IN THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FIFTH CIRCUIT
_________________________________
No. 00-50750
_________________________________
FORD MOTOR COMPANY, a Delaware Corporation,
Plaintiff - Appellant,
v.
TEXAS DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION, MOTOR VEHICLE DIVISION, ET
AL.,
Defendants,
BRETT BRAY, individually and as Director, Chief Executive and
Administrative Officer of the Texas Department of Transportation,
Motor Vehicle Division,
Defendant - Appellee.
---------------------------------
Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Western District of Texas
---------------------------------
August 27, 2001
Before JONES, DEMOSS and BENAVIDES, Circuit Judges.
BENAVIDES, Circuit Judge:
This case involves Ford Motor Company’s (“Ford”) attempt to
market preowned vehicles in Texas via their internet site known
as The Showroom. On November 2, 1999, the Texas Motor Vehicle
Division (“the State”) filed an administrative complaint against
Ford with the Texas Motor Vehicle Board. In the complaint, the
State alleged that Ford violated the Texas Motor Vehicle
Commission Code (“the Code”), TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. art. 4413(36),
§§ 4.01, .06(a)(3), (6) & 5.02C(c), as well as TEX. TRANSP. CODE §
503.021, by selling used vehicles to Texas consumers without a
dealer’s license. Section 4.01(a) of the Code makes it unlawful
to “engage in business as, serve in the capacity of, or act as
a[n] [automobile] dealer . . . without first obtaining a
license.”1 Ford is ineligible under Texas law to receive a
license because § 5.02C(c) provides that:
(c) Except as provided by this section, a manufacturer or
distributor may not directly or indirectly:
(1) own an interest in a dealer or dealership;
(2) operate or control a dealer or dealership; or
(3) act in the capacity of a dealer.
In response to the State’s administrative complaint, Ford
filed suit in federal court alleging that § 5.02C(c) violates
Ford’s rights under the United States Constitution.
Specifically, (1) that § 5.02C(c) facially, or in practical
effect, violates the dormant Commerce Clause;2 (2) that §
5.02C(c), as applied to the Showroom, violates Ford’s First
Amendment right to free speech; (3) that § 5.02C(c) is
unconstitutionally vague; (4) that the State’s enforcement of §
5.02C(c) denied Ford equal protection under the law; and (5) that
Ford was denied due process in the Enforcement Action brought
1
Unless otherwise indicated, all section numbers refer to
those contained in TEX. REV. CIV. STAT. art. 4413(36).
2
Although there is no per se dormant Commerce Clause, we use
the term herein to generically refer to the Supreme Court’s
jurisprudence restricting the rights of the States to discriminate
against or burden interstate commerce.
2
pursuant to § 5.02C(c). The parties filed cross-motions for
summary judgment. The district court granted the State’s motion
for summary judgment as to all of Ford’s claims. Ford filed a
timely appeal with this Court.
We review grants of summary judgment de novo, guided by the
same Rule 56 standard as the district court. Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c);
Stults v. Conoco, Inc., 76 F.3d 651, 654 (5th Cir. 1996).
Pursuant to Rule 56, a party may obtain summary judgment when
“the pleadings, depositions, answers to interrogatories, and
admissions on file, together with the affidavits, if any, show
that there is no genuine issue as to any material fact and that
the moving party is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.”
Fed.R.Civ.P. 56(c). On cross-motions for summary judgment, we
review each party’s motion independently, viewing the evidence
and inferences in the light most favorable to the nonmoving
party. Taylor v. Gregg, 36 F.3d 453, 455 (5th Cir. 1994).
Applying this standard, we find summary judgment appropriate
against all of Ford’s constitutional claims. Accordingly, the
judgment of the district court is AFFIRMED.
Facts
Through the Showroom, located at www.fordpreowned.com.,
customers in Houston, Atlanta, Boston, Washington D.C., New York,
and Newark are able to view an on-line selection of preowned Ford
3
vehicles. The vehicles available through Ford’s website were
originally leased by a Ford dealer to a consumer, sold or leased
by Ford to national car rental companies, or used as company
service vehicles by Ford employees. Ford does not otherwise
obtain used vehicles in order to re-sell them. Rather, the
Showroom is Ford’s attempt to create the most profitable market
to re-sell these vehicles. Interested customers, after placing a
$300 refundable deposit, may arrange to have a designated vehicle
sent to a local dealer in order that they may test-drive it.
Following their test-drive, the customer may then accept or
decline to purchase the vehicle at the “no-haggle” price
determined by Ford and listed on the website. Upon payment or
financing approval, Ford transfers title to the dealer, who, in
turn, transfers title to the customer.
Twenty-two dealers in the Houston metropolitan area joined
the program by signing Dealer Participation Agreements. The
Agreement prohibits dealers from selling the selected vehicle at
any price other than that set by Ford or charging the customer
any handling or documentary fees. The Agreement also prohibits
the dealer from attempting to interest the customer in any of the
dealer’s inventory until after the customer has declined to
purchase the Ford internet vehicle. These dealers were advised
through a letter sent by Carol Kent, the Director of the Texas
Department of Transportation, Enforcement Section, of Ford’s
alleged violation and that their participation in the program
4
constituted aiding and abetting a violation of the Code. They
were notified of potential administrative enforcement action if
they did not discontinue their participation.
Discussion
Ford argues that § 5.02C(c) of the Code violates the dormant
Commerce Clause because it discriminates against of out-of-state
interests. Alternatively, Ford contends that § 5.02C(c)
unconstitutionally burdens the flow of interstate commerce. The
Commerce Clause provides that “[t]he Congress shall have Power .
. . [t]o regulate Commerce . . . among the several States.” Art.
I, § 8, cl. 3. The Constitution thus specifically grants
Congress power to regulate interstate commerce. If state
regulation conflicts with federal law governing commerce, the
Supremacy Clause mandates that the state law be invalidated. In
matters not governed by federal legislation, “the Clause has long
been understood to have a ‘negative’ aspect that denies the
States the power unjustifiably to discriminate against or burden
the interstate flow of articles of commerce.” Oregon Waste
Systems, Inc. v. Department of Environmental Quality, 511 U.S.
