15‐832‐cv
Salazar v. King
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
August Term, 2015
(Argued: November 4, 2015 Decided: May 12, 2016)
Docket No. 15‐832‐cv
ANA SALAZAR, MARILYN MERCADO, ANA BERNARDEZ, JEANNETTE
POOLE, LISA BRYANT, CHERRYLINE STEVENS, EDNA VILLATORO, on
behalf of themselves and others similarly situated,
Plaintiffs‐Appellants,
— v. —
JOHN B. KING, JR., in his official capacity as Secretary of the United States
Department of Education,*
Defendant‐Appellee.
B e f o r e:
HALL and LYNCH, Circuit Judges, and RAKOFF, District Judge.**
* Pursuant to Federal Rule of Appellate Procedure 43(c)(2), Secretary of the
United States Department of Education John B. King Jr. is automatically
substituted for former Secretary of the United States Department of Education
Arne Duncan as Respondent.
** The Honorable Jed S. Rakoff, of the United States District Court for the
Southern District of New York, sitting by designation.
__________________
Plaintiffs‐Appellants, former students of for‐profit beauty schools operated
by Wilfred American Educational Corporation (“Wilfred”), claim that Wilfred
schools fraudulently certified their eligibility for federal student loans. Plaintiffs
brought this class action on behalf of themselves and similarly situated Wilfred
borrowers against the United States Department of Education (“DOE”), alleging
that, despite regulations that require the DOE to temporarily suspend the
collection of loans and notify borrowers of their discharge rights when a
borrower “may be eligible for a discharge” because of a school’s fraudulent
certification of the student’s eligibility to borrow, the DOE arbitrarily and
capriciously refused to provide this relief to the putative class members. The
district court granted the DOE’s motion to dismiss, holding that the DOE’s
actions were unreviewable because they were committed to agency discretion by
law, and were not final. The district court then denied the plaintiffs’ motion for
class certification as moot. Because we hold that there is sufficient law to apply
and that the challenged decisions of the DOE were final, we VACATE the
decision of the district court granting the defendant’s motion to dismiss and
denying plaintiffs’ request for class certification as moot, and REMAND for
proceedings consistent with this decision, including consideration of plaintiffs’
class certification motion.
VACATED AND REMANDED.
EILEEN CONNER (Beth E. Goldman, Jane Greengold Stvens,
Danielle Tarantolo, Jason Glick, on the brief), New York Legal
Assistance Group, New York, NY, for Plaintiffs‐Appellants.
CHRISTINA S. POSCABLO (Ellen London, Emily E. Daughtry, on
the brief), for Preet Bharara, United States Attorney for the Southern
District of New York , New York, NY, for Defendant‐Appellee.
Toby R. Merrill, Legal Services Center of Harvard Law School,
Jamaica Plain, MA, for Amici Curiae East Bay Community Law
2
Center, Legal Services Center of Harvard Law School, National
Consumer Law Center, New Economy Project, in Support of Plaintiffs‐
Appellants.
GERARD E. LYNCH, Circuit Judge:
Plaintiffs‐Appellants Ana Salazar, Marilyn Mercado, Ana Bernardez,
Jeannette Poole, Lisa Bryant, Cherryline Stevens, and Edna Villatoro,
(“plaintiffs”) brought this class action against Defendant‐Appellee Arne Duncan,
in his official capacity as the Secretary of the United States Department of
Education (“DOE”).1 Plaintiffs allege that federal student loans were
fraudulently procured on their behalf when the Wilfred American Educational
Corporation’s (“Wilfred”) for‐profit beauty schools falsely certified that plaintiffs
had an ability‐to‐benefit (“ATB”) from the education they received from Wilfred.
Plaintiffs allege that the DOE’s refusal to temporarily suspend collection of the
student loan debt of putative class members, and refusal to send them notice of
their potential eligibility for a discharge, was arbitrary and capricious in violation
of the Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”). The United States District Court
for the Southern District of New York (Robert W. Sweet, Judge) granted the
1
Since this litigation began, Secretary Duncan resigned. John B. King, Jr., who
succeeded him as Secretary of Education has also replaced him as the defendant
in this case.
3
DOE’s motion to dismiss, holding that plaintiffs had not adequately alleged a
final agency action that may be subject to judicial review. Because the district
court dismissed the complaint, it also denied plaintiffs’ motion for class
certification as moot.
As a preliminary matter, the DOE argues that the case has become moot
because all the named plaintiffs’ Wilfred loans have now been discharged. We
have jurisdiction to review this case because the plaintiffs had standing when
they filed their class action complaint and this case fits into the narrow exception
to the mootness doctrine for class action claims that are “inherently transitory.”
Exercising our jurisdiction to review plaintiffs’ APA challenge, we hold that
plaintiffs are entitled to judicial review because there is sufficient law to apply to
the challenged agency decisions. The text of the relevant statute directs that the
DOE “shall” discharge a borrower’s loan liability when a school has falsely
certified a student’s ATB. DOE’s regulations and informal agency guidance
direct that the DOE “shall” temporarily suspend collection on loans and notify
borrowers of their possible eligibility for a discharge when the DOE has reliable
information that a borrower “may be eligible” for dicharge. We therefore hold
that plaintiffs’ claims are judicially reviewable under the APA. Accordingly, we
4
VACATE the judgment of the district court and REMAND the case for further
proceedings consistent with this decision.
BACKGROUND
I. Statutory and Regulatory Structure of Student Loan Discharge
Title IV of the Higher Education Act of 1965 (“HEA”), 20 U.S.C. §§ 1070‐
1099, provides the statutory authorization for federal student loans, including
both Federal Family Education Loans (“FFEL”), id. § 1071 et seq.,2 and William D.
Ford Federal Direct Loans (“Direct Loans”), id. § 1087a et seq. Under the FFEL
program, private lenders issue subsidized student loans, which are then insured
by guaranty agencies (a state or private non‐profit organization), which, in turn,
are insured by the DOE. Id. § 1078(b)–(c); 34 C.F.R. § 682.200 (defining guaranty
agency). Under the Direct Loans program, the government lends money to
students directly.
To qualify for federal educational financial assistance under either loan
program, a student must attend an eligible institution and must have a high
school diploma or recognized equivalent. If the student lacks a diploma, the
institution must demonstrate the student has an ATB from the training that she
2
Since July 2010, loans are no longer made under the FFEL program. See Health
Care and Education Reconciliation Act of 2010, Pub. L. No. 111‐152, § 2201 et seq.,
124 Stat. 1029, 1074 et seq.
5
would receive using the financial aid. 20 U.S.C. §§ 1091(a), (d). The particulars
of how a school must demonstrate that the student has an ATB have changed
over the years; however, a student generally must pass a standardized test. See
34 C.F.R. § 668.32(e); U.S. Dep’t of Educ., GEN‐95‐42, Dear Colleague Letter, at 2
(Sept. 1995) (“DCL 95‐42ʺ) (summarizing changes in ATB requirements between
1986 and 1995).
The ATB test, which between 1987 and 1991 was based on criteria
developed by private accrediting agencies and could be administered and
evaluated by the school itself, proved to be a target of fraud; some schools
falsified results or never even gave prospective students the test. See U.S. Dep’t
of Educ., GEN‐89‐55, Dear Colleague Letter, at 4 (Dec. 1989). Although after
1991, the ATB tests had to be approved by the DOE and independently
administered, and after 1992 the DOE specified a required score, fraudulent ATB
testing continued unabated. See U.S. Dep’t of Educ., GEN‐91‐20, Dear Colleague
Letter, at 1‐2 (June 1991); DCL 95‐42 at 2; U.S. Gov’t Accountability Office,
GAO‐09‐600, Proprietary Schools: Stronger Department of Education Oversight
Needed to Help Ensure Only Eligible Students Receive Federal Student Aid 22
(2009) (“Through separate investigations at proprietary schools, we, along with
6
other federal and state investigative agencies, found test administrators or school
officials violating rules to ensure prospective students without high school
diplomas passed required tests and obtained access to Title IV aid.”).
Similarly, the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations Report
found that students were the victims of “unscrupulous and dishonest school
operators” of private, for‐profit trade and other vocational institutions that
provide postsecondary education that “leav[e] them with huge debts and little or
no education.” Abuses in Federal Student Aid Programs, S. Rep. 102‐58, at 10
(1991). The subcommittee also found that “a virtually complete breakdown in
effective regulation and oversight had opened the door for fraud, abuse, and
other serious problems at every level.” S. Rep. 102‐58, at 11.
