Singh v. Holder

FOR PUBLICATION
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

NIRMAL SINGH, 
Petitioner, No. 08-70434
v.
 Agency No.
A099-330-446
ERIC H. HOLDER JR., Attorney
General, OPINION
Respondent.

On Petition for Review of an Order of the
Board of Immigration Appeals

Argued and Submitted
July 8, 2009—Seattle, Washington

Filed April 19, 2010

Before: Diarmuid F. O’Scannlain, Andrew J. Kleinfeld and
Marsha S. Berzon, Circuit Judges.

Opinion by Judge O’Scannlain;
Dissent by Judge Berzon

5727
5730 SINGH v. HOLDER

COUNSEL

Taranjeet Kaur Buttar, Buttar & Cantor, LLP, Tukwila, Wash-
ington, argued the cause for the petitioner. Patrick Cantor,
Buttar & Cantor, LLP, Tukwila, Washington, was on the
brief.

Rebecca Ariel Hoffberg, U.S. Department of Justice, Wash-
ington, District of Columbia, argued the cause for the responi
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5731
dent. Gregory Katsas, Assistant Attorney General, Civil Divi-
sion, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, District of
Columbia; William C. Peachey, Assistant Director, Office of
Immigration Litigation, U.S. Department of Justice, Washing-
ton, District of Columbia; and Mona Maria Yousif, Civil
Division, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, District of
Columbia, were on the brief.

OPINION

O’SCANNLAIN, Circuit Judge:

We must decide whether an immigration judge properly
required corroborating evidence from an otherwise credible
witness in an asylum hearing.

I

A

Nirmal Singh is an Indian citizen and former resident of
that nation’s Punjab state. Singh maintains that as a result of
his political activities and affiliation, he was arrested and tor-
tured on four occasions. According to Singh, after his fourth
confrontation with authorities, a police officer told him: “If
you want to save your life, leave India.” Singh claims that
shortly thereafter, he took the officer’s advice and fled to
Canada. Singh asserts that he arrived in Canada, using a false
passport, on October 10, 2004. He says he stayed there for ten
days before entering the United States without inspection on
October 20, 2004. In the fall of 2005, Singh filed for asylum.1
1
Singh contends that he filed for asylum on October 13, 2005, within
one year from his alleged date of entry into this country (October 20,
2004). He submits his asylum application as proof, noting that the time
stamp on the application reads October 13, 2005. That date, however, is
crossed out by hand, and a date of November 14, 2005, is stamped next
5732 SINGH v. HOLDER
B

On January 18, 2006, Singh was issued a Notice to Appear.
At his hearing before an Immigration Judge (“IJ”), Singh con-
ceded his removability and sought asylum, withholding of
removal, and protection under the Convention Against Tor-
ture.

The IJ rejected Singh’s request for asylum as untimely
filed. Though he made no adverse credibility finding, the IJ
found Singh’s testimony insufficient to establish his last date
of entry into the United States “by clear and convincing evi-
dence.” In so ruling, the IJ noted that Singh had provided no
documentation corroborating his claim that he entered this
country on October 20, 2004.2 Without an established date of
entry, Singh could not prove that he filed his application
“within 1 year after the date of [his] arrival in the United
States.” 8 U.S.C. § 1158(a)(2)(B).

Singh appealed to the Board of Immigration Appeals
(“BIA”), which likewise concluded that his application was
time-barred because he had failed to establish his date of
entry. Quoting the text of 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), the
BIA explained that such section “specifically provides that, in
determining whether an asylum applicant has met his burden

to it. Singh claims this indicates that when he first submitted the applica-
tion, it contained a defect which had to be remedied. According to Singh,
November 14 is the date he resubmitted the application after correcting the
error.
2
The IJ also based his time-bar ruling on the date stamp issue, see supra
note 1, concluding that Singh’s asylum application was filed on November
14, 2005. Thus, even if Singh had established his date of entry as October
20, 2004, his application would still be untimely.
However, the Board of Immigration Appeals affirmed the IJ on the
ground that Singh failed to corroborate his arrival date. In reviewing this
petition, “we consider only the grounds relied upon” by the BIA. See
Andia v. Ashcroft, 359 F.3d 1181, 1184 (9th Cir. 2004) (per curiam).
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5733
of proof, the trier of fact may require an applicant to ‘provide
evidence that corroborates otherwise credible testimony.’ ”
Ultimately, the BIA held that Singh’s failure to provide such
evidence was fatal to his application.

Singh timely petitioned this court for review.

II

We only address the timeliness of Singh’s application in
this opinion.3 Singh contends that for various reasons, the BIA
improperly concluded that he failed to meet the one-year
deadline. The government counters by asserting that this court
has no jurisdiction to review the BIA’s time-bar ruling, and,
in the alternative, that Singh’s application was properly found
to be untimely.

A

We must first assess whether we have jurisdiction to review
the BIA’s timeliness determination. “Any alien who is physi-
cally present in the United States . . . irrespective of such
alien’s status, may apply for asylum . . . .” 8 U.S.C.
§ 1158(a)(1). However, an alien can only avail himself of this
provision if he “demonstrates by clear and convincing evi-
dence that the application has been filed within 1 year after
the date of the alien’s arrival in the United States.” Id.
§ 1158(a)(2)(B). Section 1158(a)(3) states that “[n]o court
shall have jurisdiction to review any determination of the
Attorney General under [section 1158(a)(2)(B)].” Read
together, these provisions appear to deprive this court of juris-
diction over determinations that an alien failed to file his
application within one year of entering this country. See
Hakeem v. INS, 273 F.3d 812, 815 (9th Cir. 2001) (“Thus,
3
Singh’s request for withholding of removal and relief under the Con-
vention Against Torture is addressed in a memorandum disposition filed
concurrently with this opinion.
5734 SINGH v. HOLDER
under section 1158(a)(3), we lack jurisdiction to review the
IJ’s determination that [the applicant] failed to file his asylum
application within one year of his arrival in the United
States.”).

[1] Nonetheless, “the Real ID Act of 2005 restores [our]
jurisdiction over ‘constitutional claims or questions of law.’ ”
Ramadan v. Gonzales, 479 F.3d 646, 650 (9th Cir. 2007) (per
curiam) (quoting Fernandez-Ruiz v. Gonzales, 410 F.3d 585,
587 (9th Cir. 2005)); see also 8 U.S.C. § 1252(a)(2)(D)
(“Nothing in . . . any other provision of this chapter . . . which
limits or eliminates judicial review, shall be construed as pre-
cluding review of constitutional claims or questions of law
raised upon a petition for review filed with an appropriate
court of appeals in accordance with this section.”). Legal
questions include questions of statutory construction and
“questions involving the application of statutes or regulations
to undisputed facts, sometimes referred to as mixed questions
of fact and law.” Ramadan, 479 F.3d at 650. Thus, to secure
jurisdiction, we must determine whether Singh has raised a
question of statutory construction or a question involving the
application of a provision of law to “undisputed facts.”

[2] Singh’s argument is legal, not factual. He claims that
because his testimony was deemed credible, the agency com-
mitted a legal error by requiring corroboration. In his view,
credible testimony is necessarily sufficient to meet the clear
and convincing standard, and corroboration cannot be
required. Because this is a legal argument about how to con-
strue 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), and not a factual argument
about whether the evidence in his case proved his date of
entry, we have jurisdiction to review it.4
4
The government asserts that we lack jurisdiction because Singh’s date
of entry is not an “undisputed” fact. If Singh’s challenge involved a mixed
question of law and fact, such arguments would be persuasive. See Rama-
dan, 479 F.3d at 650 (explaining that mixed questions of law and fact
involve “the application of statutes or regulations to undisputed facts”).
We conclude, however, that insofar as Singh claims the agency employed
the wrong burden of proof by requiring corroboration, he raises a “pure”
question of law.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5735
B

Singh claims that the IJ had no authority to require corrobo-
rating evidence from a credible witness. If the IJ does possess
such authority, we must then determine if it was properly
exercised in this case.