93, 98, 114 S.Ct. 1345, 1349 (1994).
In reviewing state regulations on interstate commerce under
the dormant Commerce Clause, “the first step is to determine
whether it ‘regulates evenhandedly with only ‘incidental’ effects
5
on interstate commerce, or discriminates against interstate
commerce.’” Id. at 99 (quoting Hughes v. Oklahoma, 441 U.S. 322,
325-26, 99 S.Ct. 1727, 1731 (1979)). A statute discriminates
against interstate commerce when it provides for “differential
treatment of in-state and out-of-state economic interests that
benefits the former and burdens the latter.” Id. “If a
restriction on commerce is discriminatory, it is virtually per se
invalid.” Oregon Waste Sys., 511 U.S. at 99. On the other hand,
nondiscriminatory regulations are analyzed under the balancing
test established in Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc., whereby the
regulation is valid unless “the burden imposed on such commerce
is clearly excessive in relation to the putative local benefits.”
397 U.S. 137, 142, 90 S.Ct. 844, 847 (1970). Because of the wide
variation in scrutiny under the respective tests, this initial
inquiry is often dispositive of the underlying issue. And while
“there is no clear line separating the category of state
regulation that is virtually per se invalid under the Commerce
Clause, and the category subject to the Pike v. Bruce Church
balancing approach,” this case clearly falls on the Pike side of
the equation. Brown-Forman Distillers Corp. v. New York State
Liquor Auth., 476 U.S. 573, 579, 106 S.Ct. 2080, 2084 (1986).
The State’s purpose for enacting the Code is set forth in §
1.02, which provides:
The distribution and sale of new motor vehicles in this
6
State vitally affects the general economy of the State and
the public interest and welfare of its citizens. It is the
policy of this State and the purpose of this Act to exercise
the State’s police power to insure a sound system of
distributing and selling new motor vehicles through
licensing and regulating the manufacturers, distributors,
and franchised dealers of those vehicles to provide for
compliance with manufacturer’s warranties, and to prevent
frauds, unfair practices, discrimination, impositions, and
other abuses of our citizens.
Specifically, with respect to the addition of § 5.02C(c), the
legislative history indicates the legislature’s intent to prevent
manufacturers from utilizing their superior market position to
compete against dealers in the retail car market. The
legislature’s concern was fueled by the recent opening of several
dealerships owned by manufacturers and the perceived detriment to
the public from vertical integration of the automobile market.
Ford argues that this isolation of Texas’ retail car market
impermissibly discriminates against out-of-state interests and
amounts to nothing more than economic protectionism.
Ford would have us interpret Oregon Waste Sys.’s basic
definition of discrimination – “differential treatment of in-
state and out-of-state economic interests that benefits the
former and burdens the latter” – to include all instances in
which a law, in effect, burdens some out-of-state interest while
benefitting some in-state interest. Certainly, a facially
neutral statute may be discriminatory because of its effect. See
Minnesota v. Clover Leaf Creamery Company, 449 U.S. 456, 471
n.15, 101 S.Ct. 715, (1981) (“A court may find a state law
7
constitutes ‘economic protectionism’ on proof of either
discriminatory effect, or of discriminatory purpose.” (citations
omitted)). However, beyond this point, Ford’s expansive
interpretation of discrimination is inconsistent with Supreme
Court precedent including Oregon Waste Sys. itself. The Court’s
jurisprudence finds discrimination only when a State
discriminates among similarly situated in-state and out-of-state
interests. Thus, in Oregon Waste Sys., the Court found facially
discriminatory an Oregon law that subjected out-of-state waste to
substantially higher fees than in-state waste. This critical
distinction is highlighted in the principal cases relied upon by
the parties.
The State relies heavily, and justifiably so, on Exxon Corp.
v. Maryland, 437 U.S. 117, 98 S.Ct. 2207 (1978). We find no
significant factual or legal distinction between Exxon and the
instant case. In Exxon, oil companies challenged the validity of
a Maryland statute prohibiting producers and refiners of
petroleum products from operating retail service stations within
Maryland. In the present case, Ford, an automobile manufacturer,
challenges the validity of a Texas statute prohibiting
manufacturers of automobiles from retailing automobiles within
Texas. The oil producers in Exxon presented Commerce Clause
challenges identical to those raised by Ford. The producers
argued that “the Maryland statute violate[d] the Commerce Clause
8
in three ways: (1) by discriminating against interstate commerce;
(2) by unduly burdening interstate commerce; and (3) by imposing
controls on a commercial activity of such an essentially
interstate character that it is not amendable to state
regulation.” Exxon, 437 U.S. at 125. The Court rejected each of
these claims. In so doing, the Court made clear that merely
because “the burden of a state regulation falls on some
interstate companies does not, by itself, establish a claim of
discrimination against interstate commerce.” Exxon, 437 U.S. at
126. Absent a facially discriminatory purpose, a State statute
or regulation is discriminatory when it provides for differential
treatment of similarly situated entities based upon their
contacts with the State or has the effect of providing a
competitive advantage to in-state interests vis-a-vis similarly
situated out-of-state interests.
Ford’s response is to characterize Exxon as an anomaly, born
solely of the Supreme Court’s reaction to the existing gas
crisis. In support of this contention, Ford cites Hunt v.
Washington Advertising Comm., 432 U.S. 333, 97 S.Ct. 2434 (1977)
and Lewis v. BT Invest. Managers, Inc., 447 U.S. 27, 100 S.Ct.
2009 (1980), two cases in which the Court found the contested
statutes discriminatory. Far from undermining the holding in
Exxon, these cases serve to punctuate why its holding controls
the outcome of this case.
9
In Hunt, the Washington State Apple Advertising Commission,
which is comprised of Washington apple growers and dealers,
challenged a North Carolina statute that prohibited containers
from bearing any grade other than the applicable U.S. grade or
standard. Hunt, 432 U.S. at 335. The statute thus prohibited
the display of Washington State apple grades which had gained
nationwide acceptance among consumers. The Court held that the
law at issue was discriminatory because it raised the costs of
doing business in the local market, stripped away the economic
advantages for an out-of-state participant, and gave advantages
to local participants. Hunt, 432 U.S. at 350-52. Importantly,
the Court evaluated the discriminatory effect of these factors on
Washington apples growers and dealers as compared to North
Carolina apple growers and dealers. Hunt, 432 U.S. at 351-52.
