World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC v. Hebei Prince Shipping Co.

PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

No. 14-1434

WORLD FUEL SERVICES TRADING, DMCC, d/b/a Bunkerfuels,

Plaintiff - Appellee,

v.

HEBEI PRINCE SHIPPING COMPANY, LTD.,

Claimant – Appellant,

and

M/V HEBEI SHIJIAZHUANG, her engines, tackle, equipment,
appurtenances, etc., in rem,

Defendant,

T. PARKER HOST, INC.,

Claimant.

Appeal from the United States District Court for the Eastern
District of Virginia, at Norfolk. Mark S. Davis, District
Judge. (2:13-cv-00173-MSD-DEM)

Argued: January 28, 2015 Decided: April 17, 2015

Before WILKINSON, AGEE, and HARRIS, Circuit Judges.

Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Agee wrote the opinion, in
which Judge Wilkinson and Judge Harris concurred.
ARGUED: Steven Michael Stancliff, CRENSHAW, WARE & MARTIN,
P.L.C., Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellant. Mark T. Coberly,
VANDEVENTER BLACK, LLP, Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellee. ON
BRIEF: James L. Chapman, IV, CRENSHAW, WARE & MARTIN, P.L.C.,
Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellant. Dustin M. Paul, VANDEVENTER
BLACK, LLP, Norfolk, Virginia, for Appellee.

2
AGEE, Circuit Judge:

World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC, (“DMCC”) brought this in

rem action against the M/V HEBEI SHIJIAZHUANG (“the Vessel”)

seeking to enforce a maritime lien for the supply of necessaries

under the Federal Maritime Lien Act (“FMLA”), 46 U.S.C. §

31342(a). The district court held that DMCC was entitled to a

maritime lien for the amount due for marine fuel (referred to as

“bunkers”) provided to the Vessel, and granted DMCC’s motion for

summary judgment. Hebei Prince Shipping Company, Limited,

(“Hebei Prince”), the owner of the Vessel, appeals. For the

reasons that follow, we affirm the judgment of the district

court in favor of DMCC.

I.

A.

To provide context for the underlying dispute, we begin

with a brief review of maritime lien law. A maritime lien is

“[a] lien on a vessel, given to secure the claim of a creditor

who provided maritime services to the vessel[.]” Black’s Law

Dictionary 1065 (10th ed. 2014). “It arises by operation of law

and exist[s] as a claim upon the property.” Id. (quoting

Griffith Price, The Law of Maritime Liens 1 (1940)); see also

Triton Marine Fuels Ltd., S.A. v. M/V PAC. CHUKOTKA, 575 F.3d

409, 416 (4th Cir. 2009) (“‘[M]aritime liens are stricti juris

3
and cannot be created by agreement between the parties; instead,

they arise by operation of law, often depending on the nature

and object of the contract.’” (quoting Bominflot, Inc. v. M/V

HENRICH S, 465 F.3d 144, 146 (4th Cir. 2006)).

Congress enacted the FMLA in 1910, which altered several

then-existing common law principles governing when a maritime

lien would arise under United States law. See id. at 417. That

initial legislation “provide[d] a single federal statute for the

determination of maritime liens, and by providing this uniform

scheme, the statute confer[red] domestic suppliers of

necessaries with the same lien rights as previously enjoyed only

by foreign suppliers under the common law.” Id. at 418. The

next major change to the FMLA occurred in “1971, when Congress

enacted legislation essentially to void ‘no lien’ clauses in

charters, as long as the supplier did not have actual knowledge

of such clause.” Id. at 418 n.5. Most recently, the FMLA was

recodified as part of the Commercial Instruments and Maritime

Liens Act, 46 U.S.C. §§ 31301-31343. For ease of reference,

however, we will continue to refer to the relevant statutes as

the “FMLA.” “Despite [these] recodifications, the fundamental

purposes underlying the FMLA have remained unchanged.” Triton

Marine, 575 F.3d at 417-18.

Generally speaking, a maritime lien arises more readily

under the FMLA than under the laws of other maritime countries.

4
E.g., Bominflot, 465 F.3d at 147 (“The United States as well as

a number of civil law nations . . . allow for broader use and

enforcement of maritime liens[.]”). As a result, which nation’s

law governs a particular maritime contract may be significant in

determining whether, or to what extent, a maritime lien exists.

B.

Hebei Prince, a corporation organized under the laws of

China, owns the Vessel, which is registered in Hong Kong. The

Vessel was leased to a Greek corporation, Tramp Maritime

Enterprises Ltd. (“Tramp Maritime”) under three consecutive time

charters (maritime contracts of ship charter) covering the

period from May 23, 2012 to November 28, 2012. The terms of the

time charters prohibited Tramp Maritime from incurring “any lien

or encumbrance” against the Vessel. (J.A. 86.)

In October 2012, Tramp Maritime emailed Aristades P. Vogas

of Bunkerfuels Hellas in Athens, Greece, to arrange for the

purchase of bunkers to be delivered to the Vessel while it was

docked at a port in the United Arab Emirates. The email reply

from Vogas confirming the transaction (“the Bunker

Confirmation”) identifies the “seller” as “BUNKERFUELS A

DBA/DIVISION OF WFS Trading DMCC” and the “buyer” as “MV HEBEI

SHIJIAZHUANG AND HER OWNERS/OPERATORS AND TRAMP MARITIME

ENTERPRISES LTD.” (J.A. 21.) It also identifies APSCO JEDDAH

5
as the “physical supplier” of the bunkers. (J.A. 21.) The

Bunker Confirmation further states:

ALL SALES ARE ON THE CREDIT OF THE VSL. BUYER IS
PRESUMED TO HAVE AUTHORITY TO BIND THE VSL WITH A
MARITIME LIEN. DISCLAIMER STAMPS PLACED BY VSL ON THE
BUNKER RECEIPT WILL HAVE NO EFFECT AND DO NOT WAIVE
THE SELLER’S LIEN. THIS CONFIRMATION IS GOVERNED BY
AND INCORPORATES BY REFERENCE SELLER’S GENERAL TERMS
AND CONDITIONS IN EFFECT AS OF THE DATE THAT THIS
CONFIRMATION IS ISSUED. THESE INCORPORATED AND
REFERENCED TERMS CAN BE FOUND AT WWW.WFSCORP.COM.
ALTERNATIVELY, YOU MAY INFORM US IF YOU REQUIRE A COPY
AND SAME WILL BE PROVIDED TO YOU.