In response to these findings of pervasive fraud in federal student loans
and contentions of lack of adequate supervision by DOE, Congress passed a
statute in 1992 directing that the Secretary of the United States DOE (“Secretary”)
“shall discharge the borrower’s liability on the loan (including interest and
collection fees) by repaying the amount owed on the loan” if the borrower
received a federal student loan on or after January 1, 1986, and the “studentʹs
eligibility to borrow under this part was falsely certified by the eligible
7
institution.” Pub. L. No. 102‐325 § 437 (July 23, 1992), codified at 20 U.S.C. § 1087
(emphasis added). Additionally, the statute provides that a “borrower whose
loan has been discharged pursuant to this subsection shall not be precluded from
receiving additional grants, loans, or work assistance . . . for which the borrower
would be otherwise eligible” and that the borrower must have her adverse credit
history repaired. 20 U.S.C. § 1087(c)(4), (5).
To implement the statute, the Secretary issued two similar regulations, one
to govern the FFEL program and one to govern the Direct Loans program. Both
state that the Secretary “shall discharge the borrower’s liability on [a] loan” made
after 1986 when the “student’s eligibility to borrow under this part was falsely
certified.” Id. § 1087(a)(1), (c)(1); see 34 C.F.R. § 682.402(e) (governing discharge
of FFEL program loans due to false certification); 34 C.F.R. § 685.215 (governing
discharge of federal Direct Loans due to false certification). These regulations
include obligations to ensure that the congressional directive is fulfilled by the
guaranty agencies that administer the FFEL program and by the DOE, which is
the final insurer of the FFEL program and administers the Direct Loans program.
The regulation governing the FFEL program provides that
[i]f the guaranty agency receives information it believes
to be reliable indicating that a borrower whose loan is
8
held by the agency may be eligible for a discharge under
paragraph (e) [“False certification by a school of a
student’s eligibility to borrow”] of this section, the
agency shall immediately suspend any efforts to collect
from the borrower on any loan received for the program
of study for which the loan was made (but may
continue to receive borrower payments), and inform the
borrower of the procedures for requesting a discharge.
34 C.F.R. § 682.402(e)(6)(ii) (emphasis added). Although it speaks of “the
guaranty agency,” that regulation also implicates the obligations of the DOE
because, as our Court has recognized, “[i]t is the obligation of the Department of
Education to see that [the role of guaranty agencies] is properly performed.”
McNamee, Lochner, Titus & Williams, P.C. v. Higher Educ. Assistance Found., 50
F.3d 120, 124 (2d Cir. 1995). The DOE accepts that the FFEL regulation also
applies to the DOE for the purposes of this litigation.3
Another regulation speaks directly to the DOE’s obligations under the
Direct Loan program, stating:
3
In its brief, the DOE stated that “[w]hile certain of the FFEL regulations relevant
to the issues in this litigation and relied on by the [p]laintiffs appear, on their
face, to apply only to the guaranty agencies, DOE has not taken the position in
this case that those regulations do not apply to DOE,” because “DOE retains the
ultimate discretion to grant or deny a discharge application. . . . And, as the
ultimate guarantor of the loans at issue, DOE often steps into the shoes of the
guaranty agencies . . . [and] DOE manages the FFEL and Direct Loan programs as
a whole.” Defendant‐Appellee’s Br. 8‐9 n.4 (citation omitted).
9
If the Secretary determines that a borrower’s Direct
Loan may be eligible for a discharge under this section,
the Secretary mails the borrower a disclosure application
and an explanation of the qualifications and procedures
for obtaining a discharge. The Secretary also promptly
suspends any efforts to collect from the borrower on any
affected loan. The Secretary may continue to receive
borrower payments.
34 C.F.R. § 685.215(d)(1) (emphasis added). Although the language in the two
regulations is slightly different, the DOE has acknowledged that the “FFEL and
Direct Loan regulations on false certification discharges have the same rules with
respect to a discharge based on an improper determination of the studentʹs
ability‐to‐benefit.” Federal Family Education Loan (FFEL) Program and William
D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program, 65 Fed. Reg. 46,316, 46,318 (proposed July
27, 2000) (to be codified at 34 C.F.R. pts. 682, 685).4
In addition to the statute and regulations, the DOE has issued Dear
Colleague Letters (“DCLs”) to provide additional guidance about discharges
based on a school’s fraudulent determination of a student’s ATB. Two DCLs
provide specific guidance concerning the evidence that guaranty agencies and
4
Relatedly, but not directly at issue in this appeal, the DOE has also issued a
“group discharge” regulation. Pursuant to this regulation, the Secretary has the
power to discharge a borrower’s loan without an individual application from the
borrower if the Secretary determines that the borrower is qualified for a
discharge based on information in the Secretary’s or guaranty agency’s
possession. 34 C.F.R. §§ 682.402(e)(15), 685.215(c)(7).
10
the DOE should consider to determine whether a borrower’s ATB was falsely
certified and thus whether the loan should be discharged. DCL 95‐42; U.S. Dep’t
of Educ., FP‐07‐09, Dear Colleague Letter (Sept. 2007) (“DCL 07‐09ʺ).
The Secretary, as the head of the DOE, is required to try to collect federally
guaranteed student loan debt. See 31 U.S.C. § 3711(a)(1). The Secretary is
authorized to take a variety of actions in order to collect a debt, including
charging interest, fees, and penalties; reporting debts to consumer reporting
agencies; garnishing wages; and imposing “offsets.” 34 C.F.R. §§ 30.1, 30.21,
30.33, 30.35, 34.1. Imposing an offset allows an administrative agency to
withhold government funds otherwise due to an individual, such as social
security payments or tax refunds, to pay an outstanding debt owed to the
government. See, e.g., Lockhart v. United States, 546 U.S. 142, 143‐44 (2005)
(upholding the government’s withholding of individual’s social security
payments to offset a debt owed on a federally reinsured student loan incurred
between 1984‐1989). The DOE’s regulations require that when garnishing wages
or imposing an offset the Secretary must provide written notice to the debtor
with certain enumerated information. 34 C.F.R. §§ 30.22, 34.5. The regulations
11
do not require this notice to include any information about the possibility of
discharging debt that was incurred through fraudulent certification.
II. Factual Background5
Plaintiffs are former students of a (now‐defunct) chain of for‐profit beauty
schools run by Wilfred. Each alleges that Wilfred fraudulently certified that she
was eligible for federal student aid by falsely certifying that she had the ATB
from a Wilfred program. All of their loans were initiated under the FFEL
program; however, some borrowers later consolidated their FFEL loans under
the Direct Loan program. Plaintiffs allege that the DOE knows that Wilfred
fraudulently certified the eligibility of a large percentage of borrowers, but has
failed to notify plaintiffs that they may be eligible for relief and has continued to
collect on their loans. Plaintiffs brought this action on behalf of themselves and a
proposed class consisting of “many thousands of individuals” whose eligibility
for federal student loans was falsely certified by the Wilfred schools beginning in
1986. JA 20 ¶ 48.
5
All facts are taken from plaintiffs’ complaint, and because plaintiffs appeal from
an order granting a motion to dismiss, we accept all factual allegations in the
complaint as true. ATSI Commc’ns, Inc. v. Shaar Fund, Ltd., 493 F.3d 87, 93 (2d
Cir. 2007).
12
Wilfred began as a small chain of schools offering vocational training in
beauty‐related professions. By the late 1980s, it had expanded to a nationwide
chain of 58 campuses, with over 11,000 students enrolled annually. Between 1980
and 1989, Wilfred received $405 million in federal student aid, which accounted
for between 80 and 90 percent of Wilfred’s revenue. According to the DOE, at
least 61,300 FFEL program loans were issued to Wilfred students between 1986
and 1994. Plaintiffs allege that “Wilfred targeted and recruited immigrants and
economically disadvantaged individuals for enrollment in its schools.” JA 22
¶ 63.
The facts alleged by the named plaintiffs include examples of the fraud
that plaintiffs allege is common to the class. According to the complaint, not one
of the named plaintiffs was ever asked if she had a high school diploma or its
equivalent. Further, no named plaintiff was given a test to determine if she had
the “ability to benefit” from the Wilfred program, as required in lieu of a high
school diploma. Several plaintiffs allege that the Wilfred campus they attended
was closed without advance notice, making it impossible for them to complete
the program.
