United States Court of Appeals
For the First Circuit
No. 01-1231
UNITED STATES,
Appellee,
v.
RICHARD C. LEWKO,
Defendant, Appellant.
APPEAL FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF NEW HAMPSHIRE
[Hon. Paul J. Barbadoro, U.S. District Judge]
Before
Boudin, Chief Judge,
Torruella, Circuit Judge,
and Stahl, Senior Circuit Judge.
Bjorn Lange, Assistant Federal Public Defender, for
appellant.
Peter E. Papps, Assistant United States Attorney, with whom
Gretchen Leah Witt, United States Attorney, and Jean B. Weld,
Assistant United States Attorney, were on brief, for appellee.
October 25, 2001
STAHL, Senior Circuit Judge. Defendant Richard Lewko
challenges his convictions under the Child Support Recovery Act
of 1992 (CSRA), 18 U.S.C. § 228(a)(1), and the Deadbeat Parents
Punishment Act of 1998 (DPPA), 18 U.S.C. § 228(a)(3). In this
appeal, Lewko argues that, in light of United States v.
Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000), this Court should reconsider its
ruling in United States v. Bongiorno, 106 F.3d 1027 (1st Cir.
1997), reh'g en banc denied, 110 F.3d 132 (1st Cir. 1997), which
rejected a Commerce Clause challenge to the CSRA, and likewise
should strike down the DPPA as unconstitutional. For the
following reasons, we find the defendant's arguments to be
without merit and affirm his convictions.
I.
In 1982, Richard Lewko married Roxanne Medina during
a mass marriage ceremony conducted at Madison Square Garden in
New York City by the Rev. Sun Myung Moon. Four years later, the
couple moved to Derry, New Hampshire. In 1997, Medina initiated
divorce proceedings against Lewko in Rockingham Superior Court,
and was awarded custody of their three minor children. Lewko
was ordered to pay all household expenses, and child support of
$397 per month divided into weekly payments. On June 23, 1997,
the child support order was amended to $65 per week, and an
-3-
additional $30 per week to pay a then-outstanding arrearage of
$794.
Subsequently, Lewko filed an affidavit with the marital
master in the divorce case, stating that he had moved to Boston,
that he had voluntarily quit his job, and that he could only
afford to pay $75 per week in child support.1 He also claimed
that, unless the court granted him custody of the children, he
would not make any child support payments. Following a hearing
on August 12, 1997, the marital master found Lewko in contempt
for failure to make mortgage and child support payments.
Although the August 1997 finding was purged after Lewko made a
lump-sum payment, by October 1997, Lewko had fallen into arrears
of $19,659. Also, as a result of Lewko's failure to make his
court-ordered payments, the bank commenced foreclosure
proceedings on the family homestead where Medina lived with the
children. Because of his continued flaunting of the court
order, Lewko was incarcerated twelve days for contempt and
ordered to pay $2,100 in arrearage. This payment was made by
church members on his behalf. In March 1998, Lewko was ordered
to appear for another contempt hearing for his ongoing failure
to make support payments, but Medina requested that the contempt
1 Prior to Medina's filing for divorce, the defendant had
worked continuously at an income in excess of $100,000 per year.
-4-
motion be dismissed after Lewko assured her that he would get a
job and start to “help out.” However, as with previous
assurances, Lewko reneged on this promise.
After the divorce was finalized on July 30, 1998,
Medina turned to the New Hampshire Division of Child Support
Services for assistance in forcing Lewko to make his court-
ordered payments. Because Lewko was no longer residing in New
Hampshire, neither the arrest warrant nor the contempt capias
issued by the New Hampshire courts was to any avail.
Ultimately, the case was turned over to the U.S. Department of
Health and Human Services. A federal arrest warrant was issued
on March 8, 2000, and was executed on Lewko in Landover Hills,
Maryland, on March 23, 2000.
Defendant was indicted on three counts: (1) willfully
and unlawfully failing to pay a support obligation of a state
court that has been outstanding for over two years and is
greater than $10,000, 18 U.S.C. § 228(a)(3); (2) moving and
traveling in interstate and foreign commerce with the intent to
evade a state court-ordered support obligation, 18 U.S.C. §
228(a)(2); and (3) willfully and unlawfully failing to pay a
support obligation of a state court that has been outstanding
for over a year and is greater than $5,000, 18 U.S.C. §
228(a)(1). Lewko filed a pre-trial motion to dismiss Counts 1
-5-
and 3 as unconstitutional exercises of Congress' Commerce Clause2
authority. The district court denied the motion, but, upon the
conclusion of the government's case, dismissed Count 2 of the
indictment, finding that there was no evidence to support the
allegation that Lewko had crossed state lines for the purpose of
evading his support obligations.3 Lewko was convicted by a jury
on Counts 1 and 3, and received concurrent sentences of five
years probation with twelve months home incarceration, and was
ordered to pay $56,762.23 in arrearage as restitution.4
II.