In the same respect, the Court’s focus in Exxon was on the
discriminatory effect between in-state and out-of-state dealers,
not on discrimination between out-of-state producers and in-state
dealers. Exxon, 437 U.S. at 125-26. Hence, in analyzing whether
§ 5.02C(c) is discriminatory under the dormant Commerce Clause we
examine its effect on similarly situated business entities.
This critical basis of comparison was the focus of the
Court’s holding in Lewis v. BT Invest. Managers, Inc. At issue
in Lewis was a Florida Statute prohibiting out-of-state banks,
bank holding companies, and trust companies from owning or
10
controlling a business within the State that sells investment
advisory services. Lewis, 447 U.S. at 31-32. The Florida
statute placed no similar restriction on in-state banks, bank
holding companies, or trust companies offering investment
advisory services. The Court began its analysis of the Florida
statute by noting certain similarities between the statutes in
Exxon and Lewis: first, each statute discriminated against
vertical organization and second, each statute permitted certain
kinds of interstate competitors into the market while prohibiting
others. Lewis, 447 U.S. at 41. Section 5.02C(c) likewise
possesses both of these attributes. The significant point of
distinction, and why Exxon did not control in Lewis, was because:
Section 659.141(1) engages in an additional form of
discrimination that is highly significant for purposes of
Commerce Clause analysis. Under the Florida statute,
discrimination against affected business organization is not
evenhanded because only banks, bank holding companies, and
trust companies with principal operations outside of Florida
are prohibited from operating investment subsidiaries or
giving investment advice within the State. It follows that
§ 659.141(1) discriminates among affected business entities
[banks, bank holding companies, and trust companies]
according to the extent of their contacts with the local
economy. The absence of a similar discrimination between
interstate and local producer-refiners was a most critical
factor in Exxon.
Lewis, 447 U.S. at 42 (emphasis in original).
Ford has failed to show that, either facially or in
practical effect, § 5.02C(c) discriminates according to the
extent of a business entity’s contacts with the State. Section
5.02C(c) does not discriminate based on Ford’s contacts with the
11
State, but rather on the basis of Ford’s status as an automobile
manufacturer. It is irrelevant under § 5.02C(c) whether Ford, as
a manufacturer, is domiciled in Texas or Michigan. In either
circumstance, it is similarly prohibited from engaging in retail
automobile sales in Texas. See CTS Corp. v. Dynamics Corp. of
America, 481 U.S. 69, 87, 107 S.Ct. 1637 (1987) (upholding a
statute because “[i]t has the same effects . . . whether or not
the [entity] is a domiciliary or resident of [the State].”).
Ford points to the fact that Texas has no motor vehicle
manufacturers as evidence of the law’s discriminatory purpose and
effect. In actuality, under the Code’s broad definition of motor
vehicle, Texas manufacturers of motorboats and motorcycles are
considered motor vehicle manufacturers. See § 1.03(25).
Irrespective of this fact, the Court rejected a similar assertion
in Exxon, finding of no consequence that there were no Maryland
oil producers or refiners. Exxon, 437 U.S. at 125.
Moreover, § 5.02C(c) does not discriminate against
independent automobile dealers seeking to operate in Texas. The
section only prevents manufacturers, regardless of their
domicile, from entering the retail market. Consequently, §
5.02C(c) does not protect dealers from out-of-state competition,
it protects dealers from competition from manufacturers. Out-of-
state corporations, which are non-manufacturers, have the same
opportunity as in-state corporations to obtain a license and
12
operate a dealership in Texas. Thus, § 5.02C(c) does not
discriminate among in-state and out-of-state manufacturers, nor
does it discriminate among in-state and out-of-state dealers by
raising the costs of doing business in the local market,
stripping away the economic advantages for an out-of-state
participant, or giving advantages to local participants. The
absence of such discrimination, either facially or in practical
effect, removes § 5.02C(c) from the Supreme Court’s definition of
a discriminatory law.
The controlling question thus becomes whether, under Pike v.
Bruce Church, “the burden imposed on [interstate] commerce is
clearly excessive in relation to the putative local benefits.”
397 U.S. at 142. As evidence of the burden on commerce caused by
§ 5.02C(c), Ford extols the benefits of the Showroom to
consumers, Texas automobile dealers, and Ford itself. The
district court correctly ignored these alleged benefits, the
elimination of which is not a constitutional burden on commerce.
These arguments relate to the economic efficacy of the statute
and are misdirected to this Court. Exxon, 437 U.S. at 128 (“It
may be true that the consuming public will be injured . . . but .
. . that argument relates to the wisdom of the statute, not its
burden on commerce.”). Ford has also failed to demonstrate that
§5.02C(c) will burden commerce by inhibiting the flow of
interstate goods. The number of out-of-state vehicles retailed
13
in Texas will not decrease because of § 5.02C(c). Section
5.02C(c) merely requires that automobiles be retailed through
independent dealerships, rather than manufacturer-operated
dealerships. See Exxon, 437 U.S. at 127 (holding that the
Commerce Clause does not protect “the particular structure or
methods of operation in a retail market.”). However, even
assuming that § 5.02C(c) does create a burden on interstate
commerce, Ford has failed to establish that the burden is clearly
excessive in relation to the putative local benefits.
Ford initially posits that there are no legitimate state
interests to protect, so any burden is clearly excessive. Ford’s
argument is without merit. The State’s asserted purposes for
passing § 5.02C(c) – to prevent vertically integrated companies
from taking advantage of their incongruous market position and
“to prevent frauds, unfair practices, discrimination,
impositions, and other abuses of our citizens” – are legitimate
state interests. See Lewis, 447 U.S. at 43 (“Discouraging
economic concentrations and protecting the citizenry against
fraud are undoubtedly legitimate state interests.”).
Ford next argues that even if the State’s interests are
legitimate, § 5.02C(c) does not further these interests. In this
regard, Ford’s most compelling argument is that it does not
14
occupy a superior position in the preowned vehicle marketplace.3
Consistent with the use of the term “putative” in the Pike
balancing, this Court will not “second guess the empirical
judgment of lawmakers concerning the utility of legislation.”