(J.A. 21.)

APSCO JEDDAH delivered the bunkers to the Vessel according

to the terms of the Bunker Confirmation. The Vessel’s chief

engineer signed the delivery notices and attached a “no lien”

stamp, which stated “Bunkering Services and the bunkers are

ordered solely for the account of Charterers and not for owners.

Accordingly no lien or other claims whatsoever against the

Vessel or her owners can arise.” (J.A. 19, 20.)

Tramp Maritime subsequently received an invoice for the

bunkers purporting to be from “BUNKERFUELS A Division of World

Fuel Services Trading, DMCC” requesting payment. (J.A. 22.)

The invoice stated that the amount due could be wire-transferred

to a Bank of America account for “World Fuel Services Europe,

Ltd.” (J.A. 22.) Neither Tramp Maritime nor any other party

paid the invoice.

6
 DMCC then filed this in rem action in the United States

District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia asserting it

was owed $809,420.50 for the unpaid bunkers, 1 and that it was

entitled to enforce a maritime lien on the Vessel under the

FMLA. It also moved for the court to issue a maritime warrant

for the arrest of the Vessel, which was expected to port in

Norfolk, Virginia, within fourteen days. The district court

issued an order for the maritime arrest warrant, which was

executed on the Vessel when it docked in Norfolk. Hebei Prince

later posted a cash bond so that the Vessel could be released

before resolution of the underlying complaint.

DMCC moved for summary judgment, which Hebei Prince

opposed. Hebei Prince then filed a cross-motion for summary

judgment, relying on the same grounds raised in its opposition

to DMCC’s motion. Challenging nearly every aspect of DMCC’s

claim, Hebei Prince argued: (1) DMCC was not a party in privity

to the Bunker Confirmation and thus could not assert a maritime

lien; (2) Greek law should apply to every aspect of the

contractual dispute; (3) the Bunker Confirmation did not

successfully incorporate the General Terms & Conditions on which

DMCC relied; (4) the General Terms & Conditions could not apply

to DMCC even if DMCC sought to incorporate them; (5) the General

1
This amount reflected the amount due for the bunkers plus
a contract-based administrative fee for past-due sums.

7
Terms & Conditions’ choice-of-law provision did not “choose”

United States statutory maritime law such as the FMLA; (6) DMCC

had actual knowledge of the prohibition of liens in Tramp

Maritime’s time charter and thus could not rely on the FMLA’s

presumption to bind the Vessel; and (7) principles of comity

require rejecting the application of United States law to this

transaction.

In a thorough opinion, the district court rejected all but

one of Hebei Prince’s arguments, and, in any event, that one

area of agreement did not alter the court’s ultimate holding.

See World Fuel Servs. Trading, DMCC v. M/V HEBEI SHIJIAZHUANG,

12 F. Supp. 3d 792 (E.D. Va. 2014). In sum, the district court

concluded that the Bunker Confirmation successfully incorporated

the General Terms & Conditions DMCC relied upon to establish

that United States law, including the FMLA, governed the

existence and enforcement of a maritime lien. The district

court also held that “no genuine issue of material fact

regarding the existence of a maritime lien in this matter

[exists and that], as a matter of law, [DMCC was] entitled to a

maritime lien against the [V]essel.” Id. at 810.

Following briefing and a hearing on the amount of damages

to be awarded, the district court entered final judgment

awarding DMCC $813,740.10. Hebei Prince noted a timely appeal.

8
Jurisdiction exists for the reasons discussed below in Section

II.A.

II.

Hebei Prince raises the same arguments on appeal that it

did in the district court. As for relief, it alternatively

argues that we should dismiss the case for lack of admiralty

jurisdiction, vacate the district court’s award of summary

judgment to DMCC and remand to resolve disputed issues of

material fact, or vacate the district court’s judgment and enter

final judgment in its favor.

We review the district court’s grant of summary judgment de

novo, applying the same standard as the district court. FDIC v.

Cashion, 720 F.3d 169, 173 (4th Cir. 2013). Summary judgment is

appropriate if “there is no genuine dispute as to any material

fact and the movant is entitled to judgment as a matter of law.”

Fed. R. Civ. P. 56(a). In addition to construing the evidence

in the light most favorable to Hebei Prince, the non-movant, we

also draw all reasonable inferences in its favor. Cashion, 720

F.3d at 173.

To the extent Hebei Prince challenges not just the grant of

summary judgment, but the district court’s jurisdiction, we

review legal conclusions regarding jurisdiction de novo and

9
factual findings for clear error. Flame S.A. v. Freight Bulk

Pte. Ltd., 762 F.3d 352, 356 (4th Cir. 2014).

A.

Throughout its brief, Hebei Prince argues that the district

court lacked admiralty jurisdiction and therefore the case

should be dismissed. DMCC responds that Hebei Prince confuses

the district court’s admiralty jurisdiction with the merits of

DMCC’s claim of a maritime lien arising under the FMLA. We

agree with DMCC.

The Supreme Court noted the distinction, specifically in

the admiralty context, between establishing a court’s

jurisdiction and the determination of the merits of a cause of

action over a century ago in The Resolute, 168 U.S. 437 (1897):

Jurisdiction is the power to adjudicate a case
upon the merits, and dispose of it as justice may
require. As applied to a suit in rem for the breach of
a maritime contract, it presupposes-First that the
contract sued upon is a maritime contract; and second,
that the property proceeded against is within the
lawful custody of the court. These are the only
requirements necessary to give jurisdiction. Proper
cognizance of the parties and subject-matter being
conceded, all other matters belong to the merits.

. . . [T]he question of lien or no lien is not one
of jurisdiction, but of merits.

It is true that there can be no decree in rem
against the vessel except for the enforcement of a lien
given by the maritime law . . .; but, if the existence
of such a lien were a question of jurisdiction, then

10
 nearly every question arising upon the merits could be
made one of jurisdiction.

Id. at 439-40 (emphasis added). This admiralty-specific

language is consistent with the Supreme Court’s general

statements in the non-admiralty context separating

jurisdictional questions from those concerning the merits of an

action. E.g., Lexmark Int’l, Inc. v. Static Control Components,

Inc., 134 S. Ct. 1377, 1387 n.4 (2014) (“‘[T]he absence of a

valid (as opposed to arguable) cause of action does not

implicate subject-matter jurisdiction, i.e., the court’s

statutory or constitutional power to adjudicate the case.’”

