The opinion of the court was delivered by
Beier, J.:This appeal from a consolidated child in need of care (CINC) case and a paternity action arises out of an artificial insemination leading to the birth of twins K.M.H. and K.C.H. We are called upon to decide the existence and extent of the parental rights of the known sperm donor, who alleges he had an agreement with the children’s mother to act as the twins’ father.
The twins’ mother filed a CINC petition to establish that the donor had no parental rights under Kansas law. The donor sued for determination of his paternity. The district court sustained the mother’s motion to dismiss, ruling that K.S.A. 38-1114(f) was controlling and constitutional. That statute provides:
“The donor of semen provided to a licensed physician for use in artificial insemination of a woman other than the donor’s wife is treated in law as if he were not the birth father of a child thereby conceived, unless agreed to in writing by the donor and the woman.” K.S.A. 38-1114(f).
Factual and Procedural Background
Many of the underlying facts are undisputed. The mother, S.H., is an unmarried female lawyer who wanted to become a parent *56through artificial insemination from a known donor. She was a friend of the donor, D.H., an unmarried male nonlawyer, who agreed to provide sperm for the insemination. Both S.H. and D.H. are Kansas residents, and their oral arrangements for the donation occurred in Kansas, but S.H. underwent two inseminations with D.H.’s sperm in Missouri.
D.H. accompanied S.H. to a Missouri clinic for the first procedure and provided the necessary sperm to medical personnel. The first procedure did not result in a pregnancy. D.H. did not accompany S.H. to Missouri for the second procedure. Instead, he provided the sperm to S.H., and she delivered it to the Missouri physician responsible for the insemination. The second procedure resulted in S.H.’s pregnancy and the birth of the twins.
There was no formal written contract between S.H. and D.H. concerning the donation of sperm, the artificial insemination, or the expectations of the parties with regard to D.H.’s parental rights or lack thereof.
The twins were bom on May 18, 2005. The day after their birth, S.H. filed a CINC petition concerning the twins, seeking a determination that D.H. would have no parental rights. The petition identified D.H. as “[t]he minor children’s father” and alleged that the twins were in need of care “as it relates to the father” and that “the [f]ather should be found unfit and his rights terminated.” The petition continued to refer to D.H. throughout as the twins’ father.
On May 31, 2005, D.H. filed an answer to the CINC petition and filed a separate paternity action acknowledging his financial responsibility for the children and claiming parental rights, including joint custody and visitation. The CINC and paternity actions were consolidated. S.H. filed a motion to dismiss the paternity action, invoking K.S.A. 38-1114(f). After the motion was filed, the district judge raised questions concerning choice of law and the constitutionality of the statute and ordered the parties to brief these issues along with the other issues arising out of the motion to dismiss.
In her brief, S.H. argued Kansas law should apply because her original oral agreement with D.H. took place in Kansas; the parties reside in Kansas; the sperm resulting in the pregnancy was given *57to her by D.H. in Kansas; and the children reside in Kansas. In her view, the single fact that the procedure was performed by a doctor in Missouri did not constitute a significant contact with that state, and Missouri did not have a sufficient ongoing interest in the parties or in the subject matter of their dispute.
On the merits, S.H. principally relied upon K.S.A. 38-1114(f). S.H. argued that her CINC petition did not constitute her written assent to D.H.’s parental rights under K.S.A. 38-1114(f). She also asserted that the mutual preinsemination intent of the parties—as a single mother-to-be and a sperm donor only, not as coparents— was clear from their actions during the pregnancy. According to S.H., she sought out fertility tests and treatments on her own; D.H. did not attend the second procedure or sonograms or other prenatal medical appointments; and he did not provide emotional support or financial assistance during the pregnancy or after the twins’ birth. She also argued that D.H. was morally, financially, and emotionally unfit to be a father.
In his arguments in the district court, D.H. maintained that he had standing to file his paternity action as the biological father of K.M.H. and K.C.H. On choice of law, D.H. argued that Kansas conflict principles required the court to look to the place of either contract formation or contract performance. He asserted that the “more sensible” approach in this case would be to apply the law of the state where performance occurred, which was, according to him, where the artificial insemination was performed. D.H. said Missouri has no statute barring a presumption of paternity for a known sperm donor for an unmarried woman; paternity is proved by “consanguinity or genetic test.” D.H. also asserted that no doctor would perform an insemination on an unmarried woman in Topeka, Lawrence, or Kansas City, Kansas, and suggested a Kansas doctor could have had a duty to discuss the legal implications of the procedure under Kansas law while a Missouri doctor would not.
In the event the court held that Kansas law governed, D.H. argued that K.S.A. 38-1114(f) unconstitutionally deprived him of his right to care, custody, and control of his children and violated public policy “supporting] the concept of legitimacy and the con*58comitant rights of a child to support and inheritance.” If the statute is constitutional, he asserted, its dictate of nonpaternity of a sperm donor should not apply to him because he had provided his sperm to S.H. rather than to a licensed physician. He also cited the CINC petition’s identification of him as the twins’ “father” and its faulting of him for failing to do things consistent with parenthood. D.H. asserted the wording of the CINC petition was evidence of the parties’ mutual intent to take themselves out from under the statutory provision for nonpaternity. He also contended that he had offered financial assistance and attempted to visit the children in the hospital after their birth and on subsequent occasions, but that he was prevented from doing so by S.H.
The district judge ruled that Kansas law governed, that K.S.A. 38-1114(f) was constitutional and applicable, and that the CINC petition did not constitute a written agreement departing from the provision for nonpaternity set forth in the statute. The judge therefore granted S.H.’s motion, concluding as a matter of law that D.H. had no legal rights or responsibilities regarding K.M.H. and K.C.H.
Issues on Appeal
On appeal, both parties reiterate the arguments they made to the district court, and D.H. alleges for tire first time that another statutory provision and equity favor his side of the case. We therefore address six issues: (1) Did the district judge err in ruling that Kansas law would govern? (2) Did the district judge err in holding K.S.A. 38-1114(f) constitutional under the Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the Kansas and the federal Constitutions? (3) Did the district judge err in interpreting and applying the “provided to a licensed physician” language of K.S.A. 38-1114(f)? (4) Did the district judge err in determining that the CINC petition did not satisfy the requirement of a writing in K.S.A. 38-1114(f)? (5) Did K.S.A. 38-1114(a)(4) grant D.H. parental rights? and (6) Does equity demand reversal of the district court?
On this appeal, we also have the benefit of briefs from two amici curiae—one from the Washburn University School of Law’s Children and Family Law Center (Center), which argues that K.S.A. 38-1114(f) is unconstitutional as applied to knoum sperm donors, *59and one from family law professors Joan Heifetz Hollinger, et al., who argue that K.S.A. 38-1114(f) is constitutional and that it should be applied consistently with its plain language to bar D.H.’s assertion of paternity.