In his appeal, Lewko argues that this Court should
revisit United States v. Bongiorno, 106 F.3d 1027 (1st Cir.
1997) (upholding CSRA against Commerce Clause challenge), reh'g
en banc denied, 110 F.3d 132 (1st Cir. 1997), and strike down
the CSRA and the DPPA in light of the Supreme Court's most
recent elucidation of Commerce Clause jurisprudence in United
States v. Morrison, 529 U.S. 598 (2000), which invalidated a
2 U.S. Const., art. I, § 8, cl. 3.
3 Consequently, defendant does not challenge the
constitutionality of 18 U.S.C. § 228(a)(2) in this appeal.
4 The CSRA made the failure to pay a court-ordered child
support obligation a Class B misdemeanor offense, punishable by
up to six months imprisonment. The DPPA increased the offense
level to a Class E felony, with a maximum possible term of two
years imprisonment.
-6-
federal statute providing a civil remedy to female victims of
gender-motivated violence as insufficiently related to
interstate commerce to justify Congressional regulation.
Specifically, Lewko asserts that Congress has violated
fundamental principles of federalism by encroaching on an area
reserved to the states -- namely, family law and domestic
relations -- through the enactment of these child support
collection provisions. Accordingly, he asks this Court, first,
to overrule the prior panel's decision affirming the
constitutionality of the CSRA, and, second, to invalidate the
DPPA.
According to the “law of the circuit” doctrine, a prior
panel decision shall not be disturbed “absent either the
occurrence of a controlling intervening event (e.g., a Supreme
Court opinion on the point; a ruling of the circuit, sitting en
banc; or a statutory overruling) or, in extremely rare
circumstances, where non-controlling but persuasive case law
suggests such a course.” United States v. Chhien, No. 00-2230,
2001 WL 1097766, at *8 (1st Cir. Sept. 24, 2001). Lewko
maintains that the Supreme Court's decision in Morrison,
limiting the ability of Congress to regulate non-economic
activity that may affect interstate commerce, was one such
intervening event.
-7-
Lewko argues that the Sixth Circuit's decision in
United States v. Faasse, 227 F.3d 660 (6th Cir. 2000), reh'g en
banc granted, opinion vacated by 234 F.3d 312 (6th Cir. 2000),
offered “non-controlling but persuasive case law” that would
justify revisiting Bongiorno. In Faasse, Judge Batchelder,
writing for a unanimous panel, ruled that the CSRA fell outside
the scope of Congress' Commerce Clause authority because these
provisions, which allow prosecutions in cases where the deadbeat
parent resides in a different state from the child, lacked a
sufficient nexus with interstate commerce to sustain
jurisdiction. Lewko maintains that the Bongiorno panel would
have reached a different conclusion had it had the benefit of
the Supreme Court's decision in Morrison and Judge Batchelder's
analysis in Faasse. See United States v. Royal, 174 F.3d 1, 10
(1st Cir. 1999) (noting that “authority that postdates the
original decision, although not directly controlling, [may]
nevertheless offer[] a sound reason for believing that the
former panel, in light of fresh developments, would change its
collective mind”) (quoting Williams v. Ashland Eng'g Co., 45
F.3d 588, 592 (1st Cir. 1995)).
Prior to the oral argument in this case, the Sixth
Circuit, sitting en banc, reversed the decision of the Faasse
panel, and sustained the CSRA against any challenge raised
-8-
pursuant to the Commerce Clause. United States v. Faasse, No.
98-2337, 2001 WL 1058237 (6th Cir. Sept. 14, 2001) (en banc).
Notwithstanding the en banc reversal, Lewko still maintains that
the Morrison opinion standing alone offers a sufficient basis
for this Court to revisit the decision of the Bongiorno panel.
We are not convinced.
III.