(quoting Verizon Md., Inc. v. Public Serv. Comm’n of Md., 535

U.S. 635, 642-43 (2002)).

Here, Hebei Prince acknowledges that the Bunker

Confirmation was a maritime contract. See Norfolk S. Ry. Co. v.

Kirby, 543 U.S. 14, 24 (2004) (stating that whether a contract

is a “maritime contract,” “depends upon the nature and character

of the contract, and the true criterion is whether it has

reference to maritime service or maritime transactions”

(internal quotation marks and alteration omitted)). Similarly,

Hebei Prince does not contest that the Vessel was physically

within the “lawful custody of the court” at the time of its

arrest. See In re Millennium Seacarriers, Inc., 419 F.3d 83, 94

(2d Cir. 2005) (“[S]ubject matter jurisdiction lies in the

11
district court where the vessel or other res is located, but

that jurisdiction does not attach until the vessel is arrested

within the jurisdiction.”). Thus, under the standard

articulated in The Resolute, it is clear that the district court

possessed admiralty jurisdiction. 2 See Logistics Mgmt., Inc. v.

One (1) Pyramid Tent Arena, 86 F.3d 908, 912-13 (9th Cir. 1996)

(conducting this inquiry); see also Wilkins v. Commercial Inv.

Trust Corp., 153 F.3d 1273, 1276 (11th Cir. 1998) (same).

As a result, Hebei Prince’s arguments that DMCC does not

have an enforceable maritime lien under the FMLA do not

implicate admiralty jurisdiction, but rather go to the merits of

DMCC’s action. The district court had admiralty jurisdiction to

consider DMCC’s claim, and we have jurisdiction over this appeal

under 28 U.S.C. § 1291.

2
The Ninth Circuit has held that admiralty jurisdiction can
arise under the FMLA even where it would not also arise under
common law admiralty jurisdiction. See Ventura Packers, Inc. v.
F/V JEANINE KATHLEEN, 305 F.3d 913, 919 (9th Cir. 2002)
(“Although a maritime contract may support admiralty
jurisdiction, it is not an essential prerequisite to a civil
action in admiralty to enforce a statutory necessaries lien.”).
But see E.S. Binnings, Inc. v. M/V SAUDI RIYADH, 815 F.2d 660
(8th Cir. 1987) (concluding plaintiff could not proceed on a
claim seeking enforcement of an FMLA maritime lien because the
underlying contract was not a maritime contract and so the
district court lacked admiralty jurisdiction), overruled on
other grounds by Exxon Corp. v. Cent. Gulf Lines, Inc., 500 U.S.
603, 612 (1991). We need not delve into that question here
because jurisdiction exists in this case under traditional
principles establishing admiralty jurisdiction.

12
 B.

Before addressing Hebei Prince’s substantive challenges to

the district court’s decision, we consider its threshhold

arguments as to which country’s law applies to the issues of

contract formation.

In the district court, Hebei Prince argued that under

Lauritzen v. Larsen, 345 U.S. 571 (1953), Greek law determined

issues of contract between the parties, including whether DMCC

was in privity of contract to the agreement and whether the

Bunker Confirmation contained a binding choice-of-law provision.

DMCC contended United States law applied, but that it made no

real difference as the principles of contract law were the same

under either country’s law and would lead to the same result in

its favor. After examining the terms of the Bunker Confirmation

and the parties’ arguments, the district court decided the most

prudent course was to assume that Hebei Prince was correct and

apply Greek law to any contract formation issues. As a

corollary, the district court observed that it would reach the

same conclusions on contract formation issues under United

States law as it did applying Greek law.

On appeal, the parties do not make particularly robust

arguments either as to the district court’s choice of Greek law,

its articulation of Greek contract law principles, or its

conclusion that the same analysis would result under United

13
States law. Hebei Prince instead maintains that the court erred

in its application of Greek law to the factual record. DMCC, in

turn, maintains that while the district court should have

applied United States law based strictly on the choice-of-law

provision, it prevails under either country’s law.

In Lauritzen, the Supreme Court set forth several factors

for federal courts sitting in admiralty to consider in

determining what country’s law governs: “(1) the place of the

wrongful act; (2) the law of the flag; (3) the allegiance of the

injured party; (4) the allegiance of the defendant shipowner;

(5) the place of contract; (6) the inaccessibility of a foreign

forum; and (7) the law of the forum.” Trans-Tec Asia v. M/V

HARMONY CONTAINER, 518 F.3d 1120, 1124 (9th Cir. 2008) (citing

Lauritzen, 345 U.S. at 583-92).

In Triton Marine, however, we found it unnecessary to

conduct a Lauritzen choice-of-law analysis because the contract

at issue contained a choice-of-law clause. See Triton Marine,

575 F.3d at 413; see also Lauritzen, 345 U.S. at 588-89 (“Except

as forbidden by some public policy, the tendency of the law is

to apply in contract matters the law which the parties intended

to apply.”). Relying on prior Supreme Court and Fourth Circuit

case law, we concluded that “absent compelling reasons of public

policy, a choice-of-law provision in a maritime contract should

be enforced,” and a Lauritzen choice-of-law analysis was

14
unnecessary. Triton Marine, 575 F.3d at 415; see also

Bominflot, Inc., 465 F.3d at 148 (holding that the choice of law

question was “made easy” by the party’s contractual provision

agreeing that English law would apply). 3 Thus, for the reasons

set forth in Triton Marine and Bominflot, Inc., a Lauritzen

choice-of-law analysis is unnecessary in this case.