Standing and Standard of Review
The parties do not appear to dispute D.H.’s standing to bring a paternity action at this stage in the proceedings, but we note briefly as a preliminary matter that his standing is not in serious doubt. K.S.A. 38-1115(a)(l) permits a child “or any person on behalf of such a child” to bring a paternity action “to determine the existence of a father and child relationship presumed under K.S.A. 38-1114.” It is D.H.’s position that his fatherhood of the twins should be presumed under the statute.
Regarding standard of review, each of the issues raised on appeal presents a pure question of law reviewable de novo by this court. Kluin v. American Suzuki Motor Corp., 274 Kan. 888, 893, 56 P.3d 829 (2002). Although S.H.’s motion was titled “Motion to Dismiss,” the district judge considered materials beyond the pleadings, essentially treating the motion as one for summary judgment. We are therefore mindful of our often stated standard of review following summary judgment in the district court: We must view the evidence in the light most favorable to the nonmoving party, D.H. See Wachter Management Co. v. Dexter & Chaney, Inc., 282 Kan. 365, 368, 144 P.3d 747 (2006). The district court’s judgment for the moving party, S.H., should be affirmed on appeal if there remains no genuine issue of material fact for trial and the case is appropriate for disposition in her favor as a matter of law. See K.S.A. 60-256; Scott v. Hughes, 281 Kan. 642, 644, 132 P.3d 889 (2006); Kluin, 274 Kan. at 893.
Choice of Law
The United States Supreme Court has held:
“In deciding constitutional choice-of-law questions, whether under the Due Process Clause or the Full Faith and Credit Clause, this Court has traditionally examined the contacts of the State, whose law was applied, with the parties and with the occurrence or transaction giving rise to the litigation. [Citation omitted.] In order to ensure that the choice of law is neither arbitrary nor fundamentally *60unfair [citation omitted], the Court has invalidated the choice of law of a State which has had no significant contact or significant aggregation of contacts, creating state interests, with the parties and the occurrence or transaction.” Allstate Ins. Co. v. Hague, 449 U.S. 302, 308, 66 L. Ed. 2d 521, 101 S. Ct. 633 (1981).
Various factors are relevant to a choice-of-law determination, including the procedural or substantive nature of the question involved, the residence of the parties involved, and the interest of the State in having its law applied. Sun Oil Co. v. Wortman, 486 U.S. 717, 736,100 L. Ed. 2d 743,108 S. Ct. 2117 (1988) (Brennan, J., concurring). “ ‘As long as Kansas has “ ‘significant contact or [a] significant aggregation of contacts’ ... to ensure that the choice of Kansas law is not arbitrary or unfair,” constitutional limits are not violated.’ [Citations omitted.]” Brenner v. Oppenheimer & Co., 273 Kan. 525, 534, 44 P.3d 364 (2002); see Phillips Petroleum Co. v. Shutts, 472 U.S. 797, 818, 86 L. Ed. 2d 628, 105 S. Ct. 2965 (1985) (citing Allstate Ins. Co. v. Hague, 449 U.S. at 312-13); Dragon v. Vanguard Industries, Inc., 277 Kan. 776, 790, 89 P.3d 908 (2004). Also, to the extent this case is viewed as a contractual dispute, Kansas courts apply the Restatement (First) of Conflict of Laws § 332 (1934), and the doctrine of lex loci contractus, i.e., the law of the state where the contract is made governs. See ARY Jewelers v. Krigel, 277 Kan. 464, 481, 85 P.3d 1151 (2004); Wilkinson v. Shoney’s, Inc., 269 Kan. 194, 209-10, 4 P.3d 1149 (2000); Foundation Property Investments v. CTP, 37 Kan. App. 2d 890, Syl. ¶ 4, 159 P.3d 1042 (2007); Layne Christiansen Co. v. Zurich Canada, 30 Kan. App. 2d 128, 141-42, 38 P.3d 757 (2002). A contract is made where the last act necessary for its formation occurs. ARY Jewelers, 277 Kan. at 481-82; Wilkinson, 269 Kan. at 210; Foundation Property Investments, 37 Kan. App. 2d at 894-95; Layne Christiansen Co., 30 Kan. App. 2d at 141-43.
“Generally the party seeking to apply the law of a jurisdiction other than the forum has the burden to present sufficient facts to show that other law should apply. Failure to present facts sufficient to determine where the contract is made may justify a default to forum law.” Layne Christensen Co., 30 Kan. App. 2d at 143-44. In addition, we note that Kansas courts have often leaned toward a lex fori, or law of the forum, approach, opting to apply Kansas law *61absent a clear showing that another state’s law should apply. See Dragon, 277 Kan. at 790; Systems Design v. Kansas City P. O. Employees Cred. Union, 14 Kan. App. 2d 266, 269, 788 P.2d 878 (1990). Moreover, our Court of Appeals has recognized in a case focused on the legitimacy of a child that, “[i]n our current mobile society, place of conception of child carries little weight [in choice-of-law determination].” In re Adoption of Baby Boy S., 22 Kan. App. 2d 119, 126, 912 P.2d 761, rev. denied 260 Kan. 993, cert, denied 519 U.S. 870 (1996). Instead, “[w]hether a child is legitimate is determined by the local law of the state which, with respect to the particular issue, has the most significant relationship to the child and the parent”; considerations include “the relative interests of those states in the determination of the particular issue,” “the protection of justified expectations,” “the basic policies underlying the particular field of law,” and the “certainty, predictability and uniformity of result.” Restatement (Second) of Conflict of Laws §§ 6, 287 (1) & comment d (1969).
D.H. urges us to follow the lead of the Illinois Supreme Court in In Re Marriage of Adams, 133 Ill. 2d 437, 447, 551 N.E.2d 635 (1990), which applied the law of the state where an insemination was performed because it would “fulfill the participants’ expectations and . . . help insure predictability and uniformity of result.”
In Adams, a husband and wife had been Florida residents; their consultations concerning fertility options occurred in Florida; the artificial insemination from an anonymous donor was performed by a Florida doctor in his Florida clinic; and the baby was bom in Florida and was a Florida resident until the wife moved herself and the child to her parents’ home in Illinois and then filed for divorce. The husband sought a determination of nonpaternity, and the court determined that Florida law should govern because Florida had a more significant relationship than Illinois to the parentage dispute. 133 Ill. 2d at 447.
The facts of this case bear little resemblance to the facts of Adams. Here, the parties are Kansas residents. Whatever agreement that existed between the parties was arrived at in Kansas, where they exchanged promises supported by consideration, and D.H. literally delivered on his promise by giving his sperm to S.H. The *62twins were bom in Kansas and reside in Kansas. The only fact tying any of the participants to Missouri is the location of the clinic where the insemination was performed.
Under these circumstances, we hold that Kansas law applies and that significant contacts and a significant aggregation of contacts with Kansas make application of our law to the parties’ claims not only appropriate but also constitutional. This choice is neither arbitrary nor unfair; neither party would have been justified in expecting Missouri to have a controlling interest as to any dispute between them.
