D.C. Cir. 2004).

A

First, Bestseller opposes Fame’s application based on
Lanham Act § 2(d), under which a mark may not be
registered if it is “likely . . . to cause confusion” with respect
 15

to “a mark . . . previously used in the United States.” 15
U.S.C. § 1052(d). An opposer under § 2(d) must show “it
ha[s] priority and that registration of the mark creates a
likelihood of confusion.” Herbko Int’l, Inc. v. Kappa Books,
Inc., 308 F.3d 1156, 1162 (Fed. Cir. 2002) (cancellation
proceeding under § 2(d)). The parties do not dispute that
Bestseller has sufficiently alleged likelihood of confusion,
since Bestseller and Fame want to use the same trademark on
the same product. See Am. Comp. ¶ 18.5 As to priority,
Bestseller asserts prior rights to the Jack & Jones mark on the
basis of its December 6, 2004, § 44(e) application and on the
basis of its alleged use in the United States. Because Fame
filed its intent-to-use application on January 9, 2004,
Bestseller must be able to claim priority earlier than that date.

Bestseller disputes even this point, pointing to Lanham
Act § 7(c), which establishes a trademark application as
constructive use “[c]ontingent on registration of a mark.” 15
U.S.C. § 1057(c). An intent-to-use application cannot mature
into a registration before the applicant actually uses the mark
in commerce. 15 U.S.C. § 1051(d). Therefore, according to
Bestseller, an intent-to-use application, by itself, earns no
trademark rights, and no priority attaches before the intent-to-
use applicant engages in actual use of the mark. Until that
point, the intent-to-use applicant would continue to be
vulnerable to rival users, even those who begin use after the
intent-to-use filing date or, like Bestseller, file a later
application.

5
Although Fame does not dispute the sufficiency of Bestseller’s
allegations of confusion, it does argue Bestseller fails to bring a
§ 2(d) claim at all because Bestseller failed to cite § 2(d). But so
long as the basis for a claim is clear, a complaint need not “plead
law” in specific detail. Krieger v. Fadely, 211 F.3d 134, 136 (D.C.
Cir. 2000).
 16

While an intent-to-use application does not, by itself,
confer any rights enforceable against others, it does give an
applicant the right to engage in the statutorily prescribed
application procedure. See WarnerVision Entm’t Inc. v.
Empire of Carolina, Inc., 101 F.3d 259, 262 (2d Cir. 1996)
(because an intent-to-use applicant has the right to engage in
use so as to complete registration, a court may not enjoin that
use to protect the rights of a rival who began use after the
intent-to-use filing date). Bestseller may only contest Fame’s
application within the confines of that scheme. A trademark
opposition must be based on “a statutory ground”—such as a
legal defect or deficiency in the application—“which negates
the appellant’s right to the subject registration.” Young v.
AGB Corp., 152 F.3d 1377, 1380 (Fed. Cir. 1998); 3
MCCARTHY, supra, § 20:13, at 20–28. Section 7(c) is a
potential source of rights for a trademark registrant, not a
requirement for or a source of defects in an application.
Bestseller mistakes § 7(c) for the true ground for its
opposition, which is § 2(d). See TTAB Op., Am. Compl.
Exh. 1, at 3; Am. Comp. ¶ 18 (alleging likelihood of
confusion).

We conclude that under § 2(d), an intent-to-use applicant
prevails over any opposer who began using a similar mark
after the intent-to-use filing date. Covering applications of all
types, including § 1(b) applications, § 2(d) simply says a
mark is invalid if there is a likelihood of confusion with a
mark “previously used.” 15 U.S.C. § 1052(d). “Previously
used” must mean used before some date, and for a pending
§ 1(b) application, there is only one date that could apply: the
filing date. Perhaps one could argue that a § 1(b) applicant
will eventually use the mark in commerce; § 2(d) might refer
to the date of that use. However, the Lanham Act does not
require an intent-to-use applicant to begin using his mark
until he receives a notice of allowance, which can happen
 17

only after the end of all opposition proceedings on the
application. 15 U.S.C. §§ 1051(d), 1063(b). Given the
sequence of events established by statute, we must assess
Bestseller’s claim to priority in opposition without asking
whether Fame has used the mark, relying only on Fame’s
filing date as an intent-to-use applicant.