1

[3] In the past, “[i]t [was] well established in this circuit
that the BIA may not require independent corroborative evi-
dence from an asylum applicant who testifies credibly in sup-
port of his application.” Kataria v. INS, 232 F.3d 1107, 1113
(9th Cir. 2000); see also, e.g., Singh v. Gonzales, 491 F.3d
1019, 1025 (9th Cir. 2007) (same); Kaur v. Ashcroft, 379 F.3d
876, 889-90 (9th Cir. 2004) (same); Ladha v. INS, 215 F.3d
889, 901 (9th Cir. 2000) (“[A]n alien’s testimony, if unrefuted
and credible, direct and specific, is sufficient to establish the
facts testified without the need for any corroboration.”), over-
ruled on other grounds by Abebe v. Mukasey, 554 F.3d 1203,
1208 (9th Cir. 2009) (en banc).

[4] With respect to asylum applications filed after May 11,
2005,5 however, this is no longer true. As we have previously
held in Aden v. Holder, “Congress abrogated these holdings
in the REAL ID Act of 2005.” 589 F.3d 1040, 1044 (9th Cir.
2009). It is still true that credible testimony can, in some cir-
cumstances, sustain the applicant’s burden of proof. See 8
U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) (“[T]he testimony of the applicant
may be sufficient to sustain the applicant’s burden without
corroboration, but only if the applicant satisfies the trier of
fact that the applicant’s testimony is credible, is persuasive,
and refers to specific facts sufficient to demonstrate that the
5
REAL ID Act of 2005, Pub. L. No. 109-13, § 101(h)(2), 119 Stat. 231,
305; Oyekunle v. Gonzales, 498 F.3d 715, 717 (7th Cir. 2007) (“For aliens
who applied for asylum after May 11, 2005[, the REAL ID Act] in effect
codifies the [corroboration] rule . . . .”).
5736 SINGH v. HOLDER
applicant is a refugee.”). But the Act further provides that
‘[w]here the trier of fact determines that the applicant should
provide evidence that corroborates otherwise credible testi-
mony, such evidence must be provided unless the applicant
does not have the evidence and cannot reasonably obtain the
evidence.” Id. Thus, credible testimony may be sufficient to
satisfy the applicant’s burden of proof, but the Act also
enables the trier of fact to require something more. Uncorrob-
orated testimony is sufficient only if “(1) the applicant’s testi-
mony is credible; (2) the applicant’s testimony is persuasive;
and (3) the applicant’s testimony refers to facts sufficient to
demonstrate refugee status. Credible testimony is not by itself
enough.” Aden, 589 F.3d at 1044. To the extent our prior
decisions hold to the contrary, they are superseded by the
REAL ID Act. Id.

[5] Thus, in the case at hand, Singh is correct that insofar
as the IJ made no adverse credibility finding, we must credit
him as truthful. See Kataria, 232 F.3d at 1113. We need not
accept all facts to which he testifies as true, however. Aden,
589 F.3d at 1045. After the REAL ID Act, “the IJ may, in
determining whether it satisfies the applicant’s burden of
proof, ‘weigh the credible testimony along with other evi-
dence of record.’ ” Id. at 1044 (quoting 8 U.S.C.
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii)). “Congress has installed a bias toward
corroboration in the statute to provide greater reliability.” Id.
at 1045. Thus, we must conclude that the IJ possessed the
authority to require corroborating evidence.

2

Our conclusion that the IJ may require corroborating evi-
dence despite credible testimony does not end the matter,
however. Singh contends that because he “could not reason-
ably be expected to provide proof of when he entered the
United States . . . . [t]he BIA and the IJ committed error in
[their] application of the REAL ID Act as it pertains to
[him].” As we conclude that the IJ properly demanded corrob-
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5737
orating evidence despite Singh’s otherwise credible testi-
mony, we reject Singh’s contention.

We note at the outset that we do not write on a clean slate
as we interpret section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii). The BIA has inter-
preted this section as codifying its preexisting corroboration
requirements. See In re J-Y-C-, 24 I & N Dec. 260, 263
(B.I.A. 2007). “When reviewing an agency’s interpretation of
its governing statute, we follow the two-step framework
famously set forth in Chevron U.S.A. Inc. v. Natural
Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984).”
Marmolejo-Campos v. Holder, 558 F.3d 903, 908 (9th Cir.
2009) (en banc). Precedential BIA decisions interpreting the
Immigration and Nationality Act fall under this rubric. Id. at
908-09 (citing United States v. Mead Corp., 533 U.S. 218,
233 (2001)); see also Ramos-Lopez v. Holder, 563 F.3d 855,
858-59 (9th Cir. 2009) (“Generally, we accord Chevron defer-
ence where there is binding agency precedent on-point (either
in the form of a regulation or a published BIA case).” (inter-
nal quotation marks, alternation, and citation omitted)).6

We thus consider “whether Congress has directly spoken to
the precise question at issue.” Chevron, 467 U.S. at 842. “If
the intent of Congress is clear, that is the end of the matter;
for the court, as well as the agency, must give effect to the
unambiguously expressed intent of Congress.” Id. at 842-43.
If the statutory provision at issue “is ‘silent or ambiguous,’
however, we may not supply the interpretation of the statute
we think best . . . , but must limit ourselves to asking ‘whether
the agency’s answer is based on a permissible construction of
the statute.’ ” Marmolejo-Campos, 558 F.3d at 908 (quoting
Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843).
6
The BIA decided the case at hand in an unpublished order. However,
it relied upon its interpretation of section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) as detailed in
In re J-Y-C-, 24 I. & N. Dec. 260 (B.I.A. 2007). “[W]e apply Chevron def-
erence regardless of whether the order under review is the precedential
decision itself or a subsequent unpublished order that relies upon it.”
Marmolejo-Campos, 558 F.3d at 911.
5738 SINGH v. HOLDER
[6] With section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), Congress has expressly
empowered the IJ to require corroborating evidence even
when the applicant has provided otherwise credible testimony.
Should the applicant fail to offer corroboration, the IJ may
conclude that despite the applicant’s credible testimony, he
has failed to meet his burden of demonstrating that he is enti-
tled to asylum relief. Accordingly, the IJ’s conclusion that
Singh’s uncorroborated testimony was insufficient to carry his
burden to prove his date of entry was proper.

[7] Our dissenting colleague contends that the IJ erred by
failing to give Singh notice that his testimony required cor-
roboration before concluding that he had failed to meet this
burden. According to the dissent, section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii)
mandates a three-step process.7 Dissent at 5748-49. In the first
step, an IJ must determine whether an applicant’s uncorrobo-
rated testimony is insufficient to carry his burden. In the sec-
ond step, the IJ must identify the portions of the applicant’s
testimony that require corroboration. In the third step, the IJ
must give the applicant an opportunity to provide that corrob-
oration or an explanation for its absence. This interpretation
is belied by the statute’s text, which omits any reference to
such a procedure. As we explained in Aden v. Holder, by
enacting section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), Congress has made immi-
gration litigation more like other litigation, where parties with
7
In addition, the dissent asks us to bifurcate another part of the IJ’s anal-
ysis. Although section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) provides the standard under
which an IJ assesses an asylum applicant’s credibility, the dissent argues
that the IJ should have evaluated the credibility of Singh’s claim that he
filed his asylum application within a year of entering the United States
under 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(c)(4)(B). Dissent at 5746-48. We disagree. Under
the dissent’s approach, which was neither raised nor briefed by the parties,
an IJ would be forced to assess an asylum applicant’s credibility with
respect to threshold matters (such as his date of entry) under section
1229a(c)(4)(B) and assess his credibility with respect to substantive mat-
ters (such as his well-founded fear of persecution) under section
1158(b)(1)(B)(ii). We see no evidence that the REAL ID Act bifurcates an
IJ’s credibility determination in this way, and accordingly reject this inter-
pretation.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5739
the burden of proof ordinarily provide whatever corroboration
they have when presenting their case in chief. 589 F.3d at
1045. Thus, just as a plaintiff in a car accident case provides
the body shop invoice and his medical records to corroborate
his damages claims, an applicant in an asylum case is now
expected to provide evidence corroborating the factual asser-
tions underlying his claim for relief. See id. Thus, while the
statute permits an IJ to give an applicant notice that his testi-
mony requires corroboration, it does not require that he do so.
See Rapheal v. Mukasey, 533 F.3d 521, 530 (7th Cir. 2008).
We accordingly reject the dissent’s interpretation.