Constitutionality ofKS.A. 38-1114(f)
In his brief, D.H. makes a general allegation that K.S.A. 38-1114(f) offends the Constitution. The cases he cites in support discuss both the Equal Protection Clause and the Due Process Clause; we thus presume his challenge relies upon each of these provisions. See U.S. Const, amend. XIV; Kan. Const. Bill of Rights, §§ 2, 18. At oral argument before this court, D.H. conceded that his rights under these provisions do not differ as between the federal and state Constitutions. He also acknowledged that he no longer challenges the statute as unconstitutional on its face; rather, he argues it cannot be constitutionally applied to him, as a known sperm donor who alleges he had an oral agreement with the twins’ mother that granted him parental rights. The amicus brief filed by the Center further clarifies that the constitutional challenge before us is only to the statute as applied to D.H.
The Center insists the statute deprives D.H. of parental rights without due process of law and without a required finding of unfitness. It urges us to dispense with a literal reading of the statute’s language, invoking the purported purpose of the Kansas Parentage Act, K.S.A. 38-1110 et seq,, to encourage fathers to acknowledge paternity and child support obligations voluntarily. It also emphasizes that courts should seek a result geared to the best interests of the child, in this case advancing a public policy favoring the right of every child to two parents, regardless of the means of the child’s conception.
*63As mentioned in summary above, our review of whether a statute is constitutional raises a question of law reviewable de novo. In re Tax Appeal of CIG Field Services Co., 279 Kan. 857, 866-67, 112 P.3d 138 (2005). In addition,
“ ‘[t]he constitutionality of a statute is presumed. All doubts must be resolved in favor of its validity, and before the act may be stricken down it must clearly appear that the statute violates the constitution. In determining constitutionality, it is the court’s duty to uphold a statute under attack rather than defeat it. If there is any reasonable way to construe the statute as constitutionally valid, that should be done. A statute should not be stricken down unless the infringement of the superior law is clear beyond substantial doubt.’ [Citations omitted].” State v. Rupnick, 280 Kan. 720, 736, 125 P.3d 541 (2005).
Given the relative newness of the medical procedure of artificial insemination, and thus the newness of K.S:A. 38-1114(f)’s attempt to regulate the relationships arising from it, it is not surprising that the issue raised by D.H. is one of first impression, not only in Kansas but nationally. We therefore begin our discussion of the constitutionality of the statute by surveying the landscape of various states’ laws governing the rights of sperm donors for artificial insemination. This landscape and its ongoing evolution provide helpful context for our analysis of K.S.A. 38-1114(f).
The majority of states that have enacted statutes concerning artificial insemination state that the husband of a married woman bears all rights and obligations of paternity as to any child conceived by artificial insemination, whether the sperm used was his own or a donor’s. See, e.g., Ala. Code § 26-17-21(a) (1992) (“If, under the supervision of a licensed physician and with the consent of her husband, a wife is inseminated artificially with semen donated by a man not her husband, the husband is treated in law as if he were the natural father of a child thereby conceived.”); see also Cal. Fam. Code § 7613(a) (West 2004) (same); Colo. Rev. Stat. § 19-4-106(1) (West 2005) (same); Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 750 40/3(a) (West 1999) (same); Minn. State § 257.56 Subd. 1 (2007); Mo. Rev. Stat. 210.824(1) (2000) (same); Mont. Code Ann. § 40-6-106(1) (2005); Nev. Rev. Stat. § 126.061(1) (2005) (same); N.J. Stat. Ann. § 9:17-44(a) (2002) (same); N.M. Stat. Ann. § 40-ll-6(A) (Michie 2006) (same); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3111.95(A) (Anderson 2003) (sim*64ilar); Wis. Stat. § 891.40(1) (2005-06) (same). Further, several of these states’ statutes provide that a donor of semen used to inseminate a married woman will not be treated in law as the father of any child conceived, if he is not the woman’s husband. See, e.g., Ala. Code § 26-17-21(b) (1992) (“The donor of semen provided to a licensed physician for use in artificial insemination of a married woman other than the donor’s wife is treated in law as if he were not the natural father of a child thereby conceived.”); Minn. Stat. § 257.56 Subd. 2 (2007) (same); Mo. Rev. Stat. § 210.824(2) (2000) (same); Mont. Code Ann. § 40-6-106(2) (2005) (same); Nev. Rev. Stat. § 126.061 (2) (2005) (same). One court has observed that these two rules protect the expectations of the married couple, the best interests of the child, and the expectations of the donor. See People v. Sorensen, 68 Cal. 2d 280, 284-88, 66 Cal. Rptr. 7, 437 P.2d 495 (1968).
The 1973 Uniform Parentage Act, promulgated by the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, 9B U.L.A. 377 (2001), provided the model for many of the state artificial insemination statutes that incorporate these two rules. See, e.g., Cal. Fam. Code § 7613; N.M. Stat. Ann. § 40-11-6. Section 5 of the original uniform Act provided:
“(a) If, under the supervision of a licensed physician and with tire consent of her husband, a wife is inseminated artificially with semen donated by a man not her husband, the husband is treated in law as if he were die natural father of a child thereby conceived. The husband’s consent must be in writing and signed by him and his wife. The physician shall certify their signatures and the date of the insemination, and file the husband’s consent with the [State Department of Health], where it shall be kept confidential and in a sealed file. However, the physician’s failure to do so does not affect the father and child relationship. All papers and records pertaining to the insemination, whether part of the permanent record of a court or of a file held by the supervising physician or elsewhere, are subject to inspection only upon an order of the court for good cause shown.
“(b) The donor of semen provided to a licensed physician for use in artificial insemination of a married woman other than the donor’s wife is treated in law as if he were not the natural father of a child thereby conceived.” (Emphasis added.) Uniform Parentage Act (1973) § 5; 9B U.L.A. at 407-08.
The wording of this original Act and statutes that imitated it did not address the determination of a sperm donor’s paternity when *65an unmarried woman conceived a child through artificial insemination. The earliest case to address this particular question arose in a state that had not yet adopted any statute regarding the effects of the procedure.
In that case, C.M. v. C.C., 152 N.J. Super. 160, 377 A.2d 821 (1977), a sperm donor filed a paternity suit, seeking parental rights to a child bom when the child’s unmarried mother artificially inseminated herself with the donor’s sperm. In that case, the mother and the donor had been in a long-standing romantic relationship; the donor testified they were contemplating marriage; the mother wanted a child but did not want to have sexual intercourse before marriage; and the insemination procedure was performed at the mother’s home. Three months into the pregnancy, the mother ended her relationship with the donor, and she refused him access to the child after its birth.
The New Jersey court relied upon a common-law presumption of paternity to award visitation rights to the donor as the “natural father” of the “illegitimate child.” Had the mother and the donor been married and conceived the child through artificial insemination, the court said, the donor would have been considered the child’s father. Given the evidence that the parties had intended to parent the child together, the court believed the same result should follow, despite the absence of wedding vows. 152 N.J. Super, at 165-68.