CTS Corp., 481 U.S. at 92. As Justice Brennan explained in his
concurring opinion in Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp.:
In determining those benefits, a court should focus
ultimately on the regulatory purposes identified by the
lawmakers and on the evidence before or available to them
that might have supported their judgment. Since the court
must confine its analysis to the purposes the lawmakers had
for maintaining the regulation, the only relevant evidence
concerns whether the lawmakers could rationally have
believed that the challenged regulation would foster those
purposes. It is not the function of the court to decide
whether in fact the regulation promotes its intended
purpose, so long as an examination of the evidence before or
available to the lawmaker indicates that the regulation is
not wholly irrational in light of its purposes.
450 U.S. 662, 680-81, 101 S.Ct. 1309 (citations omitted)
(emphasis in original). Irrespective of Ford’s or this Court’s
view of the law’s potential effect, there is certainly evidence
from which a reasonable legislator could believe § 5.02C(c) would
further the State’s legitimate interest in preventing
manufacturers from utilizing their superior market position to
3
Ford also argues that it is not competing against
independent dealers through the Showroom. Such a contention is
without merit. Ford seeks to have consumers purchase a vehicle
directly from Ford through its internet site rather than purchasing
a vehicle from the inventory on the dealer’s lot. In addition to
this obvious competition, the price Ford sets for its Showroom
vehicles will certainly effect the price of preowned vehicles sold
by independent dealers.
15
compete against dealers.4
Ford obtains a large volume of preowned vehicles that were
originally leased by a Ford dealer to a consumer, sold or leased
by Ford to national car rental companies, or used as company
service vehicles by Ford employees. These are not “used”
vehicles in the sense that they have been previously retailed to
a consumer.5 The vehicles are relatively new, Ford and Lincoln-
Mercury vehicles to which Ford never relinquished title.
Previously, Ford sold these vehicles through closed auctions to
its dealers. Ford now selects some of these vehicles and,
through the Showroom, retails the vehicles itself.6 With respect
4
As background on the relationship between automobile
manufacturers and dealers, at least as it existed in the late
1970’s, see excerpts from a congressional committee report cited by
the Supreme Court in New Motor Vehicle Bd. of California v. Orrin
W. Fox Co., 439 U.S. 96, 100 n.4 99 S.Ct. 403 (1978).
5
It appears that nothing in the Code would prohibit Ford from
selling such “used” vehicles to consumers. The Code only prohibits
a manufacturer from selling “new motor vehicles” – motor vehicles
which have not been the subject of a prior retail sale. See §
103(15) and (26).
6
Pervading Ford’s constitutional challenges is its insistence
that it is not technically selling automobiles to consumers since
it transfers title to the dealer who, in turn, transfers title to
the consumer. Regardless of the merit of this argument, it is not
relevant to Ford’s constitutional claims. It relates to Ford’s
alleged violation of § 5.02C(c), a question not before this Court
and appropriately left to the administrative law judge by the
district court. In its brief, Ford states that “[t]he district
court concluded that, because Ford ‘sold’ Showroom Vehicles
directly to consumers, Ford was ‘acting in the capacity of a
dealer’ in violation of § 5.02C(c)(3).” On the contrary, the
district court expressly declined “to determine whether Ford’s
conduct violate[d] the Code as this determination is best made by
16
to these vehicles, Ford seems to remain in a superior market
position to its dealers. At least, the evidence is not so one-
sided as to lead this Court to believe that the proffered state
interests are an excuse to discriminate against or burden
interstate commerce for the benefit of local industry. Ford has
thus failed to carry its burden of proving that “the burden
imposed on such commerce is clearly excessive in relation to the
putative local benefits.”
Finally, Ford asserts, as did the oil producers in Exxon,
that the need for nationwide uniformity outweighs the State’s
interests in regulating. Here, Ford does not rely on the
nationwide market for the automobile, but instead on the role of
the internet and so-called e-commerce. For this proposition, it
cites American Libraries Assoc. v. Pataki, 969 F. Supp. 160
(S.D.N.Y. 1997). The challenged statute in Pataki sought to
prohibit the knowing dissemination, via the internet, of sexual
depictions or communications to a minor. Id. at 963. One of the
bases on which the district court ruled the Act unconstitutional
the administrative law judge.” Ford Motor Co. v. Texas Dept. of
Trans., 106 F.2d Supp. 905, 913-14 (W.D. Tex. 2000). At the time
the briefs were filed in this case, the administrative law judge
had submitted her Proposal for Decision to the Motor Vehicles
Board. The ruling is a recommendation to the Board, which then
renders a final decision. A party is entitled to judicial review
of any final board action in a District Court of Travis County,
Texas. See Section 7.01(a). Any ruling by this Court on whether
Ford violated the Code would improperly preempt established
administrative procedures.
17
was that the internet falls among those types of commerce that
“demand consistent treatment and are therefore susceptible to
regulation only on a national level.” Id. at 181. When
considering laws that directly regulate internet activities, this
alleged need for uniformity may well prevail. However,
application of this principle in circumstances like the instant
case would lead to absurd results. It would allow corporations
or individuals to circumvent otherwise constitutional state laws
and regulations simply by connecting the transaction to the
internet. Section 5.02C(c) serves as a prohibition on all forms
of marketing and sales by manufacturers, not just those conducted
via the internet. In the absence of Congressional legislation, §
5.02C(c)’s incidental regulation of internet activities does not
violate the Commerce Clause.
Ford’s second challenge is that § 5.02C(c), as applied to
the Showroom, violates its First Amendment right to speech. The
advertising and information on Ford’s website constitutes
commercial speech. “The First Amendment, as applied to the
States through the Fourteenth Amendment, protects commercial
speech from unwarranted governmental regulation.” Central Hudson
Gas & Elec. Corp. v. Public Service Comm. of New York, 447 U.S.