Moreover, we are not at liberty simply to impose the dis-
sent’s interpretation of the statute on the BIA. Even if the stat-
ute were ambiguous, we would only need to determine
“whether the agency’s [interpretation] is based on a permissi-
ble construction of the statute.” Chevron, 467 U.S. at 843.
Because the BIA has exercised its authority to interpret sec-
tion 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), its decision “governs if it is a reason-
able interpretation of the statute—not necessarily the only
possible interpretation, nor even the interpretation deemed
most reasonable by the courts.” Entergy Corp. v. Riverkeeper,
Inc., 129 S. Ct. 1498, 1505 (2009).

The BIA has held that by “adding the provisions regarding
corroboration, Congress intended to codify the BIA’s corrob-
oration standards” contained in In re S-M-J-. In re J-Y-C-, 24
I. & N. Dec. at 263 (internal quotation marks, alterations, and
citation omitted); see also Rapheal, 533 F.3d at 527 (conclud-
ing that the REAL ID Act “codified” the corroboration rule of
In re S-M-J-).8 These standards state that “where it is reason-
8
The BIA relied heavily on legislative history to reach this result. See
In re J-Y-C-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 263 (citing H.R. Rep. No. 109-72, at
165-66 (2005) (Conf. Rep.)). The conference report cited by the agency
quotes extensively from In re S-M-J-, and expresses the desire that “the
standards in Matter of S-M-J- . . . will guide the BIA and the courts in
interpreting” section 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii). See H.R. Rep. No. 109-72, at 166.
5740 SINGH v. HOLDER
able to expect corroborating evidence,” the applicant should
provide either the evidence “or an explanation of why she did
not provide [it].” In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. 722, 725
(B.I.A. 1997). Therefore, “ ‘an asylum applicant should pro-
vide documentary support for material facts which are central
to his or her claim and easily subject to verification . . . . The
absence of such corroborating evidence can lead to a finding
that an applicant has failed to meet [his] burden of proof.’ ”
In re J-Y-C-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 263 (alterations in original)
(quoting In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725-26). As this “is
certainly a plausible interpretation of the statute,” Entergy
Corp., 129 S. Ct. at 1505, it is entitled to deference.

[8] Accordingly, where it is reasonable to expect an appli-
cant to provide documentary support for material facts which
are central to his claim and easily subject to verification, the
applicant should provide either the evidence or an explanation
of why she did not provide it. See In re J-Y-C-, 24 I. & N.
Dec. at 263 (citing In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725-26);
see also Balachandran v. Holder, 566 F.3d 269, 273 (1st Cir.
2009) (“[I]t was reasonable to expect [the applicant] to secure
corroboration from his family in Canada.”); Krishnapillai v.
Holder, 563 F.3d 606, 619 (7th Cir. 2009) (“[There was] no
error in the Immigration Judge’s expectation that [the appli-
cant] produce additional evidence to corroborate his account
of past persecution. . . . It was not unreasonable for the judge
to look for corroboration from [the applicant’s] wife in partic-
ular . . . .”); Sandie v. Att’ Gen., 562 F.3d 246, 252 (3d Cir.
2009) (“[A]n applicant for asylum must provide reliable evi-
dence to corroborate testimony when it is reasonable to expect
corroborating evidence and there is no satisfactory explana-
tion for its absence. It is reasonable to expect corroboration
for testimony that is central to an applicant’s claim and easily
subject to verification.” (citation omitted)); Khan v. Mukasey,
541 F.3d 55, 58 (1st Cir. 2008) (“Where the alien’s testimony
is not itself compelling the absence of easily obtainable cor-
roborating documentation can be the final straw. The BIA
correctly recognized that a lack of corroborating evidence
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5741
could be fatal to [the applicant’s] case.” (internal quotation
marks and citation omitted)).

As we explained above, this does not mean asylum appli-
cants must provide corroborating evidence to carry their bur-
den of proof: credible testimony alone may still suffice. See
Aden, 589 F.3d at 1044. However, as the IJ maintains “sub-
stantial leeway” to require corroboration—the absence of
which “ ‘can lead to a finding that an applicant has failed to
meet [his] burden of proof’ ”—applicants are well advised to
provide it. See In re J-Y-C-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 263 (quoting
In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725-26); see also Aden, 589
F.3d at 1044-45. We also stress that corroboration may only
be required where “it is reasonable to expect” such evidence.
Aden, 589 F.3d at 1044-45. IJs are not to place unreasonable
demands on an asylum applicant.9 Id.

[9] Turning to the case at hand, we have little difficulty
concluding that because an essential element of all asylum
claims is that they be “filed within 1 year” of the alien’s
arrival in the United States, 8 U.S.C. § 1158(a)(2)(B), an
applicant’s date of entry is a “ ‘material’ ” fact “ ‘central’ ” to
his claim, In re J-Y-C-, 24 I. & N. Dec. at 263 (quoting In re
S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725-26). This is the sort of fact
which is “ ‘easily subject to verification,’ ” whether by some
form of official documentation or by supporting documents of
a more informal variety, i.e., affidavits or letters from family,
friends, or traveling companions. Id. Travelers typically accu-
mulate paper as they move, such as receipts from gas stations,
9
Although Singh himself raises no constitutional arguments, the dissent
claims that the BIA’s interpretation of the statute raises Fifth Amendment
concerns. Dissent at 5753-54. Although we have previously expressed due
process concerns when an IJ demanded corroborating evidence but did not
provide an asylum applicant with an opportunity to produce that evidence,
see Marcos v. Gonzales, 410 F.3d 1112, 1118 n.6 (9th Cir. 2005), we do
not believe those concerns are implicated here. The statute provides an
asylum applicant with sufficient notice that an IJ may require corrobora-
tion of his testimony even if he is credible.
5742 SINGH v. HOLDER
motels, and restaurants, and often take snapshots providing
dating information, and reaching a refuge from persecution
might well generate a particular desire to preserve souvenirs
of arrival. Accordingly, it is eminently “reasonable to expect”
an applicant to provide some corroborating evidence of his
date of entry. In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725.

[10] This is especially true in the case at hand, where
Singh was explicitly informed by an immigration officer that
he had failed to establish his date of entry and that his lack of
corroborating documents contributed to that failure. The need
for adequate documentation was further emphasized by the IJ
at an initial hearing, when he advised Singh’s counsel “to
bring whatever documents in the original form that he has to
court with him.”10 Yet in response to queries from opposing
counsel during his testimony before the IJ, Singh admitted to
having no documents to corroborate his claim that he entered
this country on October 20, 2004.11 Singh made the same
admission to this court.

In any case, “the REAL ID Act clearly states that corrobo-
rative evidence may be required, placing immigrants on
notice of the consequences for failing to provide corroborative
evidence.” Rapheal v. Mukasey, 533 F.3d 521, 530 (7th Cir.
2008).

To hold that a petitioner must receive additional
notice from the IJ and then an additional opportunity
to provide corroborative evidence before an adverse
ruling, would necessitate two hearings—the first to
decide whether such corroborating evidence is
10
This statement was immediately preceded by a reference to the “one
year bar.” A fuller understanding of the context is obscured by an “(Indis-
cernible)” notation in the record.
11
Singh initially claimed to have a letter corroborating his date of entry.
That letter says nothing about when he entered the United States; it only
indicates that he stayed at a particular temple in India in August 2004.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5743
required and then another hearing after a recess to
allow the alien more time to collect such evidence.

Id. We agree with the Seventh Circuit that “[t]his would add
to the already overburdened resources of the [Department of
Homeland Security], and such an approach would seem
imprudent where the law clearly notifies aliens of the impor-
tance of corroborative evidence.” Id.