We review the decisions of district courts regarding
challenges to a statute's constitutionality de novo. See United
States v. Marenghi, 109 F.3d 28, 31 (1st Cir. 1997). The
Supreme Court has “identified three broad categories of activity
that Congress may regulate under its commerce power”: (1)
Congress may regulate the use of the “channels of interstate
commerce;” (2) Congress may regulate “instrumentalities of
interstate commerce or things in interstate commerce,” even if
the threat may come only from intrastate activities; (3)
Congress may regulate “those activities having a substantial
relation to interstate commerce. . . .” Morrison, 529 U.S. at
608-09 (quoting United States v. Lopez, 514 U.S. 549, 558-59
(1995)). When Congress legislates pursuant to a valid exercise
of its Commerce Clause authority, we scrutinize the enactment
according to rational basis review. See Hodel v. Virginia
-9-
Surface Mining & Reclamation Ass'n, Inc., 452 U.S. 264, 276
(1981).
The Morrison court deployed the three-prong test from
Lopez to determine whether Congress had exceeded its power under
the Commerce Clause when enacting the Violence Against Women Act
(VAWA), 42 U.S.C. § 13981. As important as Morrison is to our
understanding of Commerce Clause jurisprudence, it is equally
important to recognize from the outset what Morrison did not
purport to address. Early in its opinion, the Supreme Court
acknowledged that neither prong one nor prong two of the Lopez
Commerce Clause test was implicated by the statute challenged in
Morrison. Rather, the Court focused on whether VAWA could
satisfy the third prong of the Lopez inquiry, otherwise known as
the “substantial effects” test.5 This fact alone satisfies us
that Morrison provides no basis for overruling Bongiorno, where
we affirmed the validity of the CSRA as a constitutional
exercise of Congress' Commerce Clause authority according to the
second prong of Lopez, finding that the statute was a
5 See Morrison, 529 U.S. at 609 (“Petitioners do not
contend that these cases fall within either of the first two of
these categories of Commerce Clause regulation. They seek to
sustain § 13981 as a regulation of activity that substantially
affects interstate commerce. Given § 13981's focus on
gender-motivated violence wherever it occurs (rather than
violence directed at the instrumentalities of interstate
commerce, interstate markets, or things or persons in interstate
commerce), we agree that this is the proper inquiry.”).
-10-
permissible regulation of a “thing” in commerce. Bongiorno, 106
F.3d at 1033.
Nevertheless, we believe that it would be useful to
examine the defendant's arguments regarding the
constitutionality of the CSRA and the DPPA on the merits, rather
than simply to rely on principles of stare decisis, or “law of
the circuit.” As we explain infra, these statutory provisions
are undoubtedly constitutional exercises of Congress' Commerce
Clause authority under two of the prongs of Lopez.
The CSRA and the DPPA easily satisfy the second prong
of Lopez. In order for either of these statutory provisions to
be triggered, the non-paying parent must reside in a different
state than the child owed support, meaning that the payment will
necessarily need to cross state lines in order to reach the
intended recipient. With that in mind, we have no difficulty
finding that “[a]n interstate court-ordered child support
payment is clearly a 'thing' in interstate commerce.” Faasse,
2001 WL 1058237, at *9; see also United States v. Johnson, 114
F.3d 476, 480 (4th Cir. 1997); United States v. Bailey, 115 F.3d
1222, 1229 (5th Cir. 1997); United States v. Crawford, 115 F.3d
1397, 1400 (8th Cir. 1997); United States v. Sage, 92 F.3d 101,
107 (2d Cir. 1996); United States v. Mussari, 95 F.3d 787, 790
(9th Cir. 1996).
-11-
At oral argument, Lewko acknowledged not only that a
child support payment is a “thing,” but also that this thing
must cross state lines in order to satisfy the court order.
Despite these concessions, however, he still maintains that a
child support payment is not a “thing in interstate commerce,”
relying primarily on Judge Smith's dissent in Bailey. See 115
F.3d at 1236-37 (Smith, J., dissenting). First, he argues that
a child support payment is a wholly different type of “thing”
because it emanates from family law. Specifically, defendant
asserts that a child support order is unique because it is a
unilateral, rather than a reciprocal, obligation. This
characterization, however, is not entirely accurate. Although
the non-custodial parent has a duty to provide financial
support, the custodial parent must also demonstrate that he or
she is using that money for the care and upbringing of the
child. Regardless, a child support obligation arising from a
court order, whether family court or another civil court, is a
debt that may be enforced through civil remedies. See Mussari,
95 F.3d at 790 (“True, the court order arises from the family
relation. Once in place, the order creates a debt. Like any
other debt, it is a thing of value, one of millions of
obligations that make up the stream of commerce subject to
congressional control.”); see also Bongiorno, 106 F.3d at 1032
-12-
(holding that state-court-imposed child support orders are
“functionally equivalent to interstate contracts” and rejecting
idea that child support payment obligations are somehow
“different”) (citing Sage, 92 F.3d at 106). Therefore,
defendant's attempt to carve out child support payments from
other types of interstate monetary transfers in satisfaction of
a financial obligation fails.