557, 561 100 S.Ct. 2343, 2349 (1980) (citing Virginia Pharmacy
Board v. Virginia Citizens Consumer Council, 425 U.S. 748, 761-
18
62, 96 S.Ct. 1817, 1825 (1976)). Commercial speech is, however,
afforded lesser protection under the Constitution than other
forms of expression. See Florida Bar v. Went For It, Inc., 515
U.S. 618, 623, 115 S.Ct. 2371, 2375 (1995) (“Commercial speech
enjoys a limited measure of protection, commensurate with its
subordinate position in the scale of First Amendment values, and
is subject to modes of regulation that might be impermissible in
the realm of noncommercial expression.”). This Court analyzes
commercial speech cases under Central Hudson’s four-part
framework:
At the outset, we must determine whether the expression is
protected by the First Amendment. For commercial speech to
come within that provision, it at least must concern lawful
activity and not be misleading. Next, we ask whether the
asserted governmental interest is substantial. If both
inquiries yield positive answers, we must determine whether
the regulation directly advances the governmental interest
asserted, and whether it is not more extensive than is
necessary to serve that interest.
Dunagin v. City of Oxford, Miss., 718 F.2d 738, 746-47 (5th Cir.
1983) (en banc) (quoting Central Hudson, 447 U.S. at 566). The
first step is thus to determine whether the speech involved in
this case concerns a lawful activity. The State does not contest
that the information on Ford’s website is truthful and not
misleading.
Ford argues that in order for the commercial speech to be
unlawful, it must be inherently unlawful or otherwise prohibited
by some law independent from § 5.02C(c). Specifically, Ford
19
reasons that “[t]he proper analysis under Central Hudson’s first
prong is to determine whether some valid law, besides the
challenged law, made the speech unlawful. If this were not true,
then the challenged state law would always trump the First
Amendment because one’s speech would always be ‘unlawful’ under
the challenged law.” While superficially appealing, the flaw in
Ford’s logic becomes apparent upon consideration of its
underlying assumptions and established Supreme Court precedent.
Section 5.02C(c) prohibits manufacturers from retailing
motor vehicles to consumers. An accompanying result of this
prohibition is that Ford is not allowed to advertise the sale of
motor vehicles to consumers. The Supreme Court has made clear
that “[a]ny First Amendment interest which might be served by
advertising an ordinary commercial proposal and which might
arguably outweigh the governmental interest supporting the
regulation is altogether absent when the commercial activity
itself is illegal and the restriction on advertising is
incidental to a valid limitation on economic activity.”
Pittsburgh Press Co. v. Pittsburgh Commission on Human Relations,
413 U.S. 376, 389, 93 S.Ct. 2553, 2561 (1973). In the present
case, the restriction on Ford’s ability to advertise on their
website is only incidental to § 5.02C(c)’s prohibition on Ford’s
right to engage in the economic activity of retailing
20
automobiles.7 In contrast, if § 5.02C(c) prohibited advertising
the sale of motor vehicles by licensed dealers, a commercial
activity lawful in Texas, the regulation would invoke the
protections of the First Amendment and be subjected to the
intermediate scrutiny outlined in Hudson.
Typically, when an individual or corporation challenges an
economic regulation under the Due Process or Equal Protection
Clause, a State has the minimal burden of showing that the law
has a rational basis. Under Ford’s reasoning, a petitioner could
bootstrap themselves into the heightened scrutiny of the First
Amendment simply by infusing the prohibited conduct with some
7
In this case, Ford is not really challenging the prohibition
on advertising through its website, it is challenging its ability
to retail automobiles in Texas. Therefore, it is Ford’s burden to
prove that § 5.02C(c) is not a valid limitation on economic
activity; it is not the State’s burden to show another law under
which the economic activity is prohibited. See Pittsburgh Press,
413 U.S. at 388 (“Discrimination in employment is not only a
commercial activity, it is illegal commercial activity under the
Ordinance.”) (emphasis added). The federal district court for the
Southern District of Texas expounded this principle in response to
a similar First Amendment challenge to § 5.03 of the Code – Texas’
Anti-Brokering Statute. The district court explained that “[t]he
statute is aimed at regulating the business of brokering, not the
speech of brokers. The statute does not proscribe what a broker
may or may not say – it makes the business of brokering unlawful,
and thus makes any conduct or speech made in furtherance of
brokering unlawful. . . . If the State may constitutionally
prohibit an activity, it may also prohibit commercial speech
relating to that activity. In the instant case, if the State’s
regulation of new vehicle brokering is otherwise constitutional,
then the resulting restriction on commercial speech of those not
permitted to broker new vehicles will not render the same statute
unconstitutional.” Automaxx, Inc. v. Morales, 906 F.Supp. 394, 402
& n.6 (S.D. Tex. 1995).
21
element of speech. Petitioners in Giboney v. Empire Storage &
Ice Co., 336 U.S. 490, 69 S.Ct. 684 (1949), attempted to lead the
Supreme Court down the same erroneous path suggested by Ford. In
Giboney, the petitioners were Union members who sought to picket
outside of their employer’s place of business. Id. at 492.
Their picketing was in protest of a company agreement to purchase
ice from non-union peddlers. Id. A state court enjoined the
picketers pursuant to Missouri law, which prevented unreasonable
interferences with trade. Id. at 493. After concluding that the
challenged State law was within the power of the State, the
Supreme Court rejected the picketers’ contention that the
injunction was an unconstitutional abridgement of free speech
because they were only disseminating truthful facts. Id. The
Court found that the speech was part of an integrated course of
conduct “which was in violation of Missouri’s valid law.” Id.
Furthermore, that “it has never been deemed an abridgement of
freedom of speech or press to make a course of conduct illegal
merely because the conduct was in part initiated, evidenced, or
carried out by means of language, either spoken, written, or
printed. . . . Such an expansive interpretation of the
constitutional guaranties of speech and press would make it
practically impossible ever to enforce laws against agreements in
restraint of trade as well as many other agreements and
conspiracies deemed injurious to society.” Id. at 502; see also
22
Ohralik v. Ohio State Bar Assoc., 436 U.S. 447, 456, 98 S.Ct.
1912, 1918 (1978).
The Court’s reasoning in Giboney applies to Ford’s
advertisement, via the internet, of preowned motor vehicles.