[11] As Singh admitted that he had no documents to cor-
roborate his date of entry, it was his burden to provide “an
explanation of why [ ]he did not provide such . . . evidence.”
In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725; see also id. at 730
(“Further, the applicant has not provided any explanation for
the lack of information on these issues.”).12 Aside from his
bald assertion that he “could not reasonably be expected to
provide proof of when he entered the United States,” how-
ever, the record is devoid of any indication from Singh as to
why he was unable to corroborate such a basic fact. Contrary
to his contention, “[t]here is nothing in the nature of [Singh’s]
claims that would compel us to find that corroborating evi-
dence was unavailable to him.” Eke v. Mukasey, 512 F.3d
372, 381 (7th Cir. 2008); Chhay v. Mukasey, 540 F.3d 1, 7
(1st Cir. 2008) (“Nothing offered by the petitioner compels us
to conclude that . . . she could not readily have obtained some
corroborating evidence as to her claimed party member-
12
We note that the Third Circuit has cited its own decision in Abdulai
v. Ashcroft, 239 F.3d 542 (3d Cir. 2001) (interpreting In re S-M-J-), to
require the IJ to give the applicant notice of what aspects of his testimony
require corroboration and the opportunity to explain the absence of such
evidence. See, e.g., Sandie, 562 F.3d at 253. Such requirements are in ten-
sion with the fact that Congress has placed the burden of proof on the
applicant in asylum proceedings. 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B). Morever, nei-
ther In re S-M-J- nor Abdulai contain language to that effect. The require-
ments of In re S-M-J- have been described above. See supra pp. 5739-42.
Abdulai only states that when handing down its opinion, the BIA must
identify, for purposes of judicial review, the particular “aspects of [the
applicant’s] testimony it would have been reasonable to expect him to
have corroborated.” 239 F.3d at 554.
5744 SINGH v. HOLDER
ship.”); cf. 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(4) (“No court shall reverse a
determination made by a trier of fact with respect to the avail-
ability of corroborating evidence . . . unless the court finds . . .
that a reasonable trier of fact is compelled to conclude that
such corroborating evidence is unavailable.”). Establishing
one’s date of entry does not require, for example, “corrobora-
tion from [a] persecutor,” In re S-M-J-, 21 I. & N. Dec. at
725, or documentation from an unfriendly government, cf.,
Khan, 541 F.3d at 58. As we discussed above, various “differ-
ent kinds of materials might have served as corroborating evi-
dence” of Singh’s date of entry; “it was [his] failure to
present” such material or an explanation for its absence “that
undermined his case in the IJ’s eyes.” Eke, 512 F.3d at 381.

[12] Without either corroborating evidence of Singh’s date
of entry or an explanation for this deficiency, we have no
choice but to conclude that the IJ did not err in barring
Singh’s application as untimely.13

III

Accordingly, Singh’s petition for review with respect to his
asylum claim is

DENIED.

BERZON, J., dissenting:

I respectfully dissent from the majority’s conclusion that
the Board of Immigration Appeals (“BIA”) properly inter-
preted and applied the appropriate corroboration provision in
this case.
13
We note that nothing prevents an applicant from requesting “a contin-
uance to obtain the [corroborating] materials” or “mov[ing] to reopen the
record to supply corroboration.” Chhay, 540 F.3d at 7 n.2. Singh did nei-
ther.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5745
Nirmal Singh came to this country by crossing the U.S.-
Canadian border in a car, without inspection. So he has no air-
plane ticket stub or border crossing record to prove when he
came. Still, it was Singh’s burden to prove, and by “clear and
convincing evidence,” that he filed his asylum application
within a year of his arrival. 8 U.S.C. § 1158(a)(2)(B).

Singh testified to a date of arrival and gave some back-
ground facts concerning his departure from India which were
consistent with that date. He also introduced a document con-
firming that he had not left India before late August or Sep-
tember 2004, thereby corroborating to some degree his arrival
date but not with enough specificity to prove that the date he
ostensibly filed his asylum application, October 13, 2005, was
within a year after his arrival.

The IJ understandably developed a concern that without
some further corroboration there was not “clear and convinc-
ing” evidence of Singh’s arrival date. But the IJ never
expressed that concern to Singh. He did not ask Singh
whether he could provide further corroboration, suggest what
it might be, and, if Singh had no such evidence available, ask
why not. It is far from obvious that any further corroboration
of Singh’s trek across the border was available: Someone who
crosses the border illegally generates no official record of
having done so, and one unfamiliar at that point with our asy-
lum law would have no reason to keep receipts of purchases
or places of accommodation.

The procedural details of the new corroboration require-
ments thus become critical here: May the immigration judge
fault an alien after the fact for failing to provide corroboration
of otherwise credible testimony? Or does the REAL ID Act
require some notice that the IJ will require corroboration and
an opportunity to explain why none is available if it is not?
My disagreement with the majority centers on these ques-
tions.
5746 SINGH v. HOLDER
I.

As a preliminary matter, I do not believe that 8 U.S.C.
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) applies to the one-year filing requirement
at issue in Singh’s case. Section 1158(b) addresses the manner
in which an asylum applicant can sustain his burden of proof
“to establish that [he] is a refugee, within the meaning of sec-
tion 1101(a)(42)(A).”1 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(i). The one-
year bar, 8 U.S.C. § 1158(a)(1), was adopted by the Illegal
Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act of
1996, Pub. L. No. 104-208, 110 Stat. 3009-546, and is not
part of the long-standing substantive definition of who quali-
fies as a “refugee.” See I.N.S. v. Cardoza-Fonseca, 480 U.S.
421, 427-28 (1987) (discussing the definition of “refugee” in
§ 1101(a)(42) as added by the Refugee Act of 1980, 94 Stat.
102).

Instead, it is 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(c)(4)(B) that applies to
Singh’s claim that he satisfied the one-year filing requirement.2
1
Section 1101(a)(42)(A) in turn defines a “refugee” as
any person who is outside any country of such person’s national-
ity or, in the case of a person having no nationality, is outside any
country in which such person last habitually resided, and who is
unable or unwilling to return to, and is unable or unwilling to
avail himself or herself of the protection of, that country because
of persecution or a well-founded fear of persecution on account
of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular social
group, or political opinion[.]
2
Section 1229a(c)(4)(B) provides:
(B) Sustaining burden
The applicant must comply with the applicable requirements to
submit information or documentation in support of the appli-
cant’s application for relief or protection as provided by law or
by regulation or in the instructions for the application form. In
evaluating the testimony of the applicant or other witness in sup-
port of the application, the immigration judge will determine
whether or not the testimony is credible, is persuasive, and refers
to specific facts sufficient to demonstrate that the applicant has
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5747
This provision, like § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), was added to the
Immigration and Nationality Act by the Real ID Act of 2005,
Pub. L. No. 109-13, 119 Stat. 231. In language similar but not
identical to § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), § 1229a(c)(4)(B) sets the
standard for sustaining an applicant’s burden that he has “sa-
tisfie[d] the applicable eligibility requirements” for “relief or
protection from removal.”3 § 1229a(c)(4)(A). Asylum is one
such form of relief from removal, and the one-year filing
requirement is an “applicable eligibility requirement[ ]” for
relief.

So § 1229a(c)(4)(B) is the provision actually here applica-
ble. As I note later, it differs in some ways that could possibly

satisfied the applicant’s burden of proof. In determining whether
the applicant has met such burden, the immigration judge shall
weigh the credible testimony along with other evidence of record.
Where the immigration judge determines that the applicant
should provide evidence which corroborates otherwise credible
testimony, such evidence must be provided unless the applicant
demonstrates that the applicant does not have the evidence and
cannot reasonably obtain the evidence.
3
That 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(c)(4)(B) applies to the one-year bar determina-
tion is confirmed by another statutory provision, 8 U.S.C. § 1231(b)(3)(C).
In the latter section, Congress directly incorporated the § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii)
asylum corroboration standard as the standard applicable to withholding
of removal, but did so only for determination of “whether an alien has
demonstrated that the alien’s life or freedom would be threatened” based
on membership in a protected group. Section 1229a(c)(4)(B), therefore,
acts as the catchall provision for non-persecution related eligibility
requirements applicable to asylum and withholding of removal and
requirements for other forms of relief, such as relief under the Convention
Against Torture. (In Shrestha v. Holder, this Court applied an adverse
credibility determination, based in part on the corroboration standard
found in § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), to a claim for relief under the Convention
Against Torture. See 590 F.3d 1034, 1047-49 (9th Cir. 2010). The Shr-
estha court did not explain why it proceeded in this fashion, but it appar-
ently thought, erroneously, that § 1158(b)(1)(B) and § 1229a(c)(4) are
identical. See id. at 1040. As we are not dealing with a CAT claim, Shr-
estha’s error in this regard does not affect this case.)
5748 SINGH v. HOLDER
matter to the outcome of this case from the provision the BIA
applies and the majority discusses. Also, the recent BIA pre-
cedent on which the majority relies in the alternative dealt
with § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii), not § 1229a(c)(4)(B). See Matter of
J—Y—C—, 24 I. & N. Dec. 260, 263, 265-66 (BIA 2007). No
deference based on Chevron, U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural
Resources Defense Council, Inc., 467 U.S. 837 (1984), can be
applicable to this case unless and until the BIA in a published
opinion interprets the statute that does apply here. See
Marmolejo-Campos v. Holder, 558 F.3d 903, 909 (9th Cir.
2009) (en banc).