Second, defendant insists that this Court should limit
the application of Bongiorno to cases where a party has engaged
in some affirmative activity, such as absconding across state
lines to avoid their support obligation, as covered by §
228(a)(2). Lewko characterizes his crime, on the other hand, as
one of omission, in that he refused to put a payment in
interstate commerce. However, the Supreme Court has refused to
draw a categorical distinction between crimes of omission and
commission. See, e.g., Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United
States, 379 U.S. 241, 257-58 (1964); United States v. Green, 350
U.S. 415, 420 (1956); United States v. Darby, 312 U.S. 100, 115
(1941); Standard Oil Co. v. United States, 221 U.S. 1, 68
(1911). Defendant attempts to distinguish these cases by noting
that Congress has historically engaged in regulation of labor
relations (Darby) and the practices of common carriers such as
hotels (Heart of Atlanta). Likewise, defendant argues, the
-13-
Hobbs Act, 18 U.S.C. § 1951, (Green) and the Sherman Antitrust
Act, 15 U.S.C. § 1, 2, (Standard Oil) explicitly target conduct
falling within the conventional understanding of “commerce.”
The DPPA and the CSRA, on the other hand, encroach on the
traditionally local concerns of family law and domestic
relations, and therefore should not be viewed with the same
deference.
This argument also misses the mark. Neither the CSRA
nor the DPPA have either the purpose or effect of establishing
a national, uniform “family law.” They address neither the
degree (i.e., amount) nor duty of support owed (i.e., when a
duty of support shall be triggered or terminated). Rather, the
provisions of these two acts are designed to protect the
integrity of state court judgments, in light of the fact that
parties attempting to enforce these court orders face
significant difficulties when the non-paying party flees the
ordering jurisdiction. See Bailey, 115 F.3d at 1230 (“Congress
did not impose the underlying obligation to pay child support.
The CSRA applies only when the defendant has violated a state
court order imposing upon him that obligation.”); see also
Faasse, 2001 WL 1058237, at *8 (rejecting claim that CSRA
attempts to create “federal family law”). The defendant's
-14-
invocation of the uniquely local concerns of family law are
inapposite and do not bear the weight of his argument.
A slightly more refined version of defendant's argument
would posit that a child support payment is a thing, but it is
not significant enough to implicate interstate commerce, because
it is merely ancillary to a family court judgment. As a
preliminary matter, we note that there is no “materiality”
requirement embedded in Lopez's prong two analysis. Even if
there were, however, the statutes on their face incorporate a
“materiality” requirement by establishing threshold amounts of
$5,000 (CSRA) and $10,000 (DPPA) before federal enforcement
mechanisms become available. As we have already explained
above, the fact that the obligation stems from a judgment
arising out of a domestic dispute is insignificant. Therefore,
prong two is clearly satisfied.
Under prong one of Lopez, Congress may also regulate
the use of the “channels of interstate commerce.” Just as we
have previously determined that the payment is a “thing in
interstate commerce,” we similarly have no trouble finding that
the payment must travel through “channels of interstate
commerce” to reach the deserving party, and therefore falls
within the purview of Congress' Commerce Clause authority. See
Bailey, 115 F.3d at 1227. Whether transmitted via wire transfer
-15-
or through the mails, these payments necessarily change hands as
a result of travel through interstate commercial channels. See
also Mussari, 95 F.3d at 790.6 Accordingly, we find that
Congress acted well within its Commerce Clause authority when it
enacted the CSRA and the DPPA, and that these provisions are
rationally related to a legitimate federal objective, the
payment of court-ordered child support obligations.
IV.
For the foregoing reasons, the defendant's convictions
under both the DPPA and the CSRA are hereby affirmed.
Affirmed.
6 We need not decide whether in light of Morrison the
CSRA and the DPPA satisfy prong three of the Lopez inquiry.
-16-