13
Each named plaintiff has a student loan that was paid directly to Wilfred.
Each had her federal income tax refund seized to pay the debt on her student
loan at the direction of the DOE, and at least one also had her wages garnished at
the direction of the DOE. At the time the lawsuit was filed, all named plaintiffs
continued to be burdened with the responsibility for their loans and to suffer
consequences of that indebtedness. Many allege that the Wilfred student debt
ruined their credit scores, making it impossible for them to obtain credit to pay
for basic necessities. Outstanding Wilfred debt has also made plaintiffs unable to
access educational opportunities decades after they were the victims of fraud.
A. The Named Plaintiffs
Plaintiff Ana Salazar alleges that she was recruited to attend Wilfred in late
1988. She did not have a high school diploma or its equivalent and was not given
an ATB test. Salazar did not speak English, but was told she qualified and was
given forms to sign in English. The Wilfred school she attended closed without
warning, and she was unable to finish the program. She made payments toward
her Wilfred debt for thirteen years, pursuant to a payment plan arranged with
collectors of the debt. The IRS seized her federal income tax refund
approximately five times at the direction of the DOE. Salazar never received any
14
communication from the DOE informing her of the availability of a false
certification discharge. She applied to the DOE for a loan discharge on April 9,
2014 and her discharge was granted on September 23, 2014.
Plaintiff Marilyn Mercado dropped out of school in junior high and
enrolled in Wilfred Academy at age seventeen. She did not have a high school
diploma or its equivalent and was not given an ATB test. Although she
completed the program, she was unable to obtain a job as a hair cutter, the field
that Wilfred purported to train her for, because she was not adequately trained to
cut hair and not prepared to pass the cosmetology license test. Mercado
ultimately defaulted on the debt. She is not able to obtain an extension of credit,
and the IRS seized her federal income tax refund to pay the debt. She never
received any communication from the DOE informing her of the availability of a
false certification discharge. Mercado applied to the DOE for a loan discharge on
April 9, 2014, and her discharge was granted on June 9, 2014.
Plaintiff Ana Bernardez alleges that she inquired about a Wilfred
educational program in 1988, and she was told that the only requirement for
enrollment was a Social Security number, and that it would cost only a few
hundred dollars. Bernardez did not have a high school diploma or its equivalent
15
and was not given an ATB test. She did not understand that she had taken out a
loan until she tried to obtain a loan years later to cover the cost of furniture. The
IRS seized her federal tax refunds approximately five times. She never received
any communication from the DOE informing her of the availability of a false
certification discharge. Bernandez applied to the DOE for a loan discharge on
April 9, 2014, and her discharge was granted on October 14, 2014.
In 1987, plaintiff Jeannette Poole gave her personal information to a
representative of the Wilfred Academy, who said he would use it to determine if
she qualified for loans to cover the cost of the program. Poole did not have a
high school diploma or its equivalent and was not given an ATB test. After
receiving information from the Wilfred representative, she told the
representative that she did not want to enroll in the program or take out a loan.
(She was homeless and sleeping in an abandoned building at the time and did
not want to take on debt). Even though she never attended any Wilfred
program, Wilfred took out two loans in her name without her knowledge.
Because these loans went into default, Poole was unable to enroll in a business
training program at a community college over a decade later. Further, her credit
was impaired so she was not able to receive credit for necessities such as
16
repairing her living quarters damaged by a flood. Additionally, the IRS seized
her federal tax refund despite her attempts to contest the loan. She never
received any communication from the DOE informing her of the availability of a
false certification discharge. Poole applied to the DOE for a loan discharge on
April 9, 2014, and her discharge was granted on May 20, 2014.
Plaintiff Edna Villatoro enrolled in a Wilfred Academy in New Jersey. She
did not have a high school diploma or its equivalent and was not given an ATB
test. The Wilfred representative told Villatoro that the school offered GED
classes, but a GED teacher was never provided. After completing the Wilfred
program, Villatoro learned that to apply for a cosmetologist license in New Jersey
she needed a high school diploma or its equivalent. She never obtained a license.
The IRS seized her federal income tax refund. She never received any
communication from the DOE informing her of the availability of a false
certification discharge. Villatoro applied to the DOE for a loan discharge to the
DOE on April 9, 2014, and her discharge was granted on June 17, 2014.
Plaintiff Lisa Bryant attended a Wilfred school in Houston, Texas in 1987.
She did not have a high school diploma or its equivalent and was not given an
ATB test. A Wilfred representative told Bryant that if she did not find a job
17
within six months after graduation her loan money would be refunded. She
attended the school for three months, until one day she arrived for class and was
told by a security guard that the school was closed. She never received any
correspondence about the closure. The IRS seized Byrant’s federal income tax
refunds at least four times. She never received any communication from the
DOE informing her of the availability of a false certification discharge. She has
never been able to obtain a credit card or take out a loan to buy a car or a home
because of the Wilfred debt. Bryant applied to the DOE for a loan discharge on
May 28, 2014, and her discharge was granted on June 27, 2014.
Plaintiff Cherryline Stevens enrolled in a Wilfred school in Queens, New
York in 1987. Stevens did not have a high school diploma or its equivalent and
was not given an ATB test. Although she completed the program, the school
never gave her an official diploma, which is necessary to get a cosmetologist
license. Approximately eight years ago, Stevens started working at Queens
Village Day Care and the DOE garnished her wages to pay her student debt. She
has also had her federal tax refund seized at least three times. She never received
any communication from the DOE informing her of the availability of a false
certification discharge. At the time the lawsuit was filed Stevens was continuing
18
to make monthly payments towards her student debt. Stevens applied to the
DOE for a loan discharge on April 9, 2014, and her discharge was granted on
June 18, 2014.
B. The Class Allegations
The DOE estimates that over 61,300 student loans were given to
individuals to attend Wilfred schools. Plaintiffs allege that their factual
allegations are common to the class and that the claims of the named plaintiffs
are typical of the claims of the class because Wilfred “routinely falsely certified
students as eligible for federally guaranteed student loans even though the
certified students did not have a valid high school diploma or GED, and Wilfred
did not give them ability to benefit [] tests” and “certified that the students had
taken and passed an approved ATB test when they had not.” JA 23 ¶¶ 66, 67.
All members of the putative class suffered harm because they paid money
towards the debt; incurred interest, penalties and collection fees; had their
federal income tax refunds seized and/or their wages garnished; and had their
credit damaged. Plaintiffs also allege that “the majority of class members are,
and have always been, unaware of the availability of a false certification
discharge,” that “Defendant has or had information in his possession
19
demonstrating that specific loans were falsely certified by Wilfred,” and that the
DOE had and has “knowledge of Wilfred’s bad practices, including its pattern of
falsely certifying students’ loan eligibility,” and “information indicating that
current or former Wilfred borrowers may be eligible for a discharge.” JA 30‐31 ¶
122‐126.
In support of the motion for class certification, plaintiffs’ counsel avers that
counsel spoke with fifty individuals whose eligibility for federally guaranteed
students loans was falsely certified by ten different Wilfred schools, and that
“[n]one of these individuals had been aware of the existence of the false
certification discharge or that they were qualified for a false certification
discharge of their federally guaranteed Wilfred loans until they were referred to
[counsel], or until [counsel] advised them of it.” JA 54‐55.
C. The DOE’s Investigation of Wilfred
The DOE began investigating Wilfred’s fraud as early as the 1980s. In
1982, the DOE found five Wilfred schools ineligible for continued participation in
the federally guaranteed loan program. The DOE’s Office of Inspector General
(“OIG”) investigated the financial aid practices of Wilfred’s schools in
Massachusetts in 1983, Wilfred’s Florida schools in 1985, and Wilfred’s schools
20
nationwide by 1986. The OIG and the United States Department of Justice
(“DOJ”) formed a joint federal task force to investigate Wilfred’s principals and
employees. The DOJ brought criminal prosecutions against Wilfred, its officers,
and individual employees for financial aid fraud, false certification, racketeering,
wire fraud, embezzlement, making false statements, and other crimes, resulting
in the conviction of Wilfred, along with its president and other employees, for
financial aid fraud and defrauding the federal government. In December 1988,
the DOE attempted to terminate fifty‐eight Wilfred schools from the federally
guaranteed loan program, but this attempt was defeated on procedural grounds.