I would remand to the BIA for application of the correct
legal provision. See Azanor v. Ashcroft, 364 F.3d 1013, 1021
(9th Cir. 2004).

II.

However, even applying 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) as
does the majority, I would hold that the BIA did not correctly
interpret and apply it to Singh’s claim.4 In my view, the lan-
guage of the provision contemplates that an IJ will perform a
sequential analysis in assessing the strength of an applicant’s
testimony, any corresponding need for corroborating evi-
dence, and the reasons requested corroborating evidence is
unavailable if it is. That sequence must proceed as follows:
First, the IJ must determine whether an applicant’s testimony
meets the applicant’s standard of proof. If not, an IJ may
require corroborating evidence. Second, the IJ must give an
applicant notice of the specific facts for which further corrob-
oration is needed. Third, if no such corroboration is produced,
an IJ must provide the applicant an opportunity to explain on
the record why this evidence is not reasonably available. See
Toure v. Att’y Gen. of U.S., 443 F.3d 310, 323-24 (3d Cir.
4
I note in the remainder of this opinion when 8 U.S.C.
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) differs from § 1229a(c)(4)(B) in a way potentially per-
tinent to Singh’s claim.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5749
2006) (vacating and remanding a post-REAL ID Act case
where the IJ did not provide an applicant “with notice and an
opportunity to present an explanation” for the absence of cor-
roborating evidence and the IJ did not indicate she expected
such evidence until her oral ruling). Because the IJ did not
perform this analysis in Singh’s case, I respectfully dissent.

The majority treats § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) as permitting an IJ
to require corroborating evidence without making such a
threshold determination and, apparently, to do so with only
the broadest of notice and without inviting an opportunity to
explain why additional corroboration is unavailable. The
majority reaches this interpretation of the statute by assuming,
without deciding, that the statute is ambiguous, and holding
that if it is, we must grant Chevron deference to the BIA’s
interpretation of this provision, announced in Matter of J—Y
—C—, 24 I. & N. Dec. 260 (BIA 2007). See Maj. Op. at 5739;
Chevron, 467 U.S. at 842-43. Matter of J—Y—C—, the major-
ity says, precludes my sequential reading of
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) because it made clear that the REAL ID
Act codified the “corroboration rule” of Matter of
S—M—J—, 21 I. & N. Dec. 722 (BIA 1997). See Maj. Op. at
5939-40. Under the “corroboration rule,” in the majority’s
view, applicants should expect that their failure to produce
corroboration satisfactory to the IJ for any fact on which they
rely in their application or their testimony could be grounds
for denial of asylum.

As I discuss below, the plain language of the provision
compels a conclusion opposite to that of the majority. In the
alternative, any ambiguity in the statutory language must be
read in light of due process concerns, precluding Chevron def-
erence to the BIA as to the procedural questions. Moreover,
neither Matter of J—Y—C— nor Matter of S—M—J— directly
controls the question whether an IJ must provide notice to an
applicant of which portions of his application require corrobo-
ration and an opportunity to explain the absence of such evi-
dence. As a result, even to the limited extent that
5750 SINGH v. HOLDER
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) admits of ambiguity, granting Chevron
deference to these precedential BIA decisions is of no assis-
tance in resolving the question before us.

A.

The language of § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) provides in full:

(ii) Sustaining burden

The testimony of the applicant may be sufficient to
sustain the applicant’s burden without corroboration,
but only if the applicant satisfies the trier of fact that
the applicant’s testimony is credible, is persuasive,
and refers to specific facts sufficient to demonstrate
that the applicant is a refugee. In determining
whether the applicant has met the applicant’s burden,
the trier of fact may weigh the credible testimony
along with other evidence of record. Where the trier
of fact determines that the applicant should provide
evidence that corroborates otherwise credible testi-
mony, such evidence must be provided unless the
applicant does not have the evidence and cannot rea-
sonably obtain the evidence.

Our circuit interpreted this provision in Aden v. Holder,
589 F.3d 1040 (9th Cir. 2009). Aden left open the question
whether § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) required “notice of [an appli-
cant’s] need for [corroboration] and time to provide it,” as the
IJ in that case did continue the proceedings after identifying
for the petitioner the fact for which he would require corrobo-
ration. Id. at 1043. Moreover, Aden did not examine whether
an IJ is required to develop the record and enunciate his rea-
soning with respect to why desired corroborating evidence is
reasonably available. See id. at 1045-46.

I therefore turn directly to the language of the statute. Con-
trary to the majority’s conclusion, the relevant language
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5751
clearly establishes a sequential process: First, an IJ is to “de-
termin[e] whether the applicant has met the applicant’s bur-
den” and in doing so may “weigh the credible testimony along
with other evidence of record.” “Where”—which in this con-
text is equivalent to “if” or “when,” see BRYAN A. GARNER, A
DICTIONARY OF MODERN LEGAL USAGE 928 (2d ed. 1995)—the
IJ in conducting this weighing is not fully persuaded by the
applicant’s “otherwise credible testimony,” he may “deter-
mine[ ] that the applicant should provide evidence that cor-
roborates” the testimony. (Emphasis added.) The statute does
not use the term “should have provided,” in the present per-
fect tense, which would signal that the applicant could be
faulted after the fact for not having provided corroboration.
See United States v. Wilson, 503 U.S. 329, 333 (1992)
(“Congress’ use of a verb tense is significant in construing
statutes.”). Use of the word “should” thus expresses an imper-
ative upon the applicant to provide further corroboration to
meet the applicant’s burden once the IJ identifies areas where
additional corroboration is needed. Moreover, necessarily
implicit in the future-oriented “should” construction is notice
to the applicant of the IJ’s determination.

The statutory language then continues in this vein, requir-
ing that if the IJ determines that the applicant “should” pro-
vide corroborating evidence, then “such evidence must be
provided . . . .” (Emphasis added.) Again, and critically,
“must be provided” is conditional on the IJ’s determination
that corroborating evidence should be provided; it therefore
speaks to the future, seen from the perspective of the time the
IJ identifies the need for additional evidence, not the past. The
statute does not use “must have been provided” or some other
“backward looking” formulation. And again, the “must be
provided” future-oriented locution signals a requirement that
the applicant be informed of what is required.

Finally, the statute provides an exception: the applicant
need not produce evidence corroborating otherwise credible
evidence if the applicant “does not have the evidence and can-
5752 SINGH v. HOLDER
not reasonably obtain it.” This exception follows the “must be
provided” language, and is stated, again, in the present and
future tenses, not the past tense. So the statute contemplates
a sequence in which the IJ first decides whether the applicant
“should” provide corroboration, and the applicant then has an
opportunity, if he does not provide it, to explain that he then
“does not have it and cannot”—not “was unable to”—
“reasonably obtain it.” The “cannot reasonably obtain it”
phrase is, once again, necessarily future-oriented. Why would
it matter whether the applicant “can”—now—obtain the infor-
mation unless he is to be given the chance to “obtain it”? So
in this respect as well the language suggests a sequential pro-
cess in which an applicant is to be given an opportunity to
comply rather than faulted—retrospectively and without
notice—for not bringing forward additional evidence he was
never told was needed.