That advertisement, while of truthful facts, is part of an
integrated course of conduct which violates Texas law – retailing
motor vehicles without a license. Ford’s speech does not concern
a lawful activity and any restriction on Ford’s commercial speech
is only incidental to the State’s prohibition on Ford’s ability
to retail motor vehicles. Thus, we need not progress further in
the Central Hudson analysis in order to reject Ford’s First
Amendment claim.
Section 5.02C(c) provides that a manufacturer may not
directly or indirectly, operate or control a dealer or act in the
capacity of a dealer. In its administrative complaint, the State
alleged that Ford, through the operation of the Showroom, acted
in the capacity of a dealer. Ford counters that § 5.02C(c) is
unconstitutionally vague and does not provide it fair notice of
what conduct constitutes “operating or controlling a dealer” or
“acting in the capacity of a dealer.” In this regard, Ford
correctly notes that neither of these phrases are defined in the
Code. The term “dealer” is, however. Additionally, during her
deposition, Carol Kent, the Director of the Texas Department of
23
Transportation, Enforcement Section, indicated that if a company
had any questions regarding whether their conduct violated the
Code, they could contact the Motor Vehicle Division. Ford
attacks this position as unreasonable.
Under this Court’s precedent, the appropriate test for a
vagueness challenge depends on whether the statute at issue is
civil or criminal. For criminal statutes “[w]e employ the
two-part void-for-vagueness test described in City of Chicago v.
Morales”:
Vagueness may invalidate a criminal law for either of two
independent reasons. First, it may fail to provide the kind
of notice that will enable ordinary people to understand
what conduct it prohibits; second, it may authorize and even
encourage arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.
United States v. Escalante, 239 F.3d 678, 680 (5th Cir. 2001)
(quoting 527 U.S. at 56). A less stringent standard is applied
to civil statutes that regulate economic activity. See Village
of Hoffman Estates v. Flipside Hoffman Estates, Inc., 455 U.S.
489, 495, 102 S.Ct. 1186, 1191 (1982) (“[E]conomic regulation is
subject to a less strict vagueness test”). An economic
regulation is invalidated “only if it commands compliance in
terms ‘so vague and indefinite as really to be no rule or
standard at all’ . . . or if it is ‘substantially
incomprehensible.’” United States v. Clinical Leasing Services,
Inc., 925 F.2d 120, 122 n.2 (5th Cir. 1991) (quoting A.B. Small
Co. v. American Sugar Refining Co., 267 U.S. 233, 239 (1925) and
24
Exxon Corp. v. Busbee, 644 F.2d 1030, 1033 (5th Cir. 1981)).
There is, however, a caveat to this general rule. Civil statutes
or regulations that contain quasi-criminal penalties may be
subject to the more stringent review afforded criminal statutes.
The Supreme Court applied the more stringent standard in
reviewing an ordinance that required stores to obtain a license
to sell “any items, effect, paraphernalia, accessory or thing
which is designed or marketed for use with illegal cannabis or
drugs . . . .” Hoffman, 455 U.S. at 500. Customers that
purchased such goods were forced to sign their names and
addresses to a register that would be available to police. Id.
at 500 n.16. The Court concluded that, while the statute
nominally imposed civil penalties, its prohibitory and
stigmatizing effect warranted quasi-criminal treatment. Id. at
489.
In United States v. Clinical Leasing Service, Inc., 925 F.2d
120, 122 (5th Cir. 1991), this Court reviewed a federal statute
prescribing civil penalties for “[a]ny party who distributes or
authorizes the distribution of controlled substances without
adequate registration.” Although the statute authorized civil
penalties, this Court determined that “its prohibitory effect is
quasi-criminal and warrants a relatively strict test.” Id. As
such, the statute was required to define the offense “‘with
sufficient definiteness that ordinary people can understand what
25
conduct is prohibited and in a manner that does not encourage
arbitrary and discriminatory enforcement.’” Id. (citing Kolender
v. Lawson, 461 U.S. 352, 357, 103 S.Ct. 1855, 1858 (1983)).
Similarly, this Court found that where a statute permits
“potentially significant civil and administrative penalties,
including fines and license revocation,” quasi-criminal treatment
is appropriate and thus the more strict standard of review
applies. Woman’s Medical Center of Northwest Houston v. Bell,
2001 WL 370053 (5th Cir. 2001). In the present case, the Code
only provides for civil monetary damages in the event of a
violation. And while the potential fines are substantial,8 no
prohibitory effect or quasi-criminal penalties are associated
with a violation of the Code. Thus, Ford must show that §
5.02C(c) is vague, “not in the sense that it requires a person to
conform to an imprecise, but comprehensible normative standard,
but rather in the sense that no standard of conduct is specified
at all.” Ferguson v. Estelle, 718 F.2d 730, 735 (5th Cir. 1983)
(quoting Coates v. Cincinnati, 402 U.S. 611, 614, 91 S.Ct. 1686
(1971)).
The Motor Vehicle Code provides that for purposes of § 5.02
“dealer” means “franchised dealer.” Therefore, in deciding
whether § 5.02C(c) provides a comprehensible standard for “acting
8
Indeed, the administrative law judge submitted her Proposal
for Decision to the Motor Vehicles Board recommending a civil
penalty of approximately $ 1.7 million.
26
in the capacity of a dealer,” this Court must first look to the
definition of a franchised dealer. A franchised dealer is “any
person . . . who is engaged in the business of buying, selling,
or exchanging new motor vehicles and servicing or repairing motor
vehicles . . . .”9 Section 1.03(15). A new motor vehicle means
“a motor vehicle which has not been the subject of a ‘retail
sale’ without regard to the mileage of the vehicle.” Section
1.03(26). A retail sale means “the sale of a motor vehicle
except a sale in which the purchaser acquires a vehicle for the
purpose of resale.” Section 1.03(32). Ford argues that, based
on the definitions in § 1.03, it did not technically engage in a
retail sale because it sold the automobile to the dealer who then
sold it to the customer. Because the purchaser, the dealer,
purchased the vehicle for the purpose of resale, the transaction
is excepted from the definition of a retail sale. Or, in any
event, they could not know if such an arrangement was prohibited
by § 5.02C(c).