Moreover, we agree with the district court that the

applicable law on the issues of contract formation would be the

same whether Greek or United States law is applied. As we

discuss in the context of the individual arguments below, Greek

contract law does not differ in any material respect from the

3
The choice-of-law clause at issue in Triton Marine was
located in the body of the contract. 575 F.3d at 413. In
Bominflot, we avoided the Lauritzen choice-of-law analysis based
on a choice-of-law provision that was incorporated by reference.
465 F.3d at 148; see also Hawkespere Shipping Co., Ltd. v.
Intamex, S.A., 330 F.3d 225, 233 (4th Cir. 2003) (“‘Where the
parties specify in their contractual agreement which law will
apply, admiralty courts will generally give effect to that
choice.’” (quoting Chan v. Soc’y Expeditions, Inc., 123 F.3d
1287, 1297 (9th Cir. 1997)). These cases thus counsel that if
we applied United States law to the question, we would enforce a
contract’s choice-of-law provision. Applied here, so long as
the General Terms were successfully incorporated to the Bunker
Confirmation, see analysis infra II.D at 28 n.6, it would govern
the dispute.
Although Hebei Prince asserts various reasons why an
otherwise incorporated choice-of-law provision should not be
enforced against it, none demonstrates a compelling public
policy. For example, we have previously rejected arguments that
enforcing such provisions adversely affects the interests of—and
works a fundamental unfairness against—a vessel owner who was
not party to the contract containing the choice-of-law
provision. See Triton Marine, 575 F.3d at 413-16.

15
corresponding principles of United States law. For this reason,

too, we need not resolve the choice-of-law question, as it makes

no discernible difference to the relevant analysis in the case

at bar. See Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Shutts, 472 U.S. 797, 838

n.20 (1985) (Stevens, J., concurring in part and dissenting in

part) (“If the laws of both states relevant to the set of facts

are the same, or would produce the same decision in the lawsuit,

there is no real conflict between them.” (quotation marks and

citation omitted)); Hammersmith v. TIG Ins. Co., 480 F.3d 220,

230 (3d Cir. 2007) (stating that a conflict of law analysis is

unnecessary if the laws of each jurisdiction are the same, or

would lead to the same result, because there is no “conflict” in

the law that needs to be resolved); Okmyansky v. Herbalife Int’l

of Am., Inc., 415 F.3d 154, 158 (1st Cir. 2005) (“[W]hen

resolution of a choice-of-law determination would not alter the

disposition of a legal question, a reviewing court need not

decide which body of law controls.”); Fin. One Pub. Co. v.

Lehman Bros. Special Fin., Inc., 414 F.3d 325, 331 (2d Cir.

2005) (“[W]e [do] not have occasion to embark on a choice-of-law

analysis in the absence of an actual conflict between the

applicable rules of two relevant jurisdictions.”); Cruz v. Am.

Airlines, Inc., 356 F.3d 320, 331-32 (D.C. Cir. 2004) (same);

Modern Equip. Co. v. Cont’l W. Ins. Co., 355 F.3d 1125, 1128 n.7

(8th Cir. 2004) (same); Schneider Nat’l Transp. v. Ford Motor

16
Co., 280 F.3d 532, 536 (5th Cir. 2002) (same). We will

therefore follow the district court’s approach in using

principles of Greek law pertaining to contract formation, but

noting the parallel analysis under United States law.

C.

Hebei Prince argues that the district court erred at the

outset of the case as it contends that the record does not

establish DMCC as a party in the underlying transaction and

therefore without any right to bring the in rem action.

Essentially, Hebei Prince contends DMCC was not in privity of

contract with Tramp Maritime because it has not shown that it

was an actual party to the Bunker Confirmation. 4 Consequently,

Hebei Prince posits that DMCC cannot seek to enforce a maritime

lien against the Vessel based on that agreement and that this

problem requires dismissal of the suit or, at the very least,

remand to resolve a genuine issue of material fact as to DMCC’s

4
Hebei Prince acknowledges that the Bunker Confirmation
formed a contract between Tramp Maritime and another entity, but
it disputes that DMCC is that other entity. In other words,
Hebei Prince asserts that Tramp Maritime entered into an
agreement with Bunkerfuels Hellas or even the entity identified
on the Bunker Confirmation as “BUNKERFUELS A DBA/DIVISION OF WFS
TRADING DMCC,” but that no evidence in the record demonstrated
that DMCC is either related by law to Bunkerfuels Hellas or is
“BUNKERFUELS A DBA/DIVISION OR WFS TRADING DMCC.” (Cf. J.A.
21.)

17
standing to bring an action based on the Bunker Confirmation.

We disagree.

Applying principles of Greek agency law, the district court

concluded that Vogas had entered into the agreement with Tramp

Maritime on behalf of his principal, DMCC. See World Fuel

Servs. Trading, 12 F. Supp. 3d at 802 (“The Greek doctrine of

‘ostensible authority’ is much like the agency law recognized in

the United States, where ‘[t]he essential underlying principle

in the agency relationship is the power of an agent to commit

his principal to business relations with third parties.’”

(citation omitted)). The district court emphasized that in

contrast to the record DMCC pointed to as evidence that it was

the seller of bunkers to Tramp Maritime, Hebei Prince presented

no “specific facts” supported in the record that created a

“‘genuine issue for trial,’ as to whether [DMCC] was a party to

the contract.” See id. at 804 (quoting Celotex Corp. v.

Catrett, 477 U.S. 317, 324 (1986)).

We agree with the district court that the record permits no

conclusion but that DMCC sold Tramp Maritime the bunkers

specified in the Bunker Confirmation through its agent, Vogas.

Because DMCC filed a verified complaint, it contains a sworn

statement indicating that its contents are “true and correct

based upon [the] personal knowledge and documents available to”

DMCC, and we can treat those components of it as “the equivalent

18
of an opposing affidavit for summary judgment purposes.”

Williams v. Griffin, 952 F.2d 820, 823 (4th Cir. 1991); see also

Supp. Rules for Admiralty or Maritime Claims R. C(2) (requiring

that the complaint in an in rem action be verified). (See J.A.

18, containing the verification of Richard D. McMichael, a

“Director of WORLD FUEL SERVICES TRADING, DMCC.) The verified

complaint states that “World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC, d/b/a

Bunkerfuels” entered into the agreement memorialized in the

Bunker Confirmation for its subcontractor APSCO to deliver

bunkers to the Vessel. (J.A. 14.) Consistent with this

assertion, the Bunker Confirmation identifies the seller of the

bunkers as “BUNKERFUELS A DBA/DIVISION OF WFS Trading DMCC.”

(J.A. 21.) Even more clearly, the invoice Tramp Maritime

received after the bunkers had been delivered refers to

“BUNKERFUELS A Division of World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC.”

(J.A. 22.)