My plain reading of § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) would not require
the IJ to hold two hearings. See Maj. Op. at 5742-43 (quoting
Rapheal v. Mukasey, 533 F.3d 521, 530 (7th Cir. 2008)).
Rather, the sequential analysis would be a procedural protec-
tion, requiring an IJ to make a threshold determination that an
applicant’s otherwise credible testimony cannot alone meet
his burden before the IJ imposes further corroboration
requirements. If—as the majority contends—the need for such
evidence is generally foreseeable, most applicants will likely
have sought such corroboration before the hearing. So, once
corroboration is required, an applicant will most often explain
then and there why such evidence is unavailable, rather than
seeking a continuance. In other cases, an applicant may
request a continuance once he is on notice that a certain type
of corroboration, unexpected before his hearing, will be
required. That possibility is one that the majority concedes
under its reading of the statute. See Maj. Op. at 5744 n.13.5
5
The majority also notes that “nothing prevents” an applicant from
requesting a motion to reopen to provide corroboration at a later time.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5753
Thus, neither the majority’s interpretation of
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) nor my own would automatically either
require or foreclose a second hearing.

B.

As I recount above, in my view the language of
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) is absolutely clear as to the sequential
analysis in which an IJ must engage. It is not as clear in
requiring notice to the alien and an opportunity to explain the
absence of corroboration—although, as I have explained,
those requirements are necessarily implicit in the sequence set
out. But even were I to agree that the majority’s alternative
reading of § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) as excluding notice and oppor-
tunity to explain requirements is a plausible interpretation of
an ambiguous statute, I could not so conclude in the face of
the due process concerns that interpretation creates. I would
instead apply the canon of constitutional avoidance, which
offers an alternative route to my reading of the provision and
eliminates any concern about deference to the BIA’s case law
—which, as I discuss below, is not contrary to my interpreta-
tion anyway.

REAL ID changed the standards governing application for
asylum but did not affect the vitality of our Fifth Amendment
due process case law. That law requires a “full and fair hear-
ing” in deportation proceedings. Campos-Sanchez v. I.N.S.,
164 F.3d 448, 450 (9th Cir. 1999). As a result, to the extent
Congress’s intent in drafting § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) is not quite

Maj. Op. at 5744 n.13. However, an alien must show that evidence pres-
ented with a motion to reopen was not “available and could not have been
discovered or presented at the former hearing.” 8 C.F.R. § 1003.2(c)(1).
As a result, if an IJ decides to require corroboration and finds that such
evidence was reasonably obtainable at the time of the initial hearing, the
BIA is highly unlikely to grant a motion to reopen. Such a reality under-
scores the need for notice of the need for corroboration once the IJ decides
to require it.
5754 SINGH v. HOLDER
clear, “we are governed by the canon of constitutional avoid-
ance, which requires a statute to be construed so as to avoid
serious doubts as to the constitutionality of an alternate con-
struction.” Nadarajah v. Gonzales, 443 F.3d 1069, 1076 (9th
Cir. 2006). Applying this “tool for choosing between compet-
ing plausible interpretations of a statutory text, [which] rest[s]
on the reasonable presumption that Congress did not intend
the alternative which raises serious constitutional doubts,”
Clark v. Martinez, 543 U.S. 370, 381 (2005), reinforces my
conclusion that the REAL ID Act requires notice to the appli-
cant that the IJ is requiring evidence corroborating his credi-
ble testimony and, if the applicant does not provide the
requested evidence, an opportunity to explain why he does not
have it and cannot obtain it.

We have found a due process violation where the BIA did
not tell an alien “that his credibility was questionable, or that
any discrepancies appeared to exist[ ] nor . . . ask[ ] [him] to
explain any such perceived discrepancies” before making an
adverse credibility finding.6 Campos-Sanchez, 164 F.3d at
450; see also Abovian v. I.N.S., 219 F.3d 972, 978 (9th Cir.
2000). Moreover, due process requires “specific, cogent rea-
6
Campos-Sanchez v. I.N.S., 164 F.3d 448 (9th Cir. 1999), like Abovian
v. I.N.S., 219 F.3d 972 (9th Cir. 2000), and Mendoza Manimbao v. Ash-
croft, 329 F.3d 655 (9th Cir. 2003), considered a petition for review filed
before the adoption of 8 C.F.R. § 1003.1(d)(3)(I)(c), which limits to clear
error the BIA’s review of an IJ’s factual determinations. See Board of
Immigration Appeals: Procedural Reforms to Improve Case Management,
67 Fed. Reg. 54,902 (Aug. 26, 2002) (codified at 8 C.F.R.
§ 1003.1(d)(3)(i)), 54,905 (codified at § 1003.3(f)); see also Mendoza
Manimbao, 329 F.3d at 661 (discussing the import of § 1003.1(d)(3)(i) in
the context of credibility determinations). Because the BIA can no longer
review an IJ’s factual findings de novo, sufficient notice and an opportu-
nity to explain inconsistencies must now be provided by the IJ. Consis-
tently with this analysis, in Shrestha v. Holder, this Court relied on pre-
2002 case law that required the BIA to give specific reasons for an adverse
credibility determination in support of Shrestha’s conclusion that an IJ
must do the same, even after REAL ID. See 590 F.3d 1034, 1042 (9th Cir.
2010) (citing Castillo v. I.N.S., 951 F.2d 1117, 1121 (9th Cir. 1991)).
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5755
sons” for concern about an applicant’s credibility; “boilerplate
notice that [an alien’s] credibility is at issue would fall
short[.]” Mendoza Manimbao v. Ashcroft, 329 F.3d 655, 662
(9th Cir. 2003) (alteration omitted). The rule that an IJ must
provide such explicit and specific reasoning for an adverse
credibility determination remains unchanged by REAL ID.
See Shrestha v. Holder, 590 F.3d 1034, 1042-43 (9th Cir.
2010).

At a minimum, then, our prior holdings suggest a serious
possibility that an IJ would deprive an alien of due process if
the IJ did not give an alien providing credible testimony spe-
cific notice as to the kind of corroborating evidence required
and an opportunity to explain on the record why he could not
provide it.

We have also specifically indicated that a demand for
immediate presentation of corroborating evidence, identified
as necessary only at an applicant’s hearing, would raise seri-
ous due process concerns “by depriving [the applicant] of his
guarantee of a reasonable opportunity to present evidence on
his behalf . . . .” Marcos v. Gonzales, 410 F.3d 1112, 1118 n.6
(9th Cir. 2005). There is no reason this constitutionally based
observation should be affected by the REAL ID Act either. I
would therefore hold that the language of § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii)
must be read to avoid this serious concern by adopting an
understanding of the latent ambiguities that alleviates the con-
stitutional concerns unless that interpretation “ ‘is plainly con-
trary to the intent of Congress.’ ” Oregon v. Ashcroft, 368
F.3d 1118, 1125 (9th Cir. 2004) (quoting Edward J. DeBar-
tolo Corp. v. Fla. Gulf Coast Bldg. & Constr. Trades Council,
485 U.S. 568, 575 (1988)).

I note as well that the constitutional avoidance approach
would eliminate any basis for deference to the BIA’s statutory
construction if the BIA’s construction is different from one
reached applying that approach, because “[t]he balance of
expertise . . . shifts against judicial deference to agency inter-
5756 SINGH v. HOLDER
pretations when a constitutional line is about to be crossed.”
Williams v. Babbitt, 115 F.3d 657, 662 (9th Cir. 1997).
“When agencies adopt a constitutionally troubling interpreta-
tion, . . . we can be confident that they not only lacked the
expertise to evaluate the constitutional problems, but probably
didn’t consider them at all.” Id. But, as it turns out, the BIA’s
construction of the corroboration provision is not in fact dif-
ferent from the construction dictated by the constitutional
avoidance approach, so the deference issue just doesn’t arise.

C.

Matter of J—Y—C— and Matter of S—M—J— did not
decide the procedural issues with respect to which the major-
ity purports to defer to those two cases in the event
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) is ambiguous. As a result, even if this stat-
utory provision is in some respects ambiguous and principles
of constitutional avoidance do not apply, there is simply no
need to defer to these off-point BIA opinions.

Matter of J—Y—C—, 24 I. & N. Dec. 260, is certainly not
contrary to my due process-sensitive interpretation. It does
not address the procedural standards inherent in the language
of § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) and so does not merit deference on
these questions.