Wilfred filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in May 1990, and the last Wilfred school
ceased operation in 1994.
In 1996 the DOE issued a report titled “Documentation of ATB violations,”
based on OIG reports of approximately 50 Wilfred schools. JA 187. The report
concluded that Wilfred’s “[c]onsistent pattern of gross violations of DOE
regulations in multiple programs over multiple years indicates a strong
resistance to following DOE regulations for administering funds and ATB
student testing. Violations appeared system wide.” JA 188. The report
recommended that “[s]ince the corporation was cited as early as June 1984 for
21
improper grading practices it is recommended that all ATB applications be
discharged.” Id.
Due to these widespread findings of fraud in Wilfred schools, the DOE has
a policy of “granting all facially valid [discharge] claims from Wilfred students.”
JA 216 (Letter from Chad Keller, Supervisory Program & Mgmt. Analyst, Fed.
Student Aid, U.S. Dep’t of Educ., to Jane Greengold Stevens, Dir. of Litig, N.Y.
Legal Assistance Grp. (Feb. 18, 2014)); see JA 200 ¶ 16 (Declaration of Chad
Keller). But with the exception of former students who attended the
Philadelphia campus of Wilfred between July 1, 1987 and 1989, the DOE has
refused to temporarily cease collection on federally guaranteed student loans
attributable to Wilfred or to notify all students who attended Wilfred schools of
their potential eligibility for a permanent discharge if the school falsely certified
their ATB. See JA 216; JA 212‐14 (Letter from Janet Greengold Stevens, Dir. of
Litig., N.Y. Legal Assistance Grp., to Arne Duncan, Sec’y of Educ., U.S. Dep’t of
Educ. (Sept. 24, 2013)). The DOE has also continued to actively collect on loans
made to former Wilfred students, including by seizing their income tax refunds,
garnishing the wages, and tarnishing their credit.
22
III. Procedural History
Plaintiffs filed this action on behalf of themselves and similarly situated
Wilfred borrowers, alleging that the DOE violated the APA by arbitrarily and
capriciously refusing to suspend collection on the Wilfred loans and to notify
Wilfred borrowers of their discharge application rights.6 Plaintiffs moved to
certify a class of all individuals who obtained federal student loans to attend
Wilfred after January 1, 1986, and whose ATB was falsely certified by Wilfred.
The DOE opposed the motion and moved to dismiss, primarily on the grounds
that the Secretary’s actions were unreviewable because they were “committed to
agency discretion by law,” 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(2) and were not “final,” id. § 704.
The district court granted the DOE’s motion to dismiss and denied plaintiffs’
motion for class certification as moot. Plaintiffs timely appealed that dismissal.
Prior to oral argument, we asked plaintiffs to provide the current status of
each of the named plaintiffs’ applications for false‐certification discharge. Order,
6
Plaintiffs brought other claims which they have explicitly abandoned on appeal,
including that the DOE is required to grant a blanket discharge of all Wilfred
borrowers’ loans without requiring individualized applications, and that the
Secretary unlawfully withheld agency action in violation of 5 U.S.C. § 706(1). See
Plaintiffs‐Appellants’ Br. 14. These now‐abandoned arguments were addressed
in the district court’s opinion below. Salazar v. Duncan, No. 14 CIV. 1230 (RWS),
2015 WL 252078, at *14 (S.D.N.Y. Jan. 16, 2015). The claims plaintiffs present on
appeal were adequately raised below and have not been waived.
23
Salazar v. Duncan, No. 15‐832 (2d Cir. Oct. 22, 2015), ECF No. 85. Both parties
submitted letter briefs. Plaintiffs informed the Court that the discharge
applications of all the named plaintiffs had been granted, but that at the time the
complaint and amended complaint were filed, “the Named Plaintiffs were still
subject to Defendant’s collection activities in relation to their loans.” Letter Br.
for Plaintiffs‐Appellants 2, Salazar v. Duncan, No. 15‐832 (Oct. 28, 2015), ECF No.
86. Plaintiffs argued that the fact that the DOE had subsequently granted the
named plaintiffs’ discharge applications did not render their claims moot
because their claims come within the mootness exception for inherently
transitory claims. Id. The DOE submitted a letter brief arguing that the
discharge of the named plaintiffs’ loans rendered the appeal moot and that the
inherently transitory exception does not preserve jurisdiction because “[t]here is
nothing intrinsically fleeting about plaintiffs’ claims.” Letter Br. for Defendant‐
Appellee 2, Salazar v. Duncan, No. 15‐832 (Oct. 30, 2015), ECF No. 89.
DISCUSSION
We have jurisdiction to hear this appeal because plaintiffs’ claims come
within the inherently transitory exception to the mootness doctrine. On the
issues before us on appeal, we review the district court’s decision to dismiss the
24
plaintiffs’ claims de novo and hold that the district court erred.7 First, the
presumption in favor of judicial review applies to this case. Second, there is
sufficient law to apply to allow for judicial review of the agency action
challenged here. Third, the agency decision was final. See 5 U.S.C. § 704.
I. The Plaintiffs Have Standing and the Case is Not Moot
To bring a claim under the APA a plaintiff must satisfy Article III’s
standing requirements (constitutional standing) and assert interests that are
arguably within the zone of interests to be protected or regulated by the statute
she claims was violated (statutory standing), at all times during the litigation
(mootness). See Match‐E‐Be‐Nash‐She‐Wish Band of Pottawatomi Indians v.
Patchak, 132 S. Ct. 2199, 2210 (2012); Nat’l Council of La Raza v. Gonzales, 468 F.
Supp. 2d 429, 437 (E.D.N.Y. 2007) aff’d sub nom. Nat’l Council of La Raza v.
Mukasey, 283 F. App’x 848 (2d Cir. 2008); Cook v. Colgate Univ., 992 F.2d 17, 19
(2d Cir. 1993).
7
The DOE moved to dismiss the Amended Complaint under Federal Rules of
Civil Procedure 12(b)(1) and 12(b)(6). The district court granted the DOE’s
motion without specifying under which subsection the court decided the motion.
This court reviews de novo a district court decision granting a motion to dismiss
under either subsection of Rule 12(b). Sharkey v. Quarantillo, 541 F.3d 75, 82 (2d
Cir. 2008) (Rule 12(b)(1)); Barrows v. Burwell, 777 F.3d 106, 111 (2d Cir. 2015)
(Rule 12(b)(6)).
25
It is not contested that plaintiffs satisfied the requirements for
constitutional and statutory standing at the time their complaint was filed. The
standing requirements were satisfied because plaintiffs were injured by the
DOE’s active collection of their student loan debt, their injury was fairly traceable
to the refusal of the DOE to suspend collection and send notice, and their injury
was redressable. Plaintiffs are student financial aid borrowers who allege that
they were falsely certified eligible by Wilfred and thus are squarely within the
zone of interests to be protected by a statute directed at the “treatment of
borrowers . . . falsely certified as eligible to borrow.” See 20 U.S.C. § 1087.
However, even if a party has constitutional and statutory standing when her
complaint is filed, her claim can become moot during the course of the litigation.
The parties disagree about whether the plaintiffs’ case is moot. The DOE
granted all of the named plaintiffs’ requests to have their Wilfred loans
discharged after the plaintiffs filed their complaint and amended complaint.
Plaintiffs argue that their claims fall into the mootness exception for inherently
transitory claims. The DOE disputes the applicability of the inherently transitory
exception to these facts. We agree with the plaintiffs that this case falls into the
26
inherently transitory exception to the mootness doctrine and that they have
standing to pursue this appeal.
The exception to the mootness doctrine for “inherently transitory” claims
asserted by the named plaintiff(s) in a class action allows such claims to “relate
back” to the time of the filing of the complaint with class allegations. See Comer
v. Cisneros, 37 F.3d 775, 799 (2d Cir. 1994). Under that exception, a case will not
be moot, even if the controversy as to the named plaintiffs has been resolved, if:
“(1) it is uncertain that a claim will remain live for any individual who could be
named as a plaintiff long enough for a court to certify the class; and (2) there will
be a constant class of persons suffering the deprivation complained of in the
complaint.” Olson v. Brown, 594 F.3d 577, 582 (7th Cir. 2010), citing Gerstein v.