Certain states other than New Jersey either anticipated the need for their original statutes to govern the relationship of a sperm donor to the child of an unmarried recipient as well as a married recipient or modified their original uniform Act-patterned statutes to remove the word “married” from the § 5 (b) language. This meant these states’ statutes contained complete bars to paternity for any sperm donor not married to the recipient, regardless of whether the recipient was married to someone else and regardless of whether the donor was known or anonymous. An example of such a provision reads: “The donor of semen provided to a licensed physician for use in artificial insemination of a woman other than the donor’s wife is treated in law as if he were not the natural father of a child thereby conceived.” See, e.g., Cal. Fam. Code § 7613(b) *66(West 2004); Ill. Comp. Stat. ch. 750 40/3(b) (West 1999); Wis. Stat. § 891.40(2) (2005-06) (same); see also Colo. Rev. Stat. § 19-4-106(2) (West 2005) (substantially similar); Conn. Gen. Stat. § 45a-775 (2007) (similar); Idaho Code § 39-5405 (2002) (similar); Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3111.95(B) (Anderson 2003) (same); Va. Code Ann. § 20-158(A)(3) (2004) (substantially similar).
Four cases interpreting one of these types of statutes covering both married and unmarried recipients and establishing an absolute bar to donor paternity were decided before a 2000 amendment to the uniform Act made it applicable to unmarried as well as married recipients of donor sperm. See Uniform Parentage Act (2000); 9B U.L.A. 295 (West 2001).
The first of the four arose in California in 1986. In that case, Jhordan C. v. Mary K., 179 Cal. App. 3d 386, 224 Cal. Rptr. 530 (1986), a donor provided sperm to one of two unmarried women who had decided to raise a child together. California had adopted the language of the 1973 Uniform Act with the exception that it had omitted the word “married” in the second subsection. Jhordan C., 179 Cal. App. 3d at 392 (citing then-existing Cal. Civ. Code § 7005 [West 1979], which now appears, substantially unchanged, in Cal. Fam. Code § 7613 [West 2004]). As the court put it:
“[T]he California Legislature has afforded unmarried as well as married women a statutory vehicle for obtaining semen for artificial insemination without fear that the donor may claim paternity, and has likewise provided men with a statutory vehicle for donating semen to married and unmarried women alike without fear of liability for child support. Subdivision (b) states only one hmitation on its application: the semen must be ‘provided to a licensed physician.’ Otherwise, whether impregnation occurs through artificial insemination or sexual intercourse, there can be a determination of paternity with the rights, duties and obligations such a determination entails.” Jhordan C., 179 Cal. App. 3d at 392.
Because the parties had no doctor involved in the donation or insemination and thus the sperm was never “provided to a licensed physician,” the court ruled that the case before it fell outside the statute. It therefore affirmed the lower court’s recognition of the donor’s paternity. Jhordan C., 179 Cal. App. 3d at 398. Although the court addressed its ruling’s impact on the constitutional rights *67of the two women, it did not address any constitutional implications for the donor. Jhordan C., 179 Cal. App. 3d at 395-96.
The second case, In Interest of R.C., 775 P.2d 27 (Colo. 1989), arose in Colorado in 1989. In that case, the district court had refused to admit proffered evidence of an agreement that the donor would act as a father based on relevance; it granted the unmarried mother’s motion to dismiss the donor’s paternity suit based on Colorado’s statute. The Colorado provision, like that in California, applied to both married and unmarried recipients and contained a blanket bar to donor parental rights. See Colo. Rev. Stat. § 19-4-106.
The Colorado Supreme Court reversed the district court and remanded for findings of fact. It explicitly rejected the idea that an unmarried recipient lost the protection of the statute “merely because she knows the donor.” R.C., 775 P.2d at 35. And it did not reach the equal protection and due process challenges raised by the donor. However, it concluded the statute was ambiguous and refused to apply its absolute bar to paternity because the known donor had produced evidence of an oral agreement that he would be treated as father of the child. R.C., 775 P.2d at 35.
The next case, McIntyre v. Crouch, 98 Or. App. 462, 780 P.2d 239 (1989), cert, denied 495 U.S. 905 (1990), involved an unmarried woman who artificially inseminated herself with a known donor’s semen. The donor sought recognition of his paternity, and both he and the woman sought summary judgment. The Oregon artificial insemination statute read:
“If the donor of semen used in artificial insemination is not the mother’s husband: (1) Such donor shall have no right, obligation or interest with respect to a child bom as a result of the artificial insemination; and (2) A child bom as a result of the artificial insemination shall have no right, obligation or interest with respect to the donor.” Ore. Rev. Stat. § 109.239 (1977).
The donor challenged this statute under equal protection and due process principles. He swore out an affidavit in support of summary judgment and argued he had relied on an agreement with the mother that he “would remain active” in the child’s life and “participate in all important decisions concerning the child.” 98 Or. App. at 464. He sought visitation and said that he was willing *68and able to accept the same level of responsibility for the support, education, maintenance, and care of the child and for pregnancy-related expenses that he would have had if the child had been bom from his marriage to its mother. The district court ruled that the donor’s paternity claim was barred by the Oregon statute.
The McIntyre court began its analysis by reciting its equal protection standard of review, which was strict scrutiny, a standard more searching than that applied to such claims in Kansas. See generally State v. Limon, 280 Kan. 275, 283-87, 122 P.3d 22 (2005) (equal protection challenge based on gender discrimination does not require strict scrutiny, i.e., showing classification necessary to serve compelling state interest; rather, court applies intermediate scrutiny, i.e., classification must substantially further legitimate legislative purpose); see Chiles v. State, 254 Kan. 888, 891-93, 869 P.2d 707, cert, denied 513 U.S. 850 (1994); Farley v. Engelken, 241 Kan. 663, 669, 740 P.2d 1058 (1987). The Oregon court stated: “A statute that gives a privilege to women while denying it to men is inherently suspect and subject to strict scrutiny, unless the classification (1) is based on specific biological differences between men and women and (2) is rationally related to the purposes of the statute.” McIntyre, 98 Or. App. at 469.
Under this standard, the Oregon court ruled that the statute before it drew an acceptable “classification of unmarried males and unmarried females . . . based on biological differences .... Only a male could contribute the sperm to accomplish conception; only a female could conceive and bear the child.” 98 Or. App. at 469-470. Further, the classification was rationally related to the purposes of the statute, which were: (1) to allow married couples to have children, even though the husband was infertile, impotent, or ill; (2) to allow an unmarried woman to conceive and bear a child without sexual intercourse; (3) to resolve potential disputes about parental rights and responsibilities: that is, (a) the mother’s husband, if he consents, is father of the child, and (b) an unmarried mother is free from any claims by the donor of parental rights; (4) to encourage men to donate semen by protecting them against any claims by the mother or the child; and (5) to legitimate the child and give it rights against die mother’s husband, if he consented to *69the insemination. 98 Or. App. at 467-68, 470. Thus the statute did not offend equal protection either on its face or as applied.