Holding to the contrary, as Bestseller urges, would not
only make nonsense of § 2(d) but would also vitiate the
intent-to-use application system itself. Congress created the
intent-to-use application in the 1988 amendments to the
Lanham Act with the goal of eliminating the need to use a
mark before applying to register it. See S. Rep. No. 100-515,
at 6 (1978), as reprinted in 1988 U.S.C.C.A.N. 5577, 5582.
Congress regretted the “unnecessary legal uncertainty” caused
by the use requirement, since a business might adopt a mark
and invest in product development and marketing without
being sure its use had earned it rights to the mark. Id. at 5.
Constructive use, as codified in § 7(c), was a central element
of the system: “Without constructive use, the certainty
envisioned by the intent-to-use application system would not
be achieved; an intent-to-use applicant would be vulnerable to
pirates and to anyone initiating use after it files its
application.” Id. at 29 (emphasis added). Bestseller, as an
applicant claiming priority from December 5, 2004, stands in
exactly the position of a rival starting use after an intent-to-
use filing.6 Allowing priority to Bestseller would devalue
Fame’s application on the assumption Fame had not made
actual use by that date, precisely the result Congress wanted

6
If anything, Bestseller’s argument is even weaker, since a second
main motivation for the 1988 amendments was to eliminate the
perceived unfairness of the § 44(d) and § 44(e) applications. Since
foreign applicants were able to claim priority from their filing dates
without actual use, Congress wanted domestic applicants to be able
to do the same. S. Rep. No. 100-515, at 4–5.
 18

to avoid. Thus, the legislative history supports our
conclusion, based on the text of § 2(d), that an intent-to-use
applicant may rely on his filing date to establish priority
during an opposition proceeding. The TTAB has consistently
maintained the same position, and other courts have
ordinarily assumed this interpretation as well. Zirco Corp. v.
AT&T Co., 21 U.S.P.Q.2d 1542, 1544 (T.T.A.B. 1992); see
also, e.g., Lucent Info. Mgmt., Inc. v. Lucent Techs., Inc., 186
F.3d 311, 315 (3rd Cir. 1999).

B

Since Fame Jeans filed its application on January 9,
2004, Bestseller must establish use, either actual or
constructive, before that date.7 Constructive use can arise
under § 7(c), which grants priority, based on filing date, to a
U.S. application or to a foreign application that was followed
by a timely U.S. application under § 44(d). Bestseller filed a
U.S. application on December 6, 2004, based on its 1991
Danish registration. It neither complied with the six-month
timeliness requirement of § 44(d) nor even filed its
application under § 44(d). Therefore, Bestseller cannot
demonstrate any constructive use prior to Fame’s filing date.
However, Bestseller has adequately alleged actual use.
Although the complaint does not set forth trademark use to
earn Bestseller rights in the Jack & Jones mark, an opposer
who has made enough “analogous” use can still defeat a
registration. See Malcolm Nicol & Co. v. Witco Corp., 881

7
Bestseller also demands priority as a matter of equity. Courts
have no power to deny a pending trademark registration on this
basis, because the registration procedure is a statutory construct. In
the cases on which Bestseller relies, equity was a defense to
infringement liability. E.g. Manhattan Indus., Inc. v. Sweater Bee
by Banff, Ltd., 627 F.2d 628, 630 (2d Cir. 1980).
 19

F.2d 1063, 1065 (Fed. Cir. 1989) (quoting 3 MCCARTHY,
supra, § 20:4 (1984)).