Pugh, 420 U.S. 103, 110 n.11 (1975); Zurak v. Regan, 550 F.2d 86, 91–92 (2d Cir.
1977); see Sosna v. Iowa, 419 U.S. 393, 401‐02 (1975).8
The plaintiffs’ claims are within the “inherently transitory” exception.
First, it is uncertain that a claim will remain live for any individual who could be
8
Although similar to the “capable of repetition yet evading review” mootness
exception in individual litigation, the “inherently transitory” exception is
different because the named plaintiff must show “that there will likely be a
constant class of persons suffering the deprivation complained of in the
complaint” rather than showing that the claim is capable of repetition to that
individual plaintiff. Newberg on Class Actions § 2:13 (5th ed. 2014).
27
named as a plaintiff long enough for a court to address a class certification
motion because the DOE processes discharge applications from Wilfred
borrowers relatively quickly. For the seven named plaintiffs, the longest time it
took for the discharge application to be granted was six months and the average
was less than three months. This short time frame does not give a court enough
time to consider and decide a motion for class certification. See Robidoux v.
Celani, 987 F.2d 931, 939 (2d Cir. 1993) (applying the “inherently transitory”
exception to public assistance recipients whose applications for public assistance
had been unlawfully delayed). Indeed, it is virtually certain that any class
member fortunate enough to learn of the availability of debt relief and to apply
for it will be granted a discharge promptly, since it is DOE policy to grant
discharges to Wilfred attendees who make a prima facie showing of eligibility
without further time‐consuming investigation.
Second, there will be a constant class of persons suffering the deprivation
complained of in the complaint. The DOE has stated that at least 61,300 FFEL
program loans were issued to Wilfred students between 1986 and 1994.
Although not all 61,300 Wilfred borrowers will be eligible for a discharge, as not
every person who attended Wilfred did so based on a fraudulent certification of
28
her ATB, we can be confident that there is a constant class of persons suffering
the deprivation alleged in the complaint, due to the large number of potential
class members and the widespread nature of the fraud at Wilfred.
The DOE argues that plaintiffs’ claims became moot because plaintiffs
“took affirmative steps to procure a discharge of their loans,” not because of “the
fleeting nature of the conduct giving rise to the claims,” and therefore their
claims do not fall into the “inherently transitory” exception. Letter Br. for
Defendant‐Appellee at 2, Salazar v. Duncan, No. 15‐832 (Oct. 30, 2015). The
“inherently transitory” exception is not so limited.
As this court explained in Comer, “[n]ormally, the Court has held
circumstances appropriate where the claims are so inherently transitory that the
trial court will not have even enough time to rule on a motion for class
certification before the proposed representative’s individual interest expires.” 37
F.3d at 799 (internal quotation marks omitted). In Robidoux, we emphasized that
the plaintiffs’ “claims are inherently transitory since the [Vermont] Department
[of Social Welfare] will almost always be able to process a delayed [public
assistance] application before a plaintiff can obtain relief through litigation.” 987
F.2d at 939.
29
The critical question for the “inherently transitory” exception to mootness
is whether the court will have time to rule on a motion for class certification
brought by a plaintiff who has standing to bring a particular claim before the
claim will become moot; the inquiry is not why the claim will become moot. This
case demonstrates why such focus is correct. The DOE suggested at oral
argument that the inherently transitory exception does not apply because a
borrower could manufacture a non‐moot claim by “decid[ing] to delay an
application for a discharge.” Oral Argument at 1:00:10, Salazar v. Duncan, No.
15‐832 (Nov. 4, 2015). The DOE in effect asks plaintiffs to manipulate jurisdiction
by forgoing relief to which they are entitled and continuing to suffer garnishment
of their earnings and withholding of their income tax refunds.
The inherently transitory exception, which is properly focused on the time
it will take for a court to review a claim a plaintiff has standing to pursue, does
not require a plaintiff to forgo remedies to which she is entitled in order to seek
broader remedies for the DOE’s alleged derelictions. If the plaintiffs’ allegations
prove to be true, to accept the DOE’s position would acquiesce in conduct by
which the DOE disregards the congressional command to notify victims of fraud
and suspend collection activities when it is aware of such frauds, wait for the
30
victims to discover remedies on their own, and then provide them with a quick
discharge to avoid exposure of its neglect.9 That is precisely the sort of situation
the inherently transitory exception is designed to correct.
II. The Presumption Favoring Judicial Review Applies
There is a strong presumption favoring judicial review of administrative
action. Mach Mining, LLC v. EEOC, 135 S. Ct. 1645, 1651 (2015); Block v. Cmty.
Nutrition Inst., 467 U.S. 340, 349 (1984). “From the beginning our cases have
established that judicial review of a final agency action by an aggrieved person
will not be cut off unless there is persuasive reason to believe that such was the
purpose of Congress.” Bowen v. Mich. Acad. of Family Physicians, 476 U.S. 667,
670 (1986) (internal alteration and quotation marks omitted). In the absence of an
express statutory prohibition, the agency “bears the heavy burden of overcoming
the strong presumption that Congress did not mean to prohibit all judicial
review of [its] decision.” Dunlop v. Bachowski, 421 U.S. 560, 567 (1975). But the
opposite presumption applies when a plaintiff seeks to require that an agency
take an enforcement action because “an agency’s decision not to prosecute or
9
Moreover, as counsel for the plaintiffs argued, ethical attorneys would have a
professional obligation to advise a client that it is in her best interest to apply for
a discharge immediately. See New York State Rules of Professional Conduct,
N.Y. Comp. Codes R & Reg. tit. 22 § 1200 (Rule 1.1, “competence”); Oral
Argument at 43:30, Salazar v. Duncan, No. 15‐832 (Nov. 4, 2015).
31
enforce, whether through civil or criminal process, is a decision generally
committed to an agency’s absolute discretion.” Heckler v. Chaney, 470 U.S. 821,
831 (1985) (emphasis added).
The presumption in favor of judicial review applies to this case because
plaintiffs challenge what they contend are unlawful actions that the agency has
taken, and continues to take, against the plaintiffs themselves. Such challenges
are at the core of the judicial review function. The presumption against judicial
review of decisions not to take enforcement action protects agency discretion in
allocating its resources to choose their enforcement targets. See id. Unlike the
plaintiffs in Chaney, who asked the court to compel the FDA to take enforcement
measures against third parties within the agency’s sphere of regulation, the
plaintiffs here ask the court to review whether the DOE acted arbitrarily and
capriciously in taking enforcement actions against plaintiffs. Plaintiffs would fall
within Chaney if they were suing to compel the DOE to take action against
Wilfred. They are not; the DOE and the Department of Justice have long since
taken action to punish Wilfred. Plaintiffs demand that DOE stop acting to collect
from them on the loans fraudulently obtained at their expense, as they contend
that Congress required.
32
The DOE argues that the Chaney presumption against judicial review is
implicated here, because it should be applied whenever an agency decision
“involve[s] a complicated balancing of factors peculiarly within its expertise,
such as how best to expend its resources.” Defendant‐Appellee’s Br. 29. We
reject this attempt to expand Chaney beyond what its holding and reasoning can
bear. In Chaney, the court reasoned that “when an agency refuses to act it
generally does not exercise its coercive power over an individual’s liberty or
property rights” and “an agency’s refusal to institute proceedings shares to some
extent the characteristics of the decision of a prosecutor . . . not to indict.”
Chaney, 470 U.S. at 832. In this case, the DOE is already exercising its coercive
power over the plaintiffs by taking actions to collect on student loan debt.10
III. Congress Has Provided Sufficiently Clear Standards for Courts to Apply
The presumption in favor of judicial review is not absolute, but subject to a
narrow exception: the APA’s prohibition against judicial review of agency action
10
Even if the DOE were correct that the challenged agency action is an
enforcement action, the plaintiffs could rebut the presumption against judicial
review because, for the reasons discussed below, the relevant statute,
implementing guidelines, and agency guidance have provided sufficient law to
apply for the agency to follow in exercising its enforcement powers. Chaney, 470
U.S. at 832‐33 (“[T]he presumption may be rebutted where the substantive
statute has provided guidelines for the agency to follow in exercising its
enforcement powers.”).
33
“committed to agency discretion by law.” 5 U.S.C. § 701(a)(2); see Westchester v.