The court also rebuffed the donor’s due process challenge to the statute on its face. 98 Or. App. at 470. However, the donor also argued that the statute violated due process under the federal and state Constitutions as applied to him, a known donor who had an agreement with the mother to share the rights and responsibilities of parenthood. The court agreed the statute would violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment as applied to the donor if such an agreement was proved. 98 Or. App. at 470-72.
On this point, the court looked to Lehr v. Robertson, 463 U.S. 248, 261, 77 L. Ed. 2d 614, 103 S. Ct. 2985 (1983), an adoption case. Lehr dealt with the necessity of notice of pending adoption proceedings to an unwed father who had not filed with New York’s putative father registry and had never established a substantial relationship with the child. The Court stated:
“When an unwed father demonstrates a full commitment to die responsibilities of parenthood by ‘com[ing] forward to participate in the rearing of his child,’ [citation omitted], his interest in personal contact with his child acquires substantial protection under the Due Process Clause. . . . But the mere existence of a biological link does not merit equivalent constitutional protection.” Lehr, 463 U.S. at 261 (quoted in McIntyre, 98 Or. App. at 470).
The Lehr Court ultimately held that the State’s failure to notify the father of adoption proceedings did not deny him due process of law. 463 U.S. at 264-65. No substantive due process right to care, custody, and control of the child had vested in a man who could demonstrate nothing more than a biological link to his offspring. 463 U.S. at 258-62. The Lehr Court noted, however, that an unwed father who demonstrated “a full commitment to the responsibilities of parenthood” could not be absolutely barred from asserting his parental rights without a violation of due process. 463 U.S. at 261.
The McIntyre court reasoned that the Due Process Clause should afford no less protection to a sperm donor who had facilitated artificial insemination than an unwed father, “provided that [the sperm donor] could prove the facts” in his summary judgment affidavit that tended to support the existence of an agreement with *70the mother and his reliance upon it. Because the court concluded the constitutionality of the Oregon statute as applied to this donor would turn on whether he was given an opportunity to establish those facts, summary judgment in favor of the mother was reversed. 98 Or. App. at 472.
The last of the four cases, C. O. v. W. S., 64 Ohio Misc. 2d 9, 639 N.E.2d 523 (1994), also concluded, as the McIntyre court did, that a statute purporting to be an absolute bar to paternity of sperm donors, while constitutional in the absence of an agreement to the contrary, could be unconstitutional as applied when the donor can establish that an agreement to share parenting existed between him and the unmarried woman who was the recipient of the sperm. 64 Ohio Misc. 2d at 12.
In C.O., the Ohio statute at issue stated: “If a woman is the subject of a non-spousal artificial insemination, a donor shall not be treated in law or regarded as the natural father of a child conceived as a result of the artificial insemination, and a child so conceived shall not be treated in law or regarded as the natural child of the donor.” See Ohio Rev. Code Ann. § 3111.95 (Anderson 2003). The statute also required artificial insemination to be conducted under the supervision of a physician. As in Jhordan C., an unmarried woman had inseminated herself with a known donor s sperm. Although the court ultimately determined the statute was inapplicable because the mother had failed to comply with the physician involvement requirement, it further opined that the statute would violate due process if applied to the donor, because he and tire mother, at the time of the procedure, had agreed there would be a relationship between the donor and the child. 64 Ohio Mise. 2d at 12.
Since the Uniform Act was amended in 2000 to state simply, “A donor is not a parent of a child conceived by means of assisted reproduction,” two of our sister states have decided three additional cases addressing statutes with identical or substantively indistinguishable provisions governing sperm donors and unmarried recipients. Steven S. v. Deborah D., 127 Cal. App. 4th 319, 25 Cal. Rptr. 3d 482 (2005); In re H.C.S., 219 S.W.3d 33 (Tex. App. 2006); In re Sullivan, 157 S.W.3d 911 (Tex. App. 2005).
*71Two of these cases come from Texas. They do not add much to the legal landscape with which we are concerned in this appeal because their outcomes were driven by standing, not an issue before us. See H.C.S., 219 S.W.3d 33 (known donor lacked standing to pursue parentage adjudication; child conceived through assisted reproduction by unmarried donor’s sister’s same-sex partner using donor’s sperm); Sullivan, 157 S.W.3d 911 (known donor had standing to maintain paternity action; parties had signed preinsemination agreement stating donor would be treated as if he, mother were married).
The third case, Steven S., 127 Cal. App. 4th 319, from California, involved an unmarried woman and a known sperm donor who tried artificial insemination; when that resulted in a miscarriage, they attempted to conceive through sexual intercourse, also without success. Finally, a second artificial insemination attempt resulted in conception. The donor initially was veiy involved with the pregnancy and the child, and he filed a paternity action when the child was 3 years old.
The district court noted that California’s statute presented a bar to paternity for unmarried sperm donors, but ruled in favor of the donor based on equitable estoppel. The donor was known; he had engaged in sexual intercourse with the unwed mother; and she had acknowledged him as the child’s father and had allowed him to participate in the pregnancy and celebrate the birth of the child. The California Court of Appeals reversed, holding that the “words of [Cal. Fam. Code] section 7613, subdivision (b) are clear” and that, under such facts, “[t]here can be no paternity claim” because of the statute’s absolute bar. Steven S., 127 Cal. App. 4th at 326.
None of these three decisions raised or reached the equal protection or due process challenges raised by the donor here.
Where does our Kansas statute fit into this landscape and its ongoing evolution?
In 1985, Kansas became one of the states that adopted portions of the Uniform Parentage Act of 1973 regarding presumptions of paternity, but it did not adopt any provision relating to artificial insemination. See L. 1985, ch. 114, sec. 5 (H.B. 2012).
*72In 1994, Kansas amended its statute to incorporate the 1973 Uniform Act’s § 5(b) as K.S.A. 38-1114(f). See L. 1994, ch. 292, sec. 5 (Subst. H.B. 2583). It did not differentiate between known and unknown or anonymous donors, but it did make two notable changes in the uniform language.
As discussed above, although the 1973 Uniform Act governed tire paternity of children born only to married women as a result of artificial insemination with donor sperm, the version adopted by Kansas omitted the word “married.” See K.S.A. 38-1114(f). This drafting decision demonstrates the legislature’s intent that the bar to donor paternity apply regardless of whether the recipient was married or unmarried.
The other alteration in the 1973 Uniform Act’s language is directly at issue here. The Kansas Legislature provided that a sperm donor and recipient could choose to opt out of the donor paternity bar by written agreement. See K.S.A. 38-1114(f). The legislative record contains no explanation for this deviation from the 1973 Uniform Act’s language. See Minutes of the House Judiciary Committee, January 19, 1994, and February 25, 1994.
This second drafting decision is critical and sets this case apart from all precedent. Our statute’s allowance for a written agreement to grant a sperm donor parental rights and responsibilities means that, although we may concur with the McIntyre and C.O. courts in their constitutional analyses of absolute-bar statutes, we need not arrive at the same result. K.S.A. 38-1114(f) includes exactly the sort of escape clause the Oregon and Ohio courts found lacking— and unconstitutional—in their statutes.