Ford essentially argues that § 5.02C(c) is vague because
9
The full text of § 1.03(15) provides:
“Franchised dealer” means any person who holds a franchised
motor vehicle dealer’s general distinguishing number issued by
the Department pursuant to the terms of Chapter 503,
Transportation Code, and who is engaged in the business of
buying, selling, or exchanging new motor vehicles and
servicing or repairing motor vehicles pursuant to the terms of
a franchise and a manufacturer’s warranty at an established
and permanent place of business pursuant to a franchise in
effect with a manufacturer or distributor.
27
Ford was unsure whether its operation of the Showroom constituted
acting the capacity of a dealer. Ford’s argument misapprehends
the basic purpose behind prohibiting vague statutes. Vague
statutes violate due process, because laws must “give the person
of ordinary intelligence a reasonable opportunity to know what is
prohibited, so that he may act accordingly.” Grayned v. City of
Rockford, 408 U.S. 104, 108, 92 S.Ct. 2294, 2298 (1972). Ford
knew, that as a manufacturer, it was prohibited from selling
automobiles and it had fair notice that its conduct may violate §
5.02C(c).10 In drafting § 5.02C(c), the legislature probably
intended, permissibly so, to capture whatever creative conduct
could be imagined by manufacturers to circumvent the statute’s
intended prohibition. A statute is not unconstitutionally vague
merely because a company or an individual can raise uncertainty
about its application to the facts of their case. A statute is
unconstitutionally vague “only where no standard of conduct is
10
A brief review of the Showroom’s operation makes clear that
Ford’s activities implicate the prohibition on a manufacturer
acting in the capacity of a dealer. Ford directly operates the
Showroom through its website www.fordpreowned.com. Ford owns title
to the vehicles displayed on the site; controls which vehicles are
displayed on the site; controls what information is presented about
the vehicles; and sets the “no-haggle” price for each vehicle.
Consumers select a vehicle from the site and, for a $300 refundable
deposit, Ford delivers the vehicle to a local dealer for a test
drive. After the test drive, the consumer decides whether or not
to purchase the vehicle. Until the consumer clearly rejects the
Ford internet vehicle, the dealer cannot offer the consumer a
vehicle from the dealer’s inventory. If the consumer decides to
purchase the Ford internet vehicle, Ford transfers title to the
dealer, who then transfers title to the consumer.
28
outlined at all; when no core of prohibited activity is defined.”
Margaret S. v. Edwards, 794 F.2d 994, 997 (5th Cir. 1986).
The level of precision a statute must contain depends, in
part, upon the nature of the enactment. Clinical Leasing, 925
F.2d at 122. Broader proscriptions are permitted in economic
regulations because “businesses, which face economic demands to
plan behavior carefully, can be expected to consult relevant
legislation in advance of action. Indeed, the regulated
enterprise may have the ability to clarify the meaning of the
regulation by its own inquiry, or by resort to an administrative
process.” Id. at 498. By making an inquiry in this case, Ford
could have obtained a pre-enforcement ruling on whether the
Showroom complied with Texas law. In fact, negotiations between
the State and General Motors allowed GM to become involved in
running a website in compliance with Texas law. Even absent an
administrative procedure, § 5.02C(c) is not unconstitutionally
vague. Section 5.02C(c) provides a comprehensible standard of
the proscribed conduct – acting in the capacity of a dealer. The
phrase “in the capacity of a dealer” is naturally read to include
those activities performed by a licensed dealer. The Code
defines exactly what activities are performed by a dealer –
buying, selling, or exchanging motor vehicles. See Escalante,
239 F.3d at 680 (upholding a Mississippi statute prohibiting
careless and imprudent driving). Thus, it is clear under §
29
5.02C(c) what conduct is proscribed. Accordingly, Ford’s
argument that § 5.02C(c) is unconstitutionally vague fails.
The Equal Protection Clause commands that no person shall be
denied equal protection of the law by any State. U.S. CONST.
amend. XIV, § 1. Ford alleges it was denied equal protection in
two respects: first, the State had no rational basis for
classifying manufacturers different than dealers; and second,
that no rational basis exists to justify differential treatment
between Ford’s Showroom and a similar website program named GM
DriverSite.
The equal protection guarantee applies to all government
actions which classify individuals for different benefits or
burdens under the law. See Labar v. Bennett, 365 F.2d 698, 723
(5th Cir. 1966) (“The equal protection clause prohibits a state
from making arbitrary and unreasonable classifications.”). “In
areas of social and economic policy, a statutory classification
that neither proceeds along suspect lines nor infringes
fundamental constitutional rights must be upheld against equal
protection challenge if there is any reasonably conceivable state
of facts that could provide a rational basis for the
classification.” FCC v. Beach Communications, Inc., 508 U.S.
307, 313, 113 S.Ct. 2096, 2101 (1993). Ford argues that there is
no rational basis for classifying manufacturers differently than
30
dealers because manufacturers do not have disproportionate power
in the preowned vehicle market. For the reasons discussed in the
dormant Commerce Clause analysis, we “have no hesitancy in
concluding that [§ 5.02C(c)] bears a reasonable relationship to
the State’s legitimate purpose in controlling the [automobile]
retail market . . . .” Exxon, 437 U.S. at 125.
Ford’s second claim is that the State violated the Equal
Protection Clause because it did not have a rational basis for
treating Ford differently than General Motors. “[T]he Equal
Protection Clause essentially directs that all persons similarly
situated be treated alike.” Wheeler v. Miller, 168 F.3d 241, 252
(5th Cir. 1999). Thus, “[i]t is clearly established that a state
violates the equal protection clause when it treats one set of
persons differently from others who are similarly situated.”11
Yates v. Stalder, 217 F.3d 332, 334 (5th Cir. 2000).
General Motors and Ford are both manufacturers and should be
similarly prohibited from entering the retail automobile market.
Nothing in this case indicates that differing restrictions have
been placed on the two companies. Ford argues that the State has
treated General Motors differently by allowing them to operate a
website retailing automobiles. Despite Ford’s attempt to
11
It is questionable, here, whether Ford’s claim even amounts
to the sort of discrimination prohibited by the Equal Protection
Clause. However, the Supreme Court has recognized that even a
“class of one” can present a challenge to discriminatory treatment.