U.S. Dep’t of Hous. & Urban Dev., 778 F.3d 412, 419 (2d Cir. 2015). We must
therefore consider whether the statutes and regulations at issue in this case “are
drawn in such broad terms that . . . there is no law to apply.” Id.
To determine whether there is “law to apply” that provides “judicially
manageable standards” for judging an agency’s exercise of discretion, the courts
look to the statutory text, the agency’s regulations, and informal agency guidance
that govern the agency’s challenged action. Westchester, 778 F.3d at 419;
Chaney, 470 U.S. at 830. Agency regulations and guidance can provide a court
with law to apply because, “[a]s the Supreme Court noted ‘where the rights of
individuals are affected, it is incumbent upon agencies to follow their own
procedures. This is so even where the internal procedures are possibly more
rigorous than otherwise would be required.’” Montilla v. I.N.S., 926 F.2d 162, 167
(2d Cir. 1991) (internal alteration omitted), quoting Morton v. Ruiz, 415 U.S. 199,
235 (1974).
Even when a regulation’s adoption was not originally required by the
statute, it can supply the law to apply.
Though the agency’s discretion is unfettered at the
outset, if it announces and follows – by rule or by
34
settled course of adjudication – a general policy by
which its exercise of discretion will be governed, an
irrational departure from that policy (as opposed to an
avowed alteration of it) could constitute action that
must be overturned as ‘arbitrary, capricious, or an
abuse of discretion.
I.N.S. v. Yueh‐Shaio Yang, 519 U.S. 26, 32 (1996) (internal alteration omitted),
quoting 5 U.S.C. § 706(2)(A); see also Service v. Dulles, 354 U.S. 363, 388 (1957)
(“While it is of course true that under the [statute] the Secretary was not
obligated to impose upon himself these more rigorous substantive and
procedural standards, neither was he prohibited from doing so, . . . and having
done so he could not, so long as the Regulations remained unchanged, proceed
without regard to them.”); cf. Guertin v. United States, 743 F.3d 382, 385‐86 (2d
Cir. 2014) (examining HUD’s regulations to determine whether the agency’s
action was arbitrary and capricious).
In this case, upon review of the statute, regulations, and Dear Colleague
Letters, we conclude there is sufficient law to apply to permit judicial review of
the plaintiffs’ claims under the APA. We begin with the statutory text. The
statute governing false certification discharge provides that if a borrower
received a federally guaranteed student loan and “if such student’s eligibility to
borrow under this part was falsely certified by the eligible institution . . . then the
35
Secretary shall discharge the borrower’s liability on the loan (including interest
and collection fees) by repaying the amount owed on the loan.” 20 U.S.C.
§ 1087(c)(1) (emphasis added). As the Supreme Court has often explained, the
use of the word “shall” makes the action mandatory. See, e.g., Mach Mining,
LLC, 135 S. Ct. at 1651 (noting that the language “shall endeavor” is “mandatory,
not precatory”); Nat’l R.R. Passenger Corp. v. Morgan, 536 U.S. 101, 109 (2002).
This mandatory, non‐discretionary language creates boundaries and
requirements for agency action and shows that Congress has not left the decision
about the discharge of falsely certified student loans to the discretion of the
agency. The text of the statute alone shows that Congress has mandated that the
agency “shall” act in the specified circumstances.
Legislative history strongly supports our reading of the statute as a
mandatory command to the agency, not a grant of unbridled discretion. Cf.
Lawrence + Mem’l Hosp. v. Burwell, No. 15‐164‐CV, 2016 WL 423702, at *8 (2d
Cir. Feb. 4, 2016) (relying on legislative history that supports the court’s
interpretation of the statute’s plain meaning). Congress enacted the law
requiring the discharge of debt based on a false certification in response to a
report by the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations and OIG’s
36
audits and investigations of trade schools, which documented the widespread
fraud and abuse of federal financial aid to the detriment of student borrowers,
and found that such fraud was allowed to proliferate by the DOE’s failure to
perform its regulatory role. See S. Rep. No. 102‐204, at 42 (1991); S. Rep. No. 102‐
58 (1991). Specifically, the Subcommittee found that “[w]idespread abuse and
fraud . . . occur in connection with so‐called ‘ability to benefit’ students” and that
many of the program’s intended beneficiar[i]es –
hundreds of thousands of young people, many of
whom come from backgrounds with already limited
opportunities – have suffered further because of their
involvement with the GSLP [Guaranteed Student Loan
Program]. Victimized by unscrupulous profiteers and
their fraudulent schools, students have received neither
the training nor the skills they hoped to acquire and,
instead, have been left burdened with debts they cannot
repay.
S. Rep. No. 102‐58, at 13, 33.
The Subcommittee found that fraud and abuse was able to thrive because
“through gross mismanagement, ineptitude, and neglect in carrying out its
regulatory and oversight functions, the Department of Education had all but
abdicated its responsibility to the students it is supposed to service and the
taxpayers whose interests it is charged with protecting.” Id. at 33. The report
explained that, although similar issues have been called to the attention of the
37
DOE since at least 1975, “the program’s failures seem only to have gotten worse.”
Id. at 24‐25. In its recommendations, the Subcommittee specifically noted that
[b]ecause the Department’s oversight systems have
failed, students who have not received the education
promised have been left responsible for loans that they
cannot repay and, therefore, on which they all too often
default. The Department must not only increase efforts
to prevent this type of abuse in the future, but also work
with students to ease financial burdens imposed as a
result of past abuse.
Id. at 37 (emphasis added). The Subcommittee report, which was “strongly
reflected in the provisions” of the bill that became the Higher Education
Amendments of 1992, see S. Rep. No. 102‐204, at 42, shows that Congress was
deeply dissatisfied with the manner in which the DOE had failed to exercise its
discretion.
Another bill to amend and extend the Higher Education Act of 1965, H.R.
3553, 102d Cong. (1992), was passed by the House, and was the basis for forming
a conference committee with the Senate, which agreed to the bill that became the
became the Higher Education Amendments of 1992, Pub. L. No. 102‐325. See 138
Cong. Rec. 7300 (1992). The House Committee on Education and Labor issued a
report on H.R. 3553, which, like the Senate Report on the Senate bill, expressed its
intention that the discharge of falsely certified loans be mandatory. “[I]n a case
38
where a borrower’s loan is fraudulently certified, the Secretary shall discharge the
borrower’s liability by repaying the amount owed on the loan.” H.R. Rep. No.
102‐447, at 52 (1992) (emphasis added).
The context provided by the legislative history lends support to our
conclusion that in requiring that the Secretary “shall” discharge a borrower’s
liability on a student loan if the student’s eligibility to borrow was falsely
certified, 20 U.S.C. § 1087(c)(1), Congress tasked the DOE with a mandatory
directive, and did not leave the fate of students who had been “[v]ictimized by
unscrupulous profiteers and their fraudulent schools” to the discretion of the
DOE whose “oversight systems ha[d] failed.” S. Rep. No. 102‐58, at 33, 37.
Pursuant to the statute, the Secretary is obligated to promulgate
regulations to fulfill the Congressional mandate that student loans obtained by
false certification “shall” be discharged. See 20 U.S.C. §§ 1098a, 1070(b). These
regulations serve as additional guidance to a court reviewing whether the agency
action was arbitrary and capricious. One regulation is directed to guaranty
agencies, as the entities in charge of the FFEL program, and another is directed to
the DOE for loans under the Direct Loan program.
39
The regulation concerning the FFEL program, which the DOE has
acknowledged also applies to the DOE itself, directs that if the guaranty agency,
or the DOE, receives information that “it believes to be reliable indicating that a
borrower whose loan is held by the agency may be eligible for a [false
certification] discharge,” then the agency “shall immediately suspend” any
enforcement efforts to collect from the borrower and “inform the borrower of the
procedures for requesting a discharge.” 34 C.F.R. § 682.402(e)(6)(ii) (emphasis
added). The regulation for Direct Loans provides that if the DOE “determines
that a borrower’s Direct Loan may be eligible for a discharge,” it then “promptly
suspends” any enforcement efforts to collect from the borrower and “mails” to
the borrower a discharge application and an explanation of how to obtain a
discharge. 34 C.F.R. § 685.215(d)(1) (emphasis added). Under the regulations
governing both loan programs, the guaranty agency and the DOE are directed to
consider information available from guaranty agencies, the Secretary’s records,
state authorities, and accrediting associations. 34 C.F.R. §§ 685.215(d)(3),
682.402(e)(6)(iv).