Ultimately, in view of the requirement that we accept as true D.H.’s evidence supporting existence of an oral agreement, we are faced with a very precise question: Does our statute’s requirement that any opt-out agreement between an unmarried mother and a known sperm donor be “in writing” result in an equal protection or due process violation? Although several other states have adopted statutes like K.S.A. 38-1114(f), including language permitting an unmarried woman and a sperm donor to avoid the statutory bar and provide for the paternity of the donor through an “agreement in writing”—see Ark. Code Ann. § 9-10-201 (2002); *73Fla. Stat. § 742.14 (2005); N.H. Rev. Stat. Ann. § 168-B:3(I)(e) (2002); N.J. Stat. Ann. § 9:17-44(b) (2002); N.M. Stat Ann. § 40-11-6(B) (2006)—none of the courts of these states has yet subjected such a statute to a constitutional crucible. We do so now, as K.S.A. 38-1114(f) is applied to D.H.
Equal Protection
K.S.A. 38-1114(f) draws a gender-based line between a necessarily female sperm recipient and a necessarily male sperm donor for an artificial insemination. By operation of the statute, the female is a potential parent or actual parent under all circumstances; by operation of the same statute, the male will never be a potential parent or actual parent unless there is a written agreement to that effect with the female. As discussed with counsel for the parties at oral argument before this court, the male’s ability to insist on father status effectively disappears once he donates sperm. Until that point, he can unilaterally refuse to participate unless a written agreement on his terms exists. After donation, the male cannot force the fatherhood issue. The female can unilaterally decide if and when to use the donation for artificial insemination and can unilaterally deny any wish of the male for parental rights by refusing to enter into a written agreement.
The guiding principle of equal protection analysis is that similarly situated individuals should be treated alike. Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc., 473 U.S. 432, 439, 87 L. Ed. 2d 313, 105 S. Ct. 3249 (1985); State v. Limon, 280 Kan. 275, 283, 122 P.3d 22 (2005). In Kansas, as before the United States Supreme Court, statutory gender classifications such as this classification in K.S.A. 38-1114(f) are subject to intermediate, or heightened, scrutiny. Limon, 280 Kan. at 283-87; Chiles, 254 Kan. at 891-93; Farley, 241 Kan. at 669; see Reed v. Reed, 404 U.S. 71, 76-77, 30 L. Ed. 2d 225, 92 S. Ct. 251 (1971). In order to pass muster under the federal and state equal protection provisions, a classification that treats otherwise similarly situated individuals differently based solely on the individuals’ genders must substantially further a legitimate legislative purpose; the government’s objective must be important, and the classification substantially related to achievement of it. Ne*74vada Dept. of Human Resources v. Hibbs, 538 U.S. 721, 729, 155 L. Ed. 2d 953, 123 S. Ct. 1972 (2003); United States v. Virginia, 518 U.S. 515, 533, 135 L. Ed. 2d 735, 116 S. Ct. 2264 (1996); Farley, 241 Kan. at 669.
Given the biological differences between females and males and the immutable role those differences play in conceiving and bearing a child, regardless of whether conception is achieved through sexual intercourse or artificial insemination, we are skeptical that S.H. and D.H. are truly similarly situated. However, assuming for purposes of argument that they are, we perceive several legitimate legislative puiposes or important governmental objectives underlying K.S.A. 38-1114(f).
As the McIntyre court observed about the Oregon statute, K.S.A. 38-1114(f) envisions that both married and unmarried women may become parents without engaging in sexual intercourse, either because of personal choice or because a husband or partner is infertile, impotent, or ill. It encourages men who are able and willing to donate sperm to such women by protecting the men from later unwanted claims for support from the mothers or the children. It protects women recipients as well, preventing potential claims of donors to parental rights and responsibilities, in the absence of an agreement. Its requirement that any such agreement be in writing enhances predictability, clarity, and enforceability. Although the timing of entry into a written agreement is not set out explicitly, the design of the statute implicitly encourages early resolution of the elemental question of whether a donor will have parental rights. Effectively, the parties must decide whether they will enter into a written agreement before any donation is made, while there is still balanced bargaining power on both sides of the parenting equation.
In our view, the statute’s gender classification substantially furthers and is thus substantially related to these legitimate legislative purposes and important governmental objectives. K.S.A. 38-1114(f) establishes die clear default positions of parties to artificial insemination. If these parties desire an arrangement different from the statutory norm, they are free to provide for it, as long as they do so in writing. Encouraging careful consideration of entiy into *75parenthood is admirable. Avoidance of the limbo in which D.H. finds himself is a worthy legislative goal. We therefore hold that the application of K.S.A. 38-1114(f) to D.H. does not violate equal protection.
Due Process
Neither D.H. nor the Center explicitly addresses whether the due process challenge to K.S.A. 38-1114(f) in this case is based on procedural due process principles or substantive due process doctrine. Nor did the Oregon or Ohio courts that decided McIntyre and C.O. draw this distinction or comment upon it. See 98 Or. App. at 471-72; 64 Ohio Mise. 2d at 12. To the extent D.H.’s due process argument is couched in procedural language, i.e., that K.S.A. 38-1114(f)’s requirement of a writing, strictly interpreted, denies him “a meaningful opportunity to be heard” on the claim that there was, in fact, an oral agreement, we simply disagree. Indeed, for purposes of ruling on the propriety of the district judge’s summary disposition in favor of S.H., we accept D.H.’s evidence that there was an oral agreement. Still, he has been denied no procedural right to which he was entitled; the statute merely sets up a burden of proof that his own inaction before donating his sperm left him unable to meet.
D.H.’s ignorance of the statute’s requirement of a writing to record any agreement between him and S.H. as to his parental rights does not necessitate a ruling that the statute cannot be constitutionally applied to him. See Jhordan C. v. Mary K., 179 Cal. App. 3d 386, 389, 224 Cal. Rptr. 530 (1986) (court analyzes applicability of artificial insemination statute despite parties’ ignorance of it); see also Lehr v. Robertson, 463 U.S. 248, 264, 77 L. Ed. 2d 614, 103 S. Ct. 2985 (1983) (failure to file with putative father registry out of ignorance of law insufficient reason to criticize law itself); State ex rel. Murray v. Palmgren, 231 Kan. 524, 536, 646 P.2d 1091 (1982) (ignorance of the law is no excuse). It is apparent to us that the only potentially meritorious due process argument before us focuses on the assertion of D.H.’s fundamental right to care, custody, and control of his children. This raises a substantive due process concern, rather than a problem over the absence of a *76specific procedural protection. Indeed, if anything, D.H. and the Center advocate for less rather than more formality in process; they regard the requirement of a writing to memorialize any agreement between a sperm donor and a recipient as so heavy a procedural burden that it tips the constitutional scales in favor of D.H. here.