While DMCC’s name as specified in the verified complaint is

“World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC,” nothing in the record

suggests that the “WFS Trading DMCC” identified on the Bunker

Confirmation refers to an entity other than DMCC. All the

record evidence points to the same conclusion: “WFS Trading

DMCC” is “World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC,” and “WFS” is

simply an acronym for “World Fuel Services” rather than a formal

designation of a separate entity. Examples of this practice

19
exist throughout this case: the website listed in the Bunker

Confirmation (www.wfscorp.com) uses the elongated “World Fuel

Services” throughout the website, the bunker invoice refers to

both “World Fuel Services” and “WFS,” as do other items in the

record. (J.A. 21, 22.) Indeed, in other contexts, even Hebei

Prince’s filings use “WFS” and “World Fuel Services”

interchangeably.

Furthermore, in his sworn declaration and deposition

testimony, Jos Heijmen, the Senior Vice President of Credit &

Risk Management of World Fuel Services Corporation, explained

the relationship between the various entities. He stated that

World Fuel Services Corporation is the parent corporation of

“the World Fuel Services Group of Companies,” which includes

DMCC. (J.A. 252.) He observed that DMCC “is part of a network

of affiliated and related companies that provide fuel to ocean-

going vessels throughout the world, doing business under the

trade name ‘Bunkerfuels.’” (J.A. 252.) He noted that

Bunkerfuels Hellas is the Athens, Greece branch of a World Fuel

Services subsidiary, and that it “provide[s] marketing and

promotion services to Greek ship operators/owners and local

suppliers.” (J.A. 252.) He stated that when a Bunkerfuels

Hellas employee receives a bunker inquiry, the transaction is

automatically routed through “the World Fuel’s affiliated

company located in the geographic region of the world where the

20
bunkers will be delivered to the vessel.” (J.A. 252.) And he

identified DMCC as World Fuel Service’s “provider of bunker fuel

for ocean-going vessels in the [United Arab Emirates] and the

Middle East,” and that DMCC is organized under the laws of the

United Arab Emirates with its principal place of business in

Dubai. (J.A. 251.)

Heijmen also explained that Vogas is an employee of

Bunkerfuels Hellas, and is authorized “to enter into contracts

with [Greek vessel operators/owners like Tramp Maritime] on

behalf of and for the World Fuel Services affiliate located

where the ship required and was supplied bunkers,” including

transactions on behalf of DMCC. (J.A. 252-53.) He specifically

stated that Vogas was authorized “by World Fuel Services

Trading, DMCC, in October 2012 to act and enter on behalf of

World Fuel Services Trading, DMCC into the contract with Tramp

Maritime Enterprises, Ltd. that is at issue in this case.”

(J.A. 253.)

Hebei Prince’s attempts to ignore or explain away this

testimony amounts to no more than conjecture. Without record

evidence to support its assertions, Hebei Prince speculates that

DMCC may not be the entity it purports to be, that documents

cannot mean what they say on their face, and that entities are

not related in the only way they are described above. Hebei

Prince’s parsing of Heijmen’s declaration and deposition

21
testimony goes beyond any common-sense reading of those

documents. In sum, it attempts to manufacture doubt where none

exists to obscure the relationship between DMCC and the

transaction at issue. Based on the record in this case, the

district court did not err in concluding that Hebei Prince

failed to show a genuine issue of material fact as to whether

Vogas entered into the Bunker Confirmation as the agent of the

seller, DMCC.

Lastly, Hebei Prince asserts that even if Vogas was DMCC’s

agent, that fact “was not accurately disclosed and was

misleading.” (Opening Br. 19.) We readily reject that notion.

The Bunker Confirmation hardly disguises the identity of the

seller, “BUNKERFUELS A DBA/DIVISION OF WFS Trading DMCC.” (J.A.

21.) Regardless of the effectiveness of the incorporation by

reference, the Bunker Confirmation also refers to and directs

readers to the “SELLER’S GENERAL TERMS AND CONDITIONS . . .

FOUND AT WWW.WFSCORP.COM.” (J.A. 21 (emphasis added).) In

addition, the email addresses provided for both Vogas and

Bunkerfuels Hellas contain the domain “wfscorp.com.” (J.A. 21

(emphasis added).) The Bunker Confirmation plainly provides

notice of Vogas’ association with WFS subsidiary DMCC.

For these reasons, we conclude the district court did not

err in concluding that DMCC was in privity of contract with

Tramp Maritime. It follows that regardless of its eventual

22
success on the claim, DMCC could assert a cause of action based

on an alleged breach of the Bunker Confirmation, including a

claim that it had an enforceable maritime lien under the FMLA.

D.

Next, we address whether the district court erred in

concluding Greek law would recognize the language contained in

the Bunker Confirmation to validly incorporate World Fuel

Service’s General Terms & Conditions (“General Terms”). As

noted, the Bunker Confirmation states it is

GOVERNED BY AND INCORPORATES BY REFERENCE SELLER’S
GENERAL TERMS AND CONDITIONS IN EFFECT AS OF THE DATE
THAT THIS CONFIRMATION IS ISSUED. THESE INCORPORATED
AND REFERENCED TERMS CAN BE FOUND AT WWW.WFSCORP.COM.
ALTERNATIVELY, YOU MAY INFORM US IF YOU REQUIRE A COPY
AND SAME WILL BE PROVIDED TO YOU.

(J.A. 21.)

The undisputed evidence in the record reflects that to

reach the text of the General Terms on wfscorp.com, a user must

click on two more links: either by clicking on a link labeled

“Marine” and then on a second link labeled “Marine Terms and

Conditions,” which contains a .pdf version of the General Terms,

or by hovering over a “By Sea” graphic, clicking on the link

“learn more,” and then clicking on a link labeled “Marine Terms

and Conditions.” (J.A. 316, 321-28.)

23
 The parties submitted declarations from Greek attorneys

stating their respective opinions on whether and when terms are

incorporated by reference, and whether and when a choice of law

provision is enforceable under Greek law. Unsurprisingly,

although the attorneys agreed about these broader points of

Greek law, they disagreed about whether the Bunker Confirmation

satisfied them.

The district court ruled that no genuine issue of material

fact existed as to whether the Bunker Confirmation validly

incorporated the General Terms. Based on the information

provided by both parties, the district court noted that Greek

law respected choice of law provisions, and also authorized

contracts to incorporate other documents by reference. See Fed.