Although the language in the regulations differs slightly depending on
whether the loan was issued under the FFEL program or the Direct Loan
40
program, the obligation is the same: if the loan‐holder determines that a
borrower “may” be eligible for a discharge, it “shall” suspend any enforcement
efforts and inform the borrower about how to request a discharge. The DOE
acknowledged that the “FFEL and Direct Loan regulations on false certification
discharges have the same rules with respect to a discharge based on an improper
determination of the student’s ability‐to‐benefit.” 65 Fed. Reg. 46,318.
These regulations provide significant law for a court to apply in reviewing
the agency action. From the regulations we learn that the DOE must take certain
actions once the agency determines that the borrower “may” be eligible for a
discharge, and that in deciding if a borrower “may be eligible,” the agency must
consider information “it believes to be reliable,” including information available
from guaranty agencies, the Secretary’s records, state authorities, and accrediting
associations.11
11
The fact that plaintiffs seek relief for multiple borrowers – rather than the
singular borrower referenced in the regulations – does not alter this analysis. As
plaintiffs argue, “[a]s a matter of logic, where the Secretary or a guaranty agency
has knowledge that applies to a group of borrowers, it applies equally to each
and every member of the group.” Plaintiffs‐Appellants’ Br. 38. If the DOE has
reliable information that the putative class of borrowers may be eligible for a
discharge, the DOE has that same information for each individual member of the
putative class. That the use of the singular in the regulation is not dispositive to
show that the obligations of the agency apply only to individual applications is
reinforced by the fact that the regulations that pertain to “group discharges” also
refer to borrowers in the singular, even though it is clear those regulations
41
The DOE argues that these regulations do not provide sufficient guidance
for judicial review because the mandatory statute and regulations are triggered
by a determination that is left to the agency’s discretion: that the DOE
“determines” or receives “information it believes to be reliable” that a borrower
may be eligible for discharge. Defendant‐Appellee’s Br. 32‐33. It is true that
when an agency’s “nondiscretionary obligation only arises after a discretionary
determination” there may not be sufficient law to apply. See N.Y. Pub. Interest
Research Grp. v. Whitman, 321 F.3d 316, 331 (2d Cir. 2003) (holding that the
Environmental Protection Agency’s decision not to issue a Notice of Deficiency
against a third party was not subject to judicial review because the Chaney
presumption against judicial review applied and the statutory obligation to issue
a Notice of Deficiency was triggered only after a decision that was left to the
EPA’s discretion).
But even when an agency has some discretion to make an initial decision,
judicial review is not precluded if the plaintiffs can show that there is sufficient
law to apply to the initial decision, so that a court can evaluate the agency’s
exercise of its discretion in deciding if the initial triggering condition has been
pertain to a group because they were enacted to allow discharge “without an
application.” See 34 C.F.R. §§ 682.402(e)(15), 685.215(c)(7).
42
met. For example, in Westchester, the Court acknowledged that the statute and
regulations requiring a “report satisfactory to the Secretary” conferred broad
agency discretion “as to certain questions.” Westchester, 778 F.3d at 421. But the
Court rejected the contention that this discretion made the agency’s decision
unreviewable, because the statute contained “meaningful standards constraining
[the agency’s] discretion and providing for judicial review.” Id. at 422.
In this case, the agency’s determination that a borrower “may be eligible
for a discharge” triggers its mandatory obligations to suspend collection and
notify borrowers. 34 C.F.R. §§ 682.402(e)(6)(ii), 685.215(d)(1). While we
recognize the agency has some discretion in making the initial triggering
decision, we conclude that this discretion is not unfettered. There is sufficient
guidance in the regulations and informal agency guidance for a court to
determine whether the agency was arbitrary and capricious in not finding that
the putative class of Wilfred borrowers “may be eligible for a discharge,”
particularly in the context the statute’s strong mandatory direction to the agency.
Dear Colleague Letters (“DCLs”), issued by the DOE, instruct guaranty
agencies and the DOE concerning what evidence to consider when evaluating an
application for discharge. One particularly relevant DCL is dedicated to “Loan
43
discharges based on improper determination that a student had the ability‐to‐
benefit (ATB) from the school’s training.” DCL 95‐42, at 1. The guidance in this
DCL expressly applies to the DOE itself in evaluating false certification
discharges under the Direct Loan program, as well as to the guaranty agencies
administering loans under the FFEL program. Id. (“The Department intends to
apply the guidance in this letter to similar false certification discharges in the
William D. Ford Federal Direct Loan Program.”). DCL 95‐42 directs that
[i]n evaluating an application for discharge, a guaranty
agency [or the DOE] must consider . . . evidence about
the testing and admission practices of the school, and
inferences that can reasonably be drawn from that . . .
evidence.
. . . [S]upporting evidence can include a finding by an
entity or organization that had oversight responsibility
over the school’s SFA administration or educational
programs, statements or admissions by school officials
with knowledge of the school’s practices, or statements
made by other students who attended the school that
are both sufficiently detailed and consistent with each
other to appear reliable. Those statements can include
statements made in other claims for discharge relief.
The Department expects a guaranty agency [or the
DOE] to obtain existing documentation available from
any public or private agency that reviewed or had
oversight responsibility for the school.
44
Id. at 5. This same “type of documentation” is considered by the DOE in
deciding if a group discharge is warranted pursuant to 34 C.F.R.
§§ 682.402(e)(15), 685.215(c)(7). Id. at 10. The guidance provided by DCL 95‐42
was supplemented in 2007. DCL 07‐09 adds that
credible evidence of the following provides an adequate
basis for granting a discharge application . . . : (i)
withdrawal rates exceeding 33 percent at the school at
the relevant time, or (ii) . . . an annual loan default rate
exceeding [a particular percentage, depending on the
year the student entered repayment on her loans].
DCL 07‐09, at 3.
Using the guidance provided by the regulations and DCLs, in the context
of the mandatory language of the statute, a court has sufficient law to apply to
evaluate whether the agency has been arbitrary and capricious in deciding
whether there is “reliable information” that a borrower or borrowers “may be
eligible for a discharge,” and thus whether the DOE’s mandatory obligation to
suspend collection and send notice has been triggered. That type of evaluation is
squarely within the competence of the judiciary. As the Ninth Circuit has
explained, the term “‘reliable’ . . . does not defy meaningful review . . . [and does
not] involve[] a complicated balancing of a number of factors that are so
45
peculiarly with the agency’s expertise that jurisdiction is necessarily defeated.”
Newman v. Apfel, 223 F.3d 937, 943 (9th Cir. 2000).
The regulations and DCLs provide additional guidance by directing the
court to the factors and records the guaranty agencies and the DOE rely on in
making the triggering determination. The regulations enumerate some factors
that the guaranty agencies and the DOE must consider when evaluating
discharge applications, including information available from the records of the
DOE, guaranty agencies, state authorities, and accrediting associations. And the
DCLs provide guidance about other kinds of evidence the DOE requires to be
considered both by the guaranty agencies and by the DOE in determining
eligibility for discharge, including: testing and admission practices of the school,
any findings by an entity or organization that had oversight responsibility,
statements or admissions by school officials or students, evidence of withdrawal
rates, and loan default rates. See DCL 95‐42; DCL 07‐09.
The actions the agency has already taken are also relevant to a court’s
determination of whether the agency acted arbitrarily in not finding the initial
triggering condition met. An agency’s “irrational departure” from its practice or
policy can violate the APA. Yueh‐Shaio Yang, 519 U.S. at 32. That factor may be
46
particularly relevant in this case, where the DOE appears to have found
information it has already gathered implicating Wilfred in widespread ATB
fraud reliable enough to require the agency to change its policy for reviewing
discharge applications from students who attended Wilfred schools. Plaintiffs
plausibly argue that the fact that the DOE has already determined that any
Wilfred borrower who presents a facially valid application alleging false
certification will automatically receive a discharge is powerful evidence that the
DOE has in its possession reliable information that all such Wilfred borrowers
“may” be eligible for a discharge.12 We do not suggest that this fact is
dispositive, only that the agency’s own actions provide guidance to the court in
judging whether the agency was arbitrary and capricious in determining whether
the members of the putative class “may be eligible for a discharge.” 34 C.F.R.
§§ 682.402(e)(6)(ii), 685.215(d)(1).