First, Bestseller fails to allege actual use in the most
straightforward way, by showing its own protectible right to
the Jack & Jones trademark in the United States. At common
law, “prior ownership of a mark is only established as of the
first actual use of a mark in a genuine commercial
transaction.” Allard Enters., Inc. v. Adv. Programming Res.,
Inc., 146 F.3d 350, 358 (6th Cir. 1998). The 1988
amendments to the Lanham Act codified a standard of “use in
commerce,” necessary for a valid trademark registration,
which means “the bona fide use of a mark in the ordinary
course of trade,” including, for a trademark, attaching the
trademark to goods. 15 U.S.C. § 1127. In any case,
“sporadic or minimal” sales are not sufficient. Allard Enters.,
146 F.3d at 359; see also Zazu Designs v. L’Oreal, S.A., 979
F.2d 499, 503 (7th Cir. 1992) (“A few bottles sold over the
counter . . . and a few more mailed to friends” are not
sufficient use.). While a single sale may indicate the first use
of a mark, it must be the beginning of “continuous
commercial utilization.” Allard, 146 F.3d at 358. Obviously,
as § 1052(d) requires, such use must also be “in the United
States.” See Person’s Co. v. Christman, 900 F.2d 1565,
1568–69 (Fed. Cir. 1990) (T-shirt sales in Japan are not “use
in United States commerce”).

However, Bestseller need not “meet the technical
statutory requirements to register . . . [a mark] to have a basis
for objection to another’s registration.” Nat’l Cable
Television Ass’n v. Am. Cinema Editors, Inc., 937 F.2d 1572,
1578 (Fed. Cir. 1991). Section 2(d) requires only “use[] in
the United States,” and adoption of the mark by use
analogous to strict trademark use will therefore suffice.
T.A.B. Sys., Inc. v. Pactel Teletrac, 77 F.3d 1372, 1375 (Fed.
 20

Cir. 1996). An opposer may rely on myriad forms of activity
besides sales themselves, including, among others, regular
business contacts, after-sales services, advertising of various
forms, and marketing. First Niagara Ins. Brokers, Inc. v.
First Niagara Fin. Group, 476 F.3d 867, 868–69 (Fed. Cir.
2007); Johnny Blastoff, Inc. v. L.A. Rams Football Co., 188
F.3d 427, 434 (7th Cir. 1999); Malcolm Nicol, 881 F.2d at
1064. Even marketing of a trademarked product before the
product is ready for sale has the potential to defeat a rival’s
registration. See Old Swiss House, Inc. v. Anheuser-Busch,
Inc., 569 F.2d 1130, 1133 (C.C.P.A. 1978). Still, desultory
marketing such as sending out occasional press releases is not
enough. Id. Analogous use must be “of such a nature and
extent as to create public identification of the target term with
the opposer’s product.” T.A.B. Sys., 77 F.3d at 1375.

Bestseller’s allegations fall short of showing a sale,
whether in the United States or to an American abroad, as the
beginning of a continuous commercial exploitation of the
Jack & Jones mark in the United States; but they do give fair
notice of a claim to analogous use. While Bestseller clearly
sells millions of dollars worth of Jack & Jones branded
clothing elsewhere in the world, it fails to allege any sales in
the United States or to Americans. The closest Bestseller
comes is saying this clothing “has been available to U.S.
consumers through Bestseller’s foreign customers and stores
as well as through re-sales on eBay.com.” Am. Compl. ¶ 14.
This allegation does not imply any American sales at all,
much less continuous commercial sales.

By contrast, Bestseller actually does say it conducted
“research and marketing for use of the mark within the United
States.” Am. Compl. ¶ 29.8 The complaint does not say this
8
We continue to construe complaints liberally by interpreting
ambiguous text in the complaint in the light most favorable to the
 21

marketing was sufficiently extensive to create an awareness
of the Jack & Jones brand among American consumers, but it
is reasonable to infer such an awareness from Bestseller’s
other allegations. Presumably, Bestseller will need to
produce more substantial evidence if Fame contests this
conclusion. In light of our conclusion that Twombly did not
tighten the requirements for pleading, we need not consider
whether it is convincing or plausible that Bestseller adopted
the Jack & Jones mark in the United States. Simply put, the
allegation of marketing in the United States, together with the
inference of public association, is enough to give Fame fair
notice of what it must contest. No more is required of a
complaint.