R. Civ. P. 44.1 (stating, in relevant part, that “[i]n

determining foreign law, the court may consider any relevant

material or source, including testimony, whether or not

submitted by a party or admissible under the Federal Rules of

Evidence”). The district court observed that Hebei Prince’s

Greek attorney witness stated that such provisions must be

drafted in “a clear, plain and explicit way” to be valid. World

Fuel Servs. Trading, 12 F. Supp. 3d at 804. And it also

observed that DMCC’s Greek attorney witness stated that Greek

law recognized that terms can be incorporated by reference so

long as the contracting parties obtain knowledge of their

24
contents or be given the opportunity to obtain such knowledge.

The court then held that the Bunker Confirmation’s language

satisfied both of these standards. That is, it was

“sufficiently clear and explicit to direct Tramp [Maritime] – as

well as anyone else who received the bunker confirmation – to

the General Terms.” Id.

The district court also rejected Hebei Prince’s argument

that the General Terms lacked the requisite clarity because the

preamble did not identify DMCC by name. The court first

observed that the preamble to the General Terms provided a non-

exclusive list of corporations to which it applied, so DMCC’s

absence had no significance. Then, the court noted that the

preamble stated that the General Terms applied to “‘all

subsidiaries of [WFS],’” and that the record evidence showed

DMCC was a subsidiary of WFS. Id. at 796. Lastly, the court

stated that since the Bunker Confirmation incorporated the

General Terms, DMCC had adopted the document regardless of what

the General Terms preamble purported its applicability to be.

Hebei Prince’s arguments on appeal echo those it made to

the district court, that the Bunker Confirmation did not validly

incorporate the General Terms because it does not identify the

specific internet site where those provisions could be located.

In addition, it asserts that because the preamble to the General

25
Terms does not specifically refer to DMCC or Bunkerfuels, the

document does not clearly apply to the transaction at issue.

The district court did not err in concluding that the

Bunker Confirmation validly incorporated the General Terms into

the agreement. The Bunker Confirmation plainly expresses that

it incorporates the terms of another specific document, the

General Terms. Consequently, Tramp Maritime, along with any

other reader of the Bunker Confirmation, was immediately put on

notice of the existence of a specific additional document that

contained provisions that were also part of the Bunker

Confirmation. In addition, the Bunker Confirmation provides two

means of obtaining a copy of the General Terms: visiting the

wfscorp.com website or asking for a copy. Although individuals

in search of the General Terms need to click on two internal

links to reach the text, the terms are readily found through

wfscorp.com links identified by such relevant language as “By

Sea,” “Marine,” and “Marine Terms and Conditions.” See One

Beacon Ins. Co. v. Crowley Marine Servs., Inc., 648 F.3d 258,

266-70 (5th Cir. 2011) (using a similar standard (unambigious,

clear, specific, conspicuous, and explicit) for valid

incorporation by reference to conclude that terms and conditions

available four clicks into the website contained in the contract

were validly incorporated). Moreover, had any reader asked for

a copy of the referenced document, the text would have been

26
readily reviewable in that form as well. 5 On its face, then, the

Bunker Confirmation effectively incorporated the General Terms.

As the district court concluded, the incorporation was

“sufficiently clear and explicit to direct” readers to the

General Terms and it “explicitly offered Tramp [Maritime] ‘the

opportunity to obtain knowledge’ of the General Terms.” World

Fuel Servs. Trading, 12 F. Supp. 3d at 804.

The language in the preamble to the General Terms does not

alter this conclusion. The preamble does not purport to

identify an exhaustive list of entities to which it applies.

Instead, it states that the group of companies to which it

applies “includes, but is not limited to” certain delineated

companies. (J.A. 23.) The preamble also states that it applies

to “the World Fuel Services corporation Marine Group of

companies . . . and their respective trade names, subsidiaries,

affiliates and branch offices. This list includes all

subsidiaries of [WFS] who have sold, are selling or will sell

marine petroleum products and services, whether or not in

existence on the effective date.” (J.A. 23.) For the reasons

already identified in part II.C, supra, DMCC and Bunkerfuels

fall within the network of WFS marine companies. Accordingly,

5
Hebei Prince does not contend that it or Tramp Maritime
ever requested a written copy of the General Terms. Nor does it
contend that the website access procedure described above is
inaccurate.

27
the General Terms do not create doubt as to their applicability

to DMCC or otherwise undermine the Bunker Confirmation’s

incorporation of the General Terms by reference. 6

E.

Having concluded that the Bunker Confirmation validly

incorporated the General Terms as part of the formation of the

governing contract between the parties, we turn to Hebei

Prince’s contention that the General Terms’ choice-of-law

provision does not encompass the FMLA. In that regard, the

General Terms provide, in pertinent part:

The General Terms and each Transaction shall be
governed by the General Maritime Law of the United
States and, in the event that the General Maritime Law
of the United States is silent on the disputed issue,
the law of the State of Florida, without reference to
any conflict of laws rules which may result in the
application of the laws of another jurisdiction. The
General Maritime Law of the United States shall apply
with respect to the existence of a maritime lien,

6
Even if we had bypassed Greek law and instead applied
United States law, we would reach the same result and conclude
that the choice-of-law clause was successfully incorporated.
“Under general contract principles, where a contract expressly
refers to and incorporates another instrument in specific terms
which show a clear intent to incorporate that instrument into
the contract, both instruments are to be construed together.”
One Beacon Ins. Co., 648 F.3d at 267 (citing 11 Williston on
Contracts § 30:25 (4th ed. 1999)). For the reasons articulated
above, the parties’ intent here is clearly expressed by the
provisions in the Bunker Confirmation stating that it would be
governed by the General Terms, as well as the language informing
Tramp Maritime (or any reader) of two means of acquiring the
text of the General Terms.

28
 regardless of the country in which Seller takes legal
action.

(J.A. 34.)

The district court rejected Hebei Prince’s argument that

the phrase “General Maritime Law of the United States” did not

include the FMLA. Observing that United States maritime law has

developed through both case law and statutes, the district court

noted that “‘when a statute resolves a particular issue, . . .

the general maritime law must comply with that resolution.’”

World Fuel Servs., 12 F. Supp. 3d at 806 (quoting Norfolk

Shipbuilding & Drydock Corp. v. Garris, 532 U.S. 811, 817

(2001)). The court then traced the evolution of the FMLA from

its original enactment in 1910 through its various amendments,

which slowly altered principles previously established in the

“general maritime law” concerning maritime liens under United

States law. It concluded that since “general maritime”

principles “must” give way to conflicting statutes where

Congress has spoken on a particular issue, “the General Maritime

Law of the United States” essentially changes to be consistent

with the statutory principles. Accordingly, the district court

ruled that the General Terms’ choice of “General Maritime Law of

the United States” included the FMLA. Id. at 807-08.