12
Presumably, not every Wilfred student required, or received, an ATB
certification. But the statute does not require that the DOE know that a borrower
is eligible for a discharge before the statute is triggered – only that the borrower
may be eligible. It is well within the abilities of the district court to determine,
based on a full record about the extent of ATB certification fraud at Wilfred,
whether it is arbitrary and capricious for the DOE to decline to conclude that the
suspension and notification requirement applies, as plaintiffs contend, to all
Wilfred borrowers.
47
On further proceedings in the district court, plaintiffs may demonstrate
that they are correct that “the Secretary cannot credibly claim that the extensive
evidence he possesses about Wilfred’s systemic ATB violations is not ‘reliable’
since he has, in fact, relied on it.” Plaintiffs‐Appellants’ Reply Br. 12 (citation
omitted). Or the DOE may be able to provide good reasons why it does not have
reliable information that Wilfred borrowers, or some sub‐group of Wilfred
borrowers, “may” be eligible for a discharge, and thus that its mandatory
obligations to suspend collection and provide notice have not been triggered.
We do not decide that here. But we do hold that a court has sufficient law to
apply to decide whether the agency was arbitrary and capricious in failing to
follow the mandatory direction of the statute and regulations to suspend and
notify.
IV. The Challenged Action of the DOE is Final
To determine whether the challenged agency action is reviewable under
the APA we must also decide whether the action is “final.” The APA makes a
“final agency action for which there is no other adequate remedy in a court . . .
subject to judicial review.” 5 U.S.C. § 704 (emphasis added). The Supreme Court
has explained that
48
two conditions must be satisfied for agency action to be
‘final’: First, the action must mark the consummation of
the agency’s decisionmaking process – it must not be of
a merely tentative or interlocutory nature. And second,
the action must be one by which rights or obligations
have been determined, or from which legal
consequences will flow.
Bennett v. Spear, 520 U.S. 154, 177–78 (1997) (citations and internal quotation
marks omitted).13 For the second prong, the “core question” is “whether the
result of [the agency’s decisionmaking] process is one that will directly affect the
parties.” Sharkey, 541 F.3d at 88. The Supreme Court has interpreted the finality
element in a “pragmatic way.” Id.; see also Paskar v. U.S. Dep’t of Transp., 714
F.3d 90, 97–98 (2d Cir. 2013) (considering the “substantial practical impact” of an
agency’s letter in deciding if it was a final agency decision).
13
The DOE asserts that “a challenge to agency action may proceed under the
APA only if the agency action is ‘discrete.’” Defendant‐Appellee’s Br. 38, quoting
Norton v. S. Utah Wilderness All., 542 U.S. 55, 64 (2004) (emphasis in original).
The requirement that the challenged agency action is “discrete” is limited to
claims under 5 U.S.C. § 706(1), and on appeal plaintiffs argue for review under 5
U.S.C. § 706(2)(A). See Sharkey v. Quarantillo, 541 F.3d 75, 89 n. 13 (2d Cir. 2008)
(applying the “discrete” requirement only to plaintiff’s 706(1) claim). Even if this
requirement did apply to plaintiffs’ claims, we would find it met because the
challenged agency actions are sufficiently specific and are not a complaint of
“[g]eneral deficiencies in compliance” or a request for “wholesale improvement of
this program by court decree.” Norton, 542 U.S. at 66, 64.
49
The APA’s finality requirement is satisfied here. The DOE does not
dispute that the first condition for finality is met. The DOE’s refusal to suspend
loan collection and send notice was “the consummation of the agency’s
decisionmaking process” with respect to the suspension and notice relief sought
by the plaintiffs. Bennett, 520 U.S. at 178 (internal quotation marks omitted).
The second requirement of the Bennett test is also met, because legal
consequences flow from the DOE’s decision not to suspend the collection of the
loans of the putative class members. The borrowers during the time of the
suspension would not have the legal obligation to make payments and the DOE
could not garnish wages or direct tax refund offsets. The fact that the suspension
is temporary does not undermine the fact that the decision to suspend or not to
suspend is a final agency action because the action “had an immediate and
substantial impact upon the complaining party.” Aquavella v. Richardson, 437
F.2d 397, 403–404 (2d Cir. 1971) (concluding that the suspension of Medicare
payments was final agency action). Further, suspending the repayment of loans
of Wilfred borrowers who may be eligible would also have legal consequences
for the DOE, which otherwise has the non‐discretionary mandate to collect on
federal student loans. See 31 U.S.C. § 3711(a)(1).
50
We also conclude that the agency’s decision is “final” as to its refusal to
send notices to members of the putative class. The DOE’s decision not to send
notices to Wilfred borrowers, or some subset of Wilfred borrowers, about their
potential eligibility to have their Wilfred student loans discharged if the loans
were procured by ATB fraud, finally determined that members of plaintiffs’
putative class do not have a right to receive such a notice. Bennett, 520 U.S. at
178 (“[T]he action [is] one by which rights . . . have been determined.” (internal
quotation marks omitted)).
The decision that the agency is not required to send notice also has a
“substantial practical impact.” Paskar, 714 F.3d at 97. Without notice, plaintiffs
plausibly allege, it is likely that most of the at least 61,300 Wilfred borrowers will
continue to be unaware that they can apply to the DOE for a discharge and not
know of the conditions under which the DOE will grant the request. Indeed, the
DOE’s own rulemaking acknowledged this reality when it cited the fact that
“many [borrowers] may be unaware of the possibility of receiving a loan
discharge” as a reason for the implementation of a group discharge regulation.
65 Fed. Reg. 46,318. That acknowledgment, along with the plaintiffs’ allegations,
which we must accept as true, belie the DOE’s contention that because some
51
individuals have managed to contact plaintiffs’ counsel and find out about false
certification discharge and because the government maintains a website with
information about discharge rights, the provision of notice would not have a
substantial practical effect on the plaintiffs’ ability to exercise their rights.14
We recognize that even if the DOE is required to suspend collection and
send notice to putative class members, further proceedings in the agency on
related issues will be required before the DOE will discharge any individual’s
loan obligation. See 34 C.F.R. § 682.402(e)(3) (explaining that to qualify for a
discharge of a FFEL loan “the borrower must submit to the holder of the loan a
written request and a sworn statement”); id. § 685.215(c) (same for a Direct
Loan). That does not make the decision the DOE did make – to not provide
notice or suspend collection – any less final. The APA does not require that the
challenged agency action be the agency’s final word on the matter for it to be
14
Amici curiae, organizations that provide legal services to low‐income
consumers, allege that in their experience “student loan borrowers who attended
for‐profit schools are almost universally unaware whether they are eligible for
one or more of the discharges provided by the Higher Education Act.” Br. For
East Bay Community Law Center et al. as Amici Curiae Supporting Plaintiffs‐
Appellants 4. Amici also point out that there is very little help available for low‐
income people seeking legal assistance with any type of consumer issue. Id. at
13–14 (citing Task Force to Expand Access to Civil Legal Services in N.Y., Report
to the Chief Judge of the State of New York 16 (2010), finding that only one percent of
New York City residents sued on a consumer debt were represented by counsel).
52
“final” for the purposes of judicial review. See Sackett v. E.P.A., 132 S. Ct. 1367,
1372 (2012). “[T]he agency’s action is final notwithstanding ‘[t]he possibility of
further proceedings in the agency’ on related issues, so long as ‘judicial review at
the time [would not] disrupt the administrative process.’” Sharkey, 541 F.3d at
89, quoting Bell v. New Jersey, 461 U.S. 773, 779–80 (1983).
Here, even if plaintiffs were granted the relief they seek, there is the
possibility of further proceedings in the agency because the agency would have
to process applications of individuals who apply for a discharge, unless the
agency were to use its discretion to grant a group discharge. Plaintiffs, however,
do not seek to require the DOE to grant discharges, or contend that all members
of their proposed class are entitled to such discharge. All they claim is a right to
notice and suspension as provided by statute. As to that claim, the DOE’s
decision not to afford such notice and suspension is final. Because the two
requirements of the Bennett test are met, and judicial review would not disrupt
any ongoing administrative process, the agency action is final, and thus
reviewable under the APA.
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CONCLUSION
For the foregoing reasons the judgment of the district court dismissing
plaintiffs’ complaint is VACATED and the case is REMANDED for further
proceedings consistent with this opinion, including consideration of plaintiffs’
class certification motion.
54