C

Second, Bestseller claims Fame’s application was void
ab initio for lack of a bona fide intent to use the Jack & Jones
mark in commerce. A bona fide intent is a statutory
requirement of a valid trademark application under § 1(b),
and the lack of such intent is therefore a ground on which
Bestseller may oppose Fame’s application. MCCARTHY,
supra, § 20:21, at 20-60; see also Lipton Indus., Inc. v.
Ralston Purina Co., 670 F.2d 1024, 1031 (C.C.P.A. 1982)
(“Standing having been established, petitioner is entitled to
rely on any statutory ground which negates [applicant’s] right
to the subject registration.”).

The TTAB has held § 1(b) to require both actual intent to
use a mark in commerce and evidence, contemporary with the

plaintiff. E.g. ACLU Found’n of S. Cal. v. Barr, 952 F.2d 457, 472
(D.C. Cir. 1991) (“The allegations . . . although not framed in
precisely these terms, could be interpreted to support such a cause
of action.”). Here, we take Bestseller to mean marketing in the
United States.
 22

application, that objectively demonstrate such an intent. Wet
Seal, Inc. v. FD Mgmt., Inc., 82 U.S.P.Q.2d 1629, 1633
(T.T.A.B. 2007) (actual intent); Commodore Elecs. Ltd. v.
CBM Kabushiki Kaisha, 26 U.S.P.Q.2d 1503, 1507 (T.T.A.B.
1993) (objective standard). We agree with this interpretation.
The provision says “[a] person who has a bona fide intention,
under circumstances showing the good faith of such person,
to use a trademark in commerce” may apply to register the
mark. 15 U.S.C. § 1051(b)(1). The phrases “bona fide” and
“good faith” ordinarily refer to a person’s actual, subjective
state of mind. BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY 177 (6th ed. 1990);
see Howard v. SEC, 376 F.3d 1136, 1145 (D.C. Cir. 2004).
Certainly a person will fail to have a “bona fide” intent to use
a trademark if his actual intent is otherwise. In addition,
“bona fide” means not fraudulent or feigned, BLACK’S LAW
DICTIONARY, supra, at 177, and in some circumstances,
showing a “bona fide” intent will actually require proving
certain objective facts, e.g. W. Air Lines, Inc. v. Criswell, 472
U.S. 400, 412–14 (1985) (under ADEA, a “bona fide
occupational qualification” must be reasonably necessary).
Here, Congress made clear that a “bona fide intent to use”
also involves an objective standard by specifying there must
be “circumstances showing . . . good faith.”

Thus, an opposer may defeat a trademark application for
lack of bona fide intent by proving the applicant did not
actually intend to use the mark in commerce or by proving the
circumstances at the time of filing did not demonstrate that
intent. To state a claim on the latter ground, an opposer only
has to notify the applicant of the general “circumstances,
occurrences, and events” causing the flaw in the application.
Twombly, 127 S. Ct. at 1965 n.3. Although the complaint
need not go into detail, it must at least notify the applicant of
how the general circumstances fail to show intent. Cf.
Commodore Elecs., 26 U.S.P.Q.2d at 1507 (because under the
 23

objective standard, “the absence of any documentary evidence
on the part of an applicant regarding such intent is sufficient
to prove that the applicant lacks” a bona fide intent, an
opposer need only allege that absence).