In addition to relying on McIntyre and C.O., which, as previously discussed, addressed complete-bar statutes unlike our own, D.H. and the Center emphasize the United States Supreme Court’s decision in Lehr. See 463 U.S. at 261. Lehrs facts limit its utility here. As mentioned above, that case involved an unwed biological father petitioning to set aside an order of adoption based on his failure to be notified of the adoption proceedings. A New York statute guaranteed protection of any interest such a putative father could have in assuming a responsible role in the future of his child: The father in Lehr had failed to avail himself of this protection and had taken no other action that would have established a protectable interest in the child. While a state may not absolutely bar a biological parent from asserting parental rights—the proposition for which D.H. and the Center cite Lehr—Kansas has not done so. Even a sperm donor with no relationship to a child’s mother can forge and protect his parental rights by insisting on a written agreement.
D.H. and the Center argue that D.H.’s other efforts to assert his entitlement to and intention to exercise parental rights-—stymied, they say, by S.H.—should be enough. S.H., of course, casts D.H.’s behavior in a considerably less favorable light. Again, however, for purposes of review of the district judge’s summary deposition in S.H.’s favor, we accept D.H.’s version of events. The infirmity in his substantive due process argument does not He in those factual allegations for which he has provided evidence in the record, including his allegation of an oral agreement; the infirmity lies in the absence of any proof of an agreement with S.H. in writing.
We simply are not persuaded that the requirement of a writing transforms what is an otherwise constitutional statute into one that violates D.H.’s substantive due process rights. Although we agree with the Center that one goal of the Kansas Parentage Act as a *77whole is to encourage fathers to voluntarily acknowledge paternity and child support obligations, the obvious impact of the plain language of this particular provision in the Act is to prevent the creation of parental status where it is not desired or expected. To a certain extent, D.H. and the Center evidently misunderstand the statute’s mechanism. It ensures no attachment of parental rights to sperm donors in the absence of a written agreement to the contrary; it does not cut off rights that have already arisen and attached.
We are confident this legislative design realizes the expectation of unknown or anonymous sperm donors, whether their motive for participation in artificial insemination is altruistic or financial. To the extent it does not realize the expectation of a known sperm donor, the statute tells him exactly how to opt out, how to become and remain a father. If, as the Center argues, genetic relationship must be destiny, then an anonymous donor with no intention to be a father would nevertheless automatically become one. It is evident to us the legislature chose an alternate arrangement. Neither D.H. nor the Center has convinced us there is a constitutional mandate for this court to make an independent policy choice.
We also reject the argument from D.H. and the Center that the statute inevitably makes the female the sole arbiter of whether a male can be a father to a child his sperm helps to conceive. This may be true, as we discussed above, once a donation is made, a recipient who becomes pregnant through artificial insemination using that donation can refuse to enter into an agreement to provide for donor paternity. This does not make the requirement of written agreement unconstitutional. Indeed, it is consistent with United States Supreme Court precedent making even a married pregnant woman the sole arbiter, regardless of her husband’s wishes, of whether she continues a pregnancy to term. See Planned Parenthood of Missouri v. Danforth, 428 U.S. 52, 69-71, 49 L. Ed. 2d 788, 96 S. Ct. 2831 (1976). As discussed above, before a donation is made, a prospective donor has complete autonomy to refuse to facilitate an artificial insemination unless he gets an agreement in writing to his paternity terms. This is more than most fathers, wed or unwed to their children’s mothers, can ever hope for. See Note and Comment, A Tale of Three Women: A Survey of the Rights *78and Responsibilities of Unmarried Women Who Conceive by Alternative Insemination And A Model for Legislative Reform, 19 Am. J. L. & Med. 285, 304 (1993) (absence of executed writing evidence donor failed to, in words of Lehr, “grasp opportunity” to parent; chance to condition donation upon execution of agreement puts donor in control). The requirement that a sperm donor’s and recipient’s agreement be in writing does not violate D.H.’s due process rights.
All of this being said, we cannot close our discussion of the constitutionality of K.S.A. 38-1114(f) without observing that all that is constitutional is not necessarily wise. We are mindful of, and moved by, the Center’s advocacy for public policy to maximize the chance of the availability of two parents—and two parents’ resources—to Kansas children. We are also aware of continued evolution in regulation of artificial insemination in this and other countries. In particular, Britain and The Netherlands now ban anonymous sperm donations, near-perfect analogs to donations from known donors who will have no role beyond facilitating artificial insemination. These shifts formally recognize the understandable desires of at least some children conceived through artificial insemination to know the males from whom they have received half of their genes. The Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority Act of 1990, as amended by Disclosure of Donor Information, Regulations 2004 No. 1511 (requiring, effective April 2005, British donors’ identities to be made available to donor-conceived children when children become 18); Netherlands Embryos Bill, Article 3 Dutch Ministry of Health, Welfare, and Sport (2004) www.minvws.nl/en (effective June 2004, child bom using donated sperm has right to obtain information about biological father at age 16). As one such child recently wrote,
“[tjhose of us created with donated sperm won’t stay bubbly babies forever. We’re all going to grow into adults, and form opinions about the decision to bring us into the world in a way that deprives us of the basic right to know where we came from, what our history is and who both our parents are.”
Clark, My Father was an Anonymous Sperm Donor, The Washington Post, December 17, 2006, at B01 (also currently available *79at http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/ content/article/2006/ 12/15/AR200612l501820.html). We sympathize. However, weighing of the interests of all involved in these procedures as well as the public policies that are furthered by favoring one or another in certain circumstances, is the charge of the Kansas Legislature, not of this court.
“Provided to a Licensed Physician”
D.H.’s next argument on appeal is that the district judge erred in applying K.S.A. 38-1114(f) to him because his sperm was not “provided to a licensed physician,” as required by the statute. Instead, it was provided to S.H., who, in turn, provided it to the medical personnel who performed the insemination.
D.H. opens this argument by citing a Kansas Court of Appeals case involving a petition to terminate the rights of a putative father for the proposition that “[sjtatutes pertaining to adoption, relinquishment, or termination of parental rights are strictly construed as they affect a parent’s liberty interest in the custody and control of his or her children.” In re J.A.C., 22 Kan. App. 2d 96, Syl. ¶ 3, 911 P.2d 825 (1996). This case has no influence on our de novo standard of review here. As discussed at length with regard to the constitutionality of K.S.A. 38-1114(f), absent a written agreement to the contrary, D.H. is not a putative father. He is a sperm donor only. His link to the twins is purely, and solely, biological. It does not give rise to a constitutionally protected right. See Lehr, 463 U.S. at 261.
When we are called upon to interpret a statute, we first attempt to give effect to the intent of the legislature as expressed through the language enacted. When a statute is plain and unambiguous, we do not speculate as to the legislative intent behind it and will not read the statute to add something not readily found in it. We need not resort to statutory construction. It is only if the statute’s language or text is unclear or ambiguous that we move to the next analytical step, applying canons of construction or relying on legislative history construing the statute to effect the legislature’s intent. See CPI Qualified Plan Consultants, Inc. v. Kansas Dept. of *80Human Resources, 272 Kan. 1288, 1296, 38 P.3d 666 (2002); State v. Robinson, 281 Kan. 538, 539-40, 132 P.3d 934 (2006).