In Matter of J—Y—C—, an IJ found an asylum applicant
not credible and also “noted that the respondent failed to pro-
duce corroborative documentary or testimonial evidence that
was reasonably available to him.” Id. at 261. On appeal of the
denial of the application, the BIA did not address whether the
applicant was or should have been given any notice of what
corroborating evidence was ultimately required, nor did it dis-
cuss whether the IJ offered the applicant an opportunity to
explain why the evidence was not available.7 Instead, the BIA
7
The J—Y—C— opinion indicates that the applicant attempted to
explain the absence of specific corroborating evidence, suggesting that he
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5757
simply listed three pieces of corroborating evidence that
should have been introduced but were not and stated that the
applicant “ha[d] not shown that such information was unavail-
able to him, as required by the [REAL ID] Act.” Id. at 265-66.
As such J—Y—C— is a purely substantive interpretation of
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii). It does not address any procedural ques-
tion or consider the statutory language in a procedural light,
and so is not at odds with my analysis of the statutory lan-
guage of § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) as setting out a mandatory proce-
dural sequence.

Nor are we bound to defer to Matter of J—Y—C—’s more
general conclusion that Congress codified the BIA’s earlier
precedent of Matter of S—M—J—, 21 I. & N. Dec. 722, when
it passed the REAL ID Act. S—M—J— did not consider any
particular statutory language or focus on procedural questions.
My conclusions regarding the new corroboration provision’s
procedural requirements turn on the precise language used
and not on broad generalizations concerning legislative intent.

Moreover, even if we were to defer to Matter of
S—M—J—, to the extent that case has implications for the
procedure for requiring corroboration after REAL ID, it sup-
ports rather than contradicts my conclusion. In Matter of S—
M—J—, the BIA recognized that an applicant claiming a fear
of future persecution could be credible and yet fail to meet her
burden of proof. As a result, it held, an applicant could be
required to “provide background evidence so that her claim
can be evaluated in the broader context of the conditions of
her country.” Id. at 731. Moreover, it stated:

[W]e also expect general corroborating evidence,
from a reliable source, of persecution of persons in

may have had some notice of what evidence the IJ sought and an opportu-
nity to contest its requirement. See 24 I. & N. Dec. at 265-66 (“The
respondent first claimed that [the absence of statements from family to
corroborate his claim] was because [his relatives] were illiterate but later
indicated that he never sought such documents [from them].”).
5758 SINGH v. HOLDER
circumstances similar to an applicant where such
information is readily available. In the example of
the union vice-president, for example, we would
expect general information that union members in
her country faced persecution. However, specific
documentary corroboration of an applicant’s particu-
lar experiences is not required unless the supporting
documentation is of the type that would normally be
created or available in the particular country and is
accessible to the alien, such as through friends, rela-
tives, or co-workers.

Id. at 726. Although it is clear from this and other language
in S—M—J— that the BIA offered prescriptive guidance
about the types of corroborating information that an applicant
should bring to be secure in his application, the opinion does
not resolve whether an IJ must consider the strength of an
applicant’s testimony before requiring additional corroborat-
ing evidence, or whether the IJ must provide notice to the
applicant of what kind of additional evidence is necessary.

As to providing an applicant with an opportunity to explain
the absence of corroborating evidence, S—M—J— states that
an IJ “must ensure that the applicant’s explanation [for why
corroborating evidence is unavailable] is included in the
record.” Id. at 724. Thus, contrary to the Majority’s assertion,
Maj. Op. at 5743-44, S—M—J— clearly requires an IJ to
develop the record with regard to whether corroborating evi-
dence is available and if not, why not.

III.

In light of my understanding of the statute, I conclude that
the IJ did not correctly apply § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) to Singh’s
claim. I have no grievance with the IJ’s initial decision to look
to corroborating evidence in this case, even given Singh’s pre-
sumption of credibility,8 particularly given the high, “clear
8
Because the IJ did not make an adverse credibility finding with respect
to any portion of Singh’s testimony, Singh is afforded a “rebuttable pre-
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5759
and convincing” evidence burden of proof on the applicant
with respect to the one-year bar. However, I would hold that
the IJ erred by not giving Singh notice that the letter Singh
introduced as corroboration for the one-year filing require-
ment was insufficient or that the IJ was requiring something
more. The IJ also erred by not developing the record enough
for us meaningfully to review whether additional corroborat-
ing evidence was reasonably available.

“Common sense establishes that it is escape and flight, not
litigation and corroboration, that is foremost in the mind of an
alien who comes to these shores fleeing detention, torture and
persecution.” Senathirajah v. I.N.S., 157 F.3d 210, 216 (3d
Cir. 1998). As a result, as the BIA recognized in Matter of S
—M—J—, “[i]t is hardly possible for a refugee to ‘prove’
every part of his case . . . .” 21 I. & N. Dec. at 725 (quoting
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refu-
gees, Handbook on Procedures and Criteria for Determining
Refugee Status Under the 1951 Convention and the 1967 Pro-
tocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, ¶ 203, at 48 (1992)).
Where, as here, an IJ nonetheless is not fully satisfied that the
alien’s own credible testimony satisfies his burden of proof,
it will rarely be self-evident what kind of evidence would be
sufficient or whether that evidence is reasonably available. On
my reading of the statute, the alien must be told, at least in
general terms, what sort of corroboration the IJ is looking for
and given the chance to explain why it is not available if it is
not.

A.

The majority maintains that Singh had sufficient notice in
this case because the IJ told Singh’s counsel “to bring what-
ever documents in the original form that he has to court with

sumption of credibility on appeal.” 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(iii). The gov-
ernment has not attempted to rebut that presumption.
5760 SINGH v. HOLDER
him.” Maj. Op. at 5742. But the IJ’s surrounding comments
make plain that the IJ wanted documents to corroborate
Singh’s identity, not a document indicating Singh’s date of
entry.9

In any event, such a vague instruction cannot pass muster
as notice in the context of Singh’s detailed application,10 just
as the general language of REAL IDand the asylum applica-
tion form do not provide sufficient notice of the corroboration
that an IJ ultimately chooses to require.11 These are general
9
The IJ stated:
Okay, Mr. Ketter, again, please advise your client to bring
whatever documents in the original form that he has to court with
him. He has some time before the issuance, or before the case is
set for the actual merits hearing, that is going to be just about a
month. In [sic] Indian Consulate has a web site, which indicates
that lost or stolen passports can be replaced, or the temporary
travel documents can be issued in as little as, I believe five days
notice, and they can be issued on the grounds for evidence such
a[s] school documents, driving licenses, and so forth. Frequently
the same documents that are given to the Immigration Court, his
identity documents, are the documents the Indian Government
will receive, and issue their [sic] own document.
So that being said, take a look at the web site, if you think it
is appropriate, and if not, have your client bring whatever docu-
ments he has. . . .
(Emphasis added).
10
Among other facts alleged in Singh’s asylum application, Singh speci-
fied twelve dates on which important events occurred, several instances of
torture and the specific places at which the torture took place, the names
of locations where Singh sought medical treatment, and several attempts
by Singh’s family and himself to seek refuge in other specified locations.
11
The I-589 application, which Singh completed, advised that he
“should attach documents evidencing the general conditions in the country
from which you are seeking asylum or other protection and the specific
facts on which you are relying to support your claim. If this documenta-
tion is unavailable or you are not providing this documentation with your
application, please explain why in your responses to the following ques-
tions.”
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5761
statements, divorced from the individualized, sequential
assessment contemplated by § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii).

The majority also notes that the asylum officer, when
declining to grant asylum, indicated that Singh failed to estab-
lish his entry within one year of applying for asylum, seeing
that assessment as adequate to advise Singh of the need for
corroborating evidence of his arrival in the United States. See
Maj. Op. at 5742. But the asylum officer’s referral does not
indicate whether Singh introduced at his asylum interview a
copy of the letter from Nainital upon which he relied as cor-
roboration for his claim before the IJ, nor do we have a tran-
script of what Singh said or was told during his interview with
an asylum officer.