Village of Willowbrook v. Olech, 120 S.Ct. 1073, 1074 (2000).
31
characterize the GM website as a mirror image of their own, there
are significant differences. First, General Motors contracted
with a third party, DeMontrond, to operate the website.12
DeMontrond is an independent dealer licensed to sell automobiles
in Texas. DeMontrond, unlike Ford’s situation, immediately
receives title to the automobile for sale on the website. If the
automobile is not sold, DeMontrond, not GM, is responsible for
finding an alternative means of selling the car. DeMontrond’s
internet price for the vehicle is established through the use of
a mutually developed pricing schedule. Ford, on the other hand,
has sole discretion to set the price for its vehicle. A price
which may influence the price of other preowned vehicles being
sold throughout the State. While there are certainly
similarities between the two websites, the differences between
them are significant enough to justify the State’s position.
Ford has not shown any restriction placed upon their involvement
in the retail market that has not similarly been placed on GM.
Notably, there is no evidence that the State would not allow Ford
to maintain a website through similar ties to a third party
dealer. Ford’s equal protection challenge thus fails.
Due process requires “a fair trial in a fair tribunal.” In
12
GM apparently owns the hardware and software used to run the
site.
32
re Murchison, 349 U.S. 133, 136, 75 S.Ct. 623, 625 (1955). This
fundamental right applies equally to proceedings before an
administrative agency. Gibson v. Berryhill, 411 U.S. 564, 569,
93 S.Ct. 1689, 1693 (1973). Ford’s final claim is that it was
denied due process during its enforcement hearing. First,
because the outcome was predetermined and second, because Brett
Bray has an inherent conflict of interest in serving in his
several capacities within the Motor Vehicle Division.
Ford’s first claim that the outcome of the hearing was
predetermined is baseless. Carol Kent, the Director of the Texas
Department of Transportation, Enforcement Section, sent out a
letter advising dealerships that their participation in the
Showroom program violated state law. Perhaps improperly, the
letter stated that Ford was in violation of the Code, a
conclusion which should properly be left to the Board. Brett
Bray apparently “acquiesced” in this letter being sent out.
Because the letter definitively stated that Ford was in violation
of the Code, Ford contends that the outcome of the Enforcement
Action was predetermined before its hearing. Ford’s position
ignores the fact that the letter carries no weight in the later
proceedings nor does Kent’s opinion that the Code was violated.
Even Bray’s apparent acquiescence in the letter, and the opinion
stated therein, has no binding effect in the hearing before the
administrative law judge or the Board. Finally, as a general
33
matter, the pre-hearing opinion of an enforcement agent that a
defendant violated the law does not rise to the level of a
procedural due process violation.
In his position as Director of the Motor Vehicle Division,
Bray administers both Kent, who brought the Enforcement Action,
and the administrative law judge who presided over it. Ford
alleges that by serving in these multiple roles, Bray can
improperly influence the individuals involved and that the mere
possibility of impropriety inherent in this structure means it
cannot obtain a fair hearing. The Supreme Court has identified
several types of decision makers in which the mere probability of
bias renders them constitutionally unacceptable: (1) where the
decision maker has a pecuniary interest in the outcome of the
case; and (2) where an adjudicator has been the target of
personal abuse or criticism from the party before him. Withrow
v. Larkin, 421 U.S. 35, 47, 95 S.Ct. 1456, 1464 (5th Cir. 1975).
A third class of decision makers, the one at issue in the instant
case, are those that exercise both investigative and adjudicative
responsibilities. Id. With respect to this third class, “[t]he
movant must overcome two strong presumptions: (1) the presumption
of honesty and integrity of the adjudicators; and (2) the
presumption that those making decisions affecting the public are
doing so in the public interest.” Valley v. Rapides Parish
School Bd., 118 F.3d 1047, 1052-1053 (5th Cir. 1997); see also
34
Withrow, 421 U.S. at 55 (“Without a showing to the contrary,
state administrators ‘are assumed to be men of conscience and
intellectual discipline, capable of judging a particular
controversy fairly on the basis of its own circumstances.’”
(quoting United States v. Morgan, 313 U.S. 409, 421, 61 S.Ct.
999, 1004 (1941))). Even assuming that the administrative
structure of the Motor Vehicle Division places Bray in a position
to function both as an investigator and an adjudicator, Ford has
not offered any proof to overcome the presumption of fairness.
Without evidence of Bray’s improper influence, Ford’s due process
challenge fails.
Having reviewed and rejected Ford’s attacks on the judgment
of the district court, the same is AFFIRMED.
35
EDITH H. JONES, specially concurring:
I concur in Judge Benavides’s conscientious opinion, but
as to the negative commerce clause analysis, I do so only because
Exxon Corp. v. Maryland, 437 U.S. 117, 98 S.Ct. 2201 (1978), compels
this result. The Exxon case found no discrimination against
interstate commerce where a state statute prohibited competition with
local gasoline retailers by out-of-state companies at another level
of product distribution (refiners). Exxon seems woefully out of step
with the Court’s more recent cases. See, e.g., West Lynn Creamery,
Inc. v. Healy, 512 U.S. 186, 114 S.Ct. 2205 (1994). Texas’s outright
prohibition on retail competition from out-of-state auto
manufacturers is about as negative toward interstate commerce as
legislative action can get. If, as the Court says, its negative
commerce clause jurisprudence intends to prevent “economic
protectionism” of local businesses, 114 S.Ct. at 2217, and to stop
states from imposing higher (in this case prohibitive) costs on
products from out-of-state sources, 114 S.Ct. at 2213-14, then Ford’s
dealer-cooperative, consumer-friendly program ought not be stymied by
parochial state legislation. It should be obvious that the flow of
interstate goods is diminished when barriers to entry totally prevent
fair competition by a class of potential distributors: the favored
local distributors’ price and service incentives become less keenly
competitive, prices rise, and overall sales will decline from the
free-market equilibrium point. Since this Texas statute appears to
36
reflect a genre of state laws favoring local automobile dealers over
out-of-state manufacturers, perhaps the Supreme Court will give us
further guidance.
37