Citing to various cases and the legislative history of the

FMLA, Hebei Prince contends this was error because the phrase

29
“General Maritime Law of the United States” is generally

construed as a term of art to only encompass maritime case law

rather than maritime statutory law. 7 Hebei Prince argues that

under this construction of the term, DMCC faces a Catch-22

conundrum. On the one hand, the General Terms would not allow

DMCC to rely on a maritime lien arising under the FMLA because

“General Maritime Law of the United States” excludes statutory

law. On the other hand, DMCC could not obtain a maritime lien

under case law because the FMLA is now the sole means of

obtaining a maritime lien for the provision of necessaries under

7
For example, Hebei Prince observes that the Supreme Court
has frequently distinguished between statutory and general
maritime law. See E. River S.S. Corp. v. Transamerica Delaval,
Inc., 476 U.S. 858, 864 (1986) (“Absent a relevant statute, the
general maritime law, as developed by the judiciary, applies.”).
In addition, it relies on the Fifth Circuit’s discussion in
McBride v. Estis Well Serv., L.L.C., 731 F.3d 505 (5th Cir.
2013), in which the court stated:

There are two primary sources of federal maritime law:
common law developed by federal courts exercising the
maritime authority conferred on them by the Admiralty
Clause of the Constitution (“general maritime law”),
and statutory law enacted by Congress exercising its
authority under the Admiralty Clause and the Commerce
Clause (“statutory maritime law”).

Id. at 507-08. Although it is unrelated to Hebei Prince’s
argument, we note that the panel decision in McBride has
subsequently been vacated in light of the grant of
rehearing en banc, 743 F.3d 458 (5th Cir. 2014), and en
banc decision, 768 F.3d 382 (5th Cir. 2014). The en banc
dissent still reiterates this same general principle. 768
F.3d at 405 (Higginson, J., dissenting).

30
United States law. Consequently, Hebei Prince argues that the

General Terms do not entitle DMCC to a maritime lien.

To be sure, the General Terms’ choice-of-law provision

could have been written in a way that would avoid this question

entirely. In Triton Marine, for example, the relevant clause

stated that the “agreement shall be governed by and construed in

all particulars by the laws of the United States of America[.]”

575 F.3d at 412. So, too, the Ninth Circuit has reviewed a

choice-of-law provision that selected “the general maritime laws

of the United States and applicable United States Statutes.”

Flores v. Am. Seafoods Co., 335 F.3d 904, 918 n.8 (9th Cir.

2013). Either of these constructions clearly incorporates

federal statutory maritime laws such as the FMLA.

But even assuming, without deciding, that Hebei Prince’s

reading of the term “General Maritime Law of the United States”

is correct and the FMLA is not part of the “General Maritime Law

of the United States,” Hebei Prince still cannot prevail. This

is so because the General Terms alternatively provides if the

“General Maritime Law of the United States is silent on the

disputed issue, the law of the State of Florida [governs.]”

(J.A. 34.)

Florida law resolves the issue in favor of DMCC because

Florida law must be deemed to include United States law—by case

law or by statute. The Supreme Court has long stated that “‘a

31
fundamental principle in our system of complex national polity’

mandates that ‘the Constitution, laws, and treaties of the

United States are as much a part of the law of every state as

its own local laws and Constitution.’” Fidelity Fed. Sav. &

Loan Ass’n v. de la Cuesta, 458 U.S. 141, 157 (1982) (quoting

Hauenstein v. Lynham, 100 U.S. 483, 490 (1879)). A choice-of-

law provision directing us to the laws of Florida thus

encompasses federal statutory law, including the FMLA. See

Atkinson v. General Elec. Credit Corp., 866 F.2d 396, 398-99

(11th Cir. 1989) (concluding, based in part on Fidelity Fed.

Sav. & Loan Ass’n, that “Georgia law includes federal law” where

a choice-of-law provision selected “the laws of the State of

Georgia” but was silent as to federal statutory law’s

applicability). Accordingly, the General Terms’ choice-of-law

provision authorizes DMCC to pursue a maritime lien under the

FMLA.

F.

Hebei Prince alternatively argues that even if the FMLA

applies to the transaction, DMCC is still not entitled to a

maritime lien because it has not satisfied all of the

requirements under the FMLA. Once again, we disagree.

In relevant part, the FMLA provides that “a person

providing necessaries to a vessel on the order of . . . a person

32
authorized by the owner” “has a maritime lien on the vessel” and

“may bring a civil action in rem to enforce the lien.” 46

U.S.C. § 31342(a). The FMLA creates a presumption that

charterers (e.g., Tramp Maritime) have such “authority to

procure necessaries for” the Vessel. See § 31341(a)(4)(B).

Hebei Prince contends that it produced proof rebutting this

statutory presumption that Tramp Maritime had such authorization

here. Alternatively, Hebei Prince maintains that the record

demonstrates a genuine issue of material fact as to whether the

presumption applies. It asserts DMCC had actual knowledge that

Tramp Maritime was not authorized to enter into agreements that

would give rise to a maritime lien against the Vessel and points

to two prior contracts between Bunkerfuels Hellas and Tramp

Maritime, where Tramp Maritime had placed no-lien stamps on the

delivery receipts. Hebei Prince contends these prior acts

provided DMCC cognizable notice that Tramp Maritime could not

procure necessaries in an agreement that would bind the Vessel.

In addition, Hebei Prince maintains that upon seeing the no-lien

stamp affixed to the delivery receipt for the bunkers at issue

here, DMCC’s sub-contractor APSCO could—and should—have engaged

in self-help to immediately reclaim the bunkers. Hebei Prince

asserts DMCC’s failure to take such prompt action following

actual notice of the no-lien provision caused it to waive the

right to a maritime lien.