Again, K.S.A 38-1114(f) states in pertinent part: “The donor of semen provided to a licensed physician for use in artificial insemination of a woman other than the donor s wife is treated in law as if he were not the birth father of a child . . . .” D.H.’s argument focuses on the phrase “provided to licensed physician,” essentially reading it to say “directly and personally provided to a licensed physician” or “provided to a licensed physician by the donor.” This argument lacks merit.
The language of the statute is clear and unambiguous, and we will not add to it, as D.H. suggests. The words “the donor” form the subject of the predicate “is treated as if he were not the birth father.” The lengthy dependent clause “provided to a licensed physician for use in artificial insemination of a woman other than the donor’s wife” modifies “semen.” K.S.A. 38-1114(f) does not require the donor himself to provide his sperm to the physician performing the insemination. It requires only that the donor’s sperm be provided to the physician by an unspecified someone or something. The fact that S.H. was that someone here did not prevent application of the statute to this situation.
“Unless Agreed to in Writing”
Assuming arguendo the constitutionality and applicability of K.S.A. 38-1114(f), D.H. next argues that the statute’s requirement of a written agreement should be deemed satisfied by the CINC petition filed by S.H. or by the CINC petition and his paternity petition, read together. He asserts that the statute sets forth no requirement that a written agreement be entered into at or before the time of the insemination and points out that the CINC petition referred to him “56 times” as the twins’ “father.” S.H. argues that there was no “meeting of the minds” between her and D.H. regarding coparenting and that the pleadings evidence none.
There is no technical definition of “agreed to” or “writing” in the Kansas Parentage Act of which K.S.A. 38-1114(f) is a part. Although these words or forms of them are defined elsewhere in Kansas statutes, see, e.g., K.S.A. 2006 Supp. 84-1-201(3) (defining *81“agreement” as used in Kansas version of Uniform Commercial Code); K.S.A. 2006 Supp. 84-1-201(46) (defining “written,” “writing” as used in same), these definitions, by their terms, are inapplicable. We therefore give these words as used in K.S.A. 38-1114(f) the meaning accorded them in everyday English. See GT, Kansas, L.L.C. v. Riley County Register of Deeds, 271 Kan. 311, 316, 22 P.3d 600 (2001).
When we do so, there can be no doubt that the pleadings filed by the parties are “in writing.” However, interpreting them separately or together to prove the parties “agreed to” D.H.’s status as a father would require Lewis Carroll’s looking glass. The absence of such an agreement necessitated the drafting and filing of the pleadings in the first place. Their existence and substance do not memorialize accord, rather, its opposite. A CINC petition to terminate D.H.’s parental rights under K.S.A. 38-1531 may have been an odd procedural vehicle for effecting S .H.’s desire—a court order stating that D.H. never acquired any parental rights under K.S.A. 38-1114(f). A declaratoiy judgment action might have been better suited to her legal position. But she and her counsel were in uncharted waters. We will not hold that the pleadings constitute a written agreement by operation of law.
Parental Rights Under KS.A. 38-1114(a)(4)
In the final paragraphs of his brief on appeal, D.H. argues that this case should be controlled by K.S.A. 38-1114(a)(4) rather than K.S.A. 38-1114(f). K.S.A. 38-1114(a)(4) provides:
“(a) A man is presumed to be the father of a child if:
“(4) The man notoriously or in writing recognizes paternity of the child, including but not limited to a voluntary acknowledgment made [by amendment of birth certificate] in accordance with K.S.A. 38-1130 or [filing of birth certificate under K.S.A.] 65-2409a, and amendments thereto.”
In his brief before the district court, D.H. attempted to reserve “the right to make claims based on ratification, estoppel, and common law,” but this specific contention under K.S.A. 38-1114(a)(4) was never raised below. Nevertheless, given the status of this case as one of first impression and the potential for denial of funda*82mental rights, see In re M.M.L., 258 Kan. 254, 261, 900 P.2d 813 (1995), we address its merit.
A specific statute controls over a general statute. See State ex rel. Tomasic v. Unified Gov. of Wyandotte Co./Kansas City, 264 Kan. 293, 311, 955 P.2d 1136 (1998). Likewise, a specific provision within a statute controls over a more general provision within the statute. K.S.A. 38-1114(f) is far more specific to cases involving artificial insemination by a sperm donor such as D.H. than the general presumption of paternity set out in K.S.A. 38-1114(a)(4). D.H.’s claim under K.S.A. 38-1114(a)(4) is without merit.
Equity
For the first time in his appellate reply brief, D.H. asserts that the district court must be reversed because S.H. has “unclean hands.” In essence, he argues that he, a nonlawyer, was tricked by lawyer S.H., who failed to inform him of the statute and failed to explain how the absence of independent legal advice or a written agreement could affect his legal rights. He asserts that he asked S.H. about whether he needed a lawyer or whether they should put their arrangement in writing and was told neither was necessary. This behavior, he alleges, may have constituted a violation of S.H.’s ethical duties as a licensed lawyer.
Despite D.H.’s attempt in his district court brief to reserve “the right to make claims based on ratification, estoppel, and common law,” this invocation of equity was never further preserved for review by pursuit in the district court or by inclusion in his opening appellate brief. See McGinley v. Bank of America, N.A., 279 Kan. 426, 444, 109 P.3d 1146 (2005) (issue not briefed by appellant deemed waived, abandoned); Titterington v. Brooke Insurance, 277 Kan. 888, Syl. ¶ 3, 89 P.3d 643 (2004) (“[a] point raised only incidentally in a party’s brief but not argued in the brief is deemed abandoned”); Board of Lincoln County Comm’rs v. Nielander, 275 Kan. 257, 268, 62 P.3d 247 (2003) (issue not raised in district court not preserved for appellate court). Even if we would nonetheless be inclined to reach its merit, given the posture of the case and the fundamental nature of the rights in play, we also are prevented from doing so by an inadequate appellate record of the underlying *83facts. See State ex rel. Stovall v. Alivio, 275 Kan. 169, 172, 61 P.3d 687 (2003) (duty of party to furnish appellate record sufficient to enable review of issue). D.H. never proffered evidence to support his assertions of nefarious conduct by S.H. The evidence he presented to the district court focused only on the existence of an oral agreement and his efforts at support; even assuming all of this evidence to be true, it is insufficient under what we have held is a constitutional statute.
Generally speaking, mere ignorance of the law is no excuse for failing to abide by it. State ex rel. Murray v. Palmgren, 231 Kan. 524, 536, 646 P.2d 1091 (1982). There may be a case in the future in which a donor can prove that the existence of K.S.A. 38-1114(f) was concealed, or that he was fraudulently induced not to obtain independent legal advice or not to enter into a written agreement to ensure creation and preservation of his parental rights to a child conceived through artificial insemination. This is not such a case.
Affirmed.
Allegrucci, Nuss, Luckert, and Rosen, JJ, not participating. Lockett, J., Retired, Caplinger and Hill, JJ, assigned.