Bestseller’s allegations certainly depict circumstances
that belie Fame’s good faith intent to sell Jack & Jones jeans.
Bestseller alleges it has used the Jack & Jones mark around
the world, and it says the mark has become famous. It alleges
Fame is a rival in the clothing industry around the world and
particularly in Canada, where Bestseller began its North
American market entry. Bestseller further alleges Fame knew
Bestseller was planning to expand in the United States and
planned to “thwart” that expansion. Finally, Bestseller claims
Fame “has never used the Jack & Jones mark anywhere in the
world” and “investigation reveals that it does not intend” to
use it in the United States. Notably, despite how long
Bestseller has been selling clothes under the brand, Fame
filed its U.S. application for the mark immediately after
Bestseller began preparing to sell its products in Canada.

Bestseller’s allegations meet two necessary conditions.
First, they indicate generally the circumstances that suggest
Fame lacked a bona fide intent to use Jack & Jones. These
circumstances do not necessarily indicate a lack of good faith,
but we need not infer that lack because Bestseller directly
alleged Fame simply wanted “to interfere with Bestseller’s
stated intention to use the mark,” Am. Compl. ¶ 39. See, e.g.,
Rochon v. Gonzales, 438 F.3d 1211, 1220 (D.C. Cir. 2006)
(Title VII plaintiff need not “negate the FBI’s alternative
explanations for its actions,” because the complaint alleged
“‘the Government retaliated against me because I engaged in
protected activity’”); Sparrow v. United Air Lines, Inc., 216
F.3d 1111, 1117 (D.C. Cir. 2000) (court must take as true
employee’s allegation that employer used his convictions as
 24

“a pretext for termination”). We assume that allegation to be
true, and thus Bestseller has given Fame adequate notice of
the claim it must defend.

D

Finally, Bestseller’s third claim rests on Fame’s alleged
misrepresentation to the PTO that Fame intended to use the
Jack & Jones mark in commerce. The district court assumed
this claim rested on District of Columbia law and, having
dismissed all Bestseller’s Lanham Act claims, dismissed its
misrepresentation claim as well for lack of supplemental
jurisdiction and for failure to state a claim. Bestseller
disputes the dismissal but has consistently agreed the claim
sounds in common law. Appellant’s Reply Br. at 18–19; Oral
Argument at 7:50–8:00. As an independent, non-statutory
claim, it is not a basis for reversing the TTAB’s decision or
directing the PTO to grant or deny a trademark registration.
See Young, 152 F.3d at 1378, 1380.

A fraudulent misrepresentation claim should meet the
requirements of particularity of Rule 9(b) of the Federal Rules
of Civil Procedure, but we need not discuss the adequacy of
Bestseller’s allegations of fraud because Bestseller utterly
fails to allege, indeed contradicts, the element of reliance. A
plaintiff may recover for a defendant’s fraudulent statement
only if the plaintiff took some action in reliance on that
statement. See Va. Acad. of Clinical Psychologists v. Group
Hospitalization & Med. Servs., Inc., 878 A.2d 1226, 1237–38
(D.C. 2005). Rather than suggesting its own reliance,
Bestseller says the PTO relied on Fame’s alleged
misrepresentation. Bestseller’s only action in response to
Fame’s statement of an intent to use the mark appears to have
been opposing Fame’s application—an action that hardly
suggests Bestseller detrimentally relied on that statement.
 25

IV

In conclusion, the district court erred insofar as it
dismissed any of the claims because Bestseller failed to raise
them before the TTAB. Considering the pleadings on the
merits, Bestseller stated two grounds for opposing Fame’s
application: likelihood of confusion with respect to the mark
already used by Bestseller and lack of a bona fide intent to
use the mark. With respect to the former, Bestseller
adequately alleged priority only in the sense of its marketing
of Jack & Jones clothing in the United States. The district
court was correct to dismiss the third claim for common-law
fraudulent misrepresentation, because Bestseller did not claim
to have relied on Fame’s supposedly false statement.

For these reasons, the judgment of the district court is
affirmed in part and reversed in part.

So ordered.