33
 We agree with the district court that no triable issue of

fact exists on this issue. The statutory presumption discussed

above can be rebutted only by proof that the seller had actual

knowledge that the charterer lacked the ability to bind the

vessel as part of the contract for necessaries. See Triton

Marine, 575 F.3d at 418 n.5 (observing that in 1971 Congress

recodified the FMLA “essentially to void ‘no lien’ clauses in

charters, as long as the supplier did not have actual knowledge

of such clause”); Lake Charles Stevedores, Inc. v. PROFESSOR

VLADIMIR POPOV MV, 199 F.3d 220, 224-25 (5th Cir. 1999)

(discussing cases in the Fifth and Eleventh Circuits holding the

same, as well as recounting the changes in the statute leading

to this conclusion). Put another way, “a supplier of

necessaries ordered by a § 31341(a) entity subject to a no-lien

clause not made known to the supplier has a maritime lien.”

Lake Charles Stevedores, 199 F.3d at 225.

None of the evidence Hebei Prince relies on demonstrates

that DMCC had actual knowledge of the no-lien provision in Tramp

Maritime’s charter party. Hebei Prince does not contend that it

or Tramp Maritime ever notified DMCC or Bunkerfuels Hellas of

the terms of their charter party. This is so despite the Bunker

Confirmation clearly stating that Tramp Maritime “is presumed to

have authority to bind the [Vessel] with a maritime lien.”

(J.A. 21.) The Bunker Confirmation thus plainly contemplated

34
that a presumption of authority to obligate the Vessel existed,

and there is no evidence that anyone attempted to notify DMCC to

the contrary at any point between Tramp Maritime receiving the

Bunker Confirmation and accepting delivery of the bunkers.

The no-lien stamps affixed to prior delivery notices when

Tramp Maritime was operating under prior charter parties is

insufficient to provide actual knowledge of the current charter

party. Those prior stamps say nothing about the terms of Tramp

Maritime’s charter to operate the Vessel at the time it entered

into the agreement set forth in the Bunker Confirmation.

The primary case Hebei Prince relies upon to satisfy its

burden, Belcher Oil Co. v. M/V GARDENIA, 766 F.2d 1508 (11th

Cir. 1985), materially differs from the facts here. In Belcher

Oil, the supplier was notified prior to delivery of the bunkers

that the charter party contained a no-lien clause prohibiting

the charterer from obligating the vessel. Id. at 1510. Only as

“corroborat[ion]” of this finding of actual knowledge did the

Eleventh Circuit also note that the charterer had put disclaimer

stamps on the bunkering certificates for prior deliveries from

the same seller. However, the presumption against lien

authority was only rebutted because the evidence showed the

supplier actually knew the charterer was bound by a no-lien

clause before delivery of the fuel. By contrast, there is no

proof in this case that DMCC actually knew that the operative

35
charter party contained a no-lien clause. Accordingly, Hebei

Prince cannot rebut the presumption based on prior contracts

between Tramp Maritime and Bunkerfuels.

Hebei Prince’s second argument fares no better, as the no-

lien stamps affixed to the delivery notices did not provide

timely actual notice of any no-lien clause in the charter party.

This is so for at least two reasons. First, the Bunker

Confirmation states that “[d]isclaimer stamps placed by [anyone]

on the bunker receipt will have no effect and do not waive the

seller’s lien.” (J.A. 21.) Despite this language, Tramp

Maritime never contacted DMCC to convey the terms of the charter

party or that it viewed the no-lien stamps as effective.

Moreover, anyone reading the terms of the Bunker Confirmation

would have reason to believe that even if a no-lien stamp was

placed on the delivery receipt, it would be of no effect. Given

the terms of the Bunker Confirmation, DMCC and its subcontractor

APSCO both had reason to believe that any no-lien stamps were

ineffective.

Second, delivery of the bunkers fulfilled DMCC’s obligation

under the Bunker Confirmation, and notice at that point of the

no-lien provision would be too late to alter the terms of the

existing agreement. Contrary to Hebei Prince’s assertion, DMCC

was not required to engage in self-help and demand immediate

return of the bunkers upon learning that a no-lien stamp had

36
been affixed to the delivery notice. The out-of-circuit case it

relies on for this assertion is not binding on us. See Ferromet

Res. v. Chemoil Corp., 5 F.3d 902, 903 (5th Cir. 1993). More

importantly, the FMLA’s provisions were not at issue before that

court, and it did not discuss the presumption that arises under

§ 31341(a) or what evidence is sufficient to rebut it. Id.

Ferromet Resources involved a tort claim brought by the

charterer against a supplier after the supplier of bunkers

refused to unmoor from alongside the vessel until the delivery

notice was signed without a no-lien stamp. The Eleventh Circuit

held that a genuine issue of material fact existed as to when

the supplier was notified that the charterer lacked authority to

incur liens. If it was before delivery, then the charterer

could likely recover damages incurred as a result of the delay

caused by the supplier’s refusal to unmoor. Id. at 905. If the

supplier was not notified of the no-lien clause until delivery,

then the supplier may have been entitled to engage in self-help.

Id. Nothing in Ferromet Resources suggests that a supplier must

engage in self-help or attempt to retrieve delivered bunkers

simply because a no-lien stamp has been placed on the delivery

receipt.

Accordingly, we conclude that § 31341(a)’s presumption of

authority to procure necessaries applies to the Bunker

Confirmation transaction. Hebei Prince failed to demonstrate or

37
even proffer evidence creating a genuine issue of material fact

as to whether DMCC had actual knowledge of Tramp Maritime’s lack

of authority to bind the Vessel.

Given that the remaining § 31342(a) requirements are either

uncontested or have already been resolved in DMCC’s favor, we

also conclude that DMCC was entitled to bring this action to

enforce a maritime lien against the Vessel.

G.

Hebei Prince’s final, comity-themed argument echoes

throughout its brief. It contends that United States law with

respect to maritime liens is so “out of step with existing

international conventions and the law of other major maritime

nations” that the Court should find a way to conclude no lien

arose under the facts of this case. (Opening Br. 51.) As Hebei

Prince acknowledges, its arguments align with those previously

rejected in other cases, most directly Triton Marine. “‘[A]

panel of this court cannot overrule, explicitly or implicitly,

the precedent set by a prior panel of this court. Only the

Supreme Court or this court sitting en banc can do that.’”

Scotts Co. v. United Indus. Corp., 315 F.3d 264, 271 n.2 (4th

Cir. 2002) (quoting Mentavlos v. Anderson, 249 F.3d 301, 312 n.4

(4th Cir. 2001)). Accordingly, we need not engage this argument

further.

38
 III.

For the reasons explained above, we affirm the judgment of

the district court granting summary judgment to DMCC.

AFFIRMED

39