Moreover, immigration court proceedings are, as a general
matter, entirely independent of proceedings before an asylum
officer. An asylum officer may grant asylum but not deny it,
8 C.F.R. § 1208.14(c)(1), and any refusal to grant asylum is
considered entirely de novo by an IJ in removal proceedings,
Singh v. Gonzales, 403 F.3d 1081, 1086 n.2 (9th Cir. 2005).
An asylum officer’s advice when refusing to grant asylum
therefore cannot be controlling in removal proceedings as a
basis for denying asylum.12
12
The statutory provision that the BIA and majority should have applied
to Singh’s claim, 8 U.S.C. § 1229a(c)(4)(B), provides even stronger sup-
port for the conclusion that an IJ must make a determination on the record
that an applicant’s testimony alone is not sufficient to satisfy the appli-
cant’s burden before requiring corroborating evidence. Compare 8 U.S.C.
§ 1229a(c)(4)(B) (“In evaluating the testimony of the applicant or other
witness in support of the application, the immigration judge will determine
whether or not the testimony is credible, is persuasive, and refers to spe-
cific facts sufficient to demonstrate that the applicant has satisfied the
applicant’s burden of proof.”) with 8 U.S.C. § 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) (“The tes-
timony of the applicant may be sufficient to sustain the applicant’s burden
without corroboration, but only if the applicant satisfies the trier of fact
that the applicant’s testimony is credible, is persuasive, and refers to spe-
cific facts sufficient to demonstrate that the applicant is a refugee.”).
5762 SINGH v. HOLDER
Moreover, Singh submitted with respect to the one-year bar
a document that corroborated, to some extent, his date of
entry. In addition to several documents regarding country
conditions in India, Singh provided eleven documents to cor-
roborate the facts to which he testified and his identity, or to
demonstrate his efforts to obtain such corroboration. Among
these documents was a letter from the head of a temple in
Nainital, India, confirming that Singh stayed at the temple for
nearly a month in August 2004 before leaving for Delhi.

Singh contended that this letter corroborated his date of
entry in October 2004. While not confirming the precise date,
the letter did strengthen—and in that sense corroborate—
Singh’s testimony, by showing that the earliest Singh could
have arrived in the United States was September 2004, after
his stay in Nainital. See BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY 596 (8th
ed.) (defining “corroborating evidence” as “[e]vidence that
differs from but strengthens or confirms what other evidence
shows”). The letter was also consistent with Singh’s detailed
testimony, in which he indicated that he was arrested on
August 14, 2004, by the authorities in India, went to Nainital
in August 2004 for one month, and then went to Delhi, where
he stayed for thirty days before leaving India.

At no time did the IJ ask any questions to follow up on the
need for corroboration or to indicate that the letter from the
temple was insufficient to corroborate Singh’s testimony.
Only after closing the record did the IJ explain to Singh:

You traveled to Canada on a false passport in
someone else’s name, and we do not have any docu-
mentation from Canada of when you arrived. You
entered the United States without inspection, so we
have no record of when you entered this country, and
this issue was raised at the Asylum Office, and they
also found that you had not proven when you entered
the country.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5763
Now you have a document from the Gurdwar in
India. Sir, just listen right now. This is not a discus-
sion. You have a document from a Gurdwar before
you left India, but that does not prove when you
came into the United States. So I do not find that you
filed a timely application. (Emphasis added.)

It is therefore clear that the IJ did not indicate until after the
close of evidence that the letter Singh introduced, which did
to some degree corroborate Singh’s testimony, was insuffi-
cient, nor did the IJ give Singh an opportunity to explain the
absence of additional corroborating evidence. The IJ therefore
erred. See Toure, 443 F.3d 310.

B.

Nor did the IJ give Singh an opportunity to explain why he
could not reasonably provide other evidence corroborating his
date of entry. As a result, we have no basis upon which to
determine whether the IJ substantively erred in requiring such
evidence here. See Chukwu v. Att’y Gen. of U.S., 484 F.3d
185, 192 (3d Cir. 2007) (noting that a court reviewing an IJ’s
decision to require corroborating evidence “cannot ascertain
whether the trier of fact would be compelled to find the evi-
dence unavailable unless the applicant is given a chance to
explain why he thinks it is unavailable”); see also Ghaly v.
I.N.S., 58 F.3d 1425, 1430 (9th Cir. 1995) (requiring the BIA
to “provide a comprehensible reason for its decision sufficient
for [the Court] to conduct [its] review and to be assured that
the petitioner’s case received individualized attention”). That
such an explicit determination is required for review is sup-
ported by the language of 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(4), the applica-
ble judicial review provision, which directs that “[n]o court
shall reverse a determination made by a trier of fact with
respect to the availability of corroborating evidence, as
described in section 1158(b)(1)(B) [or] 1229a(c)(4)(b) . . .
unless the court finds . . . that a reasonable trier of fact is com-
5764 SINGH v. HOLDER
pelled to conclude that such corroborating evidence is unavail-
able.”13 (Emphasis added.)

Nowhere in the IJ’s oral ruling or in the merits hearing
transcript did the IJ make a determination that additional cor-
roborating documents were reasonably available to Singh.14
Thus, we have no way of determining why the IJ thought cor-
roborating evidence of Singh’s entry, beyond what Singh
already produced, was reasonably available, if he did. And the
BIA’s opinion does nothing to alleviate this problem.

The majority fills this gap by adopting what appears to be
a per se rule that corroboration of date of entry is “easily sub-
ject to verification” and “eminently reasonable to expect.”
Maj. Op. at 5741-42 (internal quotation omitted). I very much
doubt that the REAL ID Act corroboration provisions, depen-
dent as they are on IJ determinations and weighing of facts,
permit court-imposed, across-the-board rules of this kind. But
13
This standard has been described as a “heightened” one, Shrestha v.
Holder, 590 F.3d at 1047, which it is as compared with our earlier stan-
dard regarding the availability of corroborating evidence. The new statu-
tory standard of review regarding corroboration is the same, though, as
that used to review other factual findings. See 8 U.S.C. § 1252(b)(4)(B)
(providing that “administrative findings of fact are conclusive [on a court
reviewing an order of removal] unless any reasonable adjudicator would
be compelled to conclude to the contrary”).
14
Precisely where the burden falls with regard to the availability of addi-
tional corroborating documents may depend on whether 8 U.S.C.
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) or § 1229a(c)(4)(B) applies. Compare 8 U.S.C.
§ 1158(b)(1)(B)(ii) (“Where the trier of fact determines that the applicant
should provide evidence that corroborates otherwise credible testimony,
such evidence must be provided unless the applicant does not have the evi-
dence and cannot reasonably obtain the evidence.”) with 8 U.S.C.
§ 1229a(c)(4)(B) (“Where the immigration judge determines that the
applicant should provide evidence which corroborates otherwise credible
testimony, such evidence must be provided unless the applicant demon-
strates that the applicant does not have the evidence and cannot reasonably
obtain the evidence.”). As the IJ in Singh’s case made no determination
regarding the availability of corroborating documents, he erred regardless
of the applicable statutory provision.
 SINGH v. HOLDER 5765
even if there are some circumstances that admit of such
edicts, this per se rule cannot stand. It would have the effect
of rendering asylum unobtainable for most people who enter
without inspection, as Singh’s circumstances illustrate.

Singh stated that he had given his real passport to an agent
before leaving India and “snuck across the border” into the
United States. Just as “[p]ersecutors are hardly likely to pro-
vide their victims with affidavits attesting to their acts of per-
secution,” Bolanos-Hernandez v. I.N.S., 767 F.2d 1277, 1285
(9th Cir. 1984), so smugglers are hardly likely to offer a
receipt for their services. In some cases, asylum seekers might
immediately meet family or friends in the United States who
can later attest to their time of arrival, but many will arrive
alone and encounter only strangers on their first days in the
country. They may be transported or provided lodging by the
smugglers, who, again, are unlikely to provide receipts or be
available to testify. And, although asylum seekers may on
occasion take buses or stay in public places of lodging upon
their arrival, they are unlikely to know American asylum law
sufficiently well to hoard receipts so they can later prove their
date of entry. Most of them surely will not “take snapshots”
during their journey and collect “souvenirs,” Maj. Op. at
5742, as the majority naively envisions. The majority’s sup-
position that an illegal entry is “easily subject to verification”
is, in short, fanciful.

*****

For these reasons, I would grant Singh’s petition and
remand to the BIA to decide the case under the proper statu-
tory provision. Alternatively, I would remand with instruc-
tions to consider whether the IJ’s holding can be sustained on
any alternative ground raised before the BIA, and if not, to
remand to the IJ to provide Singh with an indication of the
sort of corroboration required and an opportunity to provide
it or to explain on the record why he cannot. I therefore
respectfully dissent.