concurring.
I concur in the judgment of the Court. But I cannot agree to the construction of the statutes on which the decision is rested. The Court holds that the statutes confer upon the Coast Guard express authority to seize on the high séas beyond the twelve-mile limit an American vessel which has become liable to forfeiture for violation of the navigation laws; and the reason assigned.is that these are “ law's respecting the revenue ” within the meaning of § 3072 of the Revised Statutes. As I read the statutes, they do not confer express authority, but the authority exists because it is to be implied as an incident of the police duties of ocean patrol which Congress has imposed upon the Coast Guard. Mere difference of opinion in the construction of intricate statutes can rarely justify expression of dissent. This is especially true, where the two views lead, in the particular case, to the same result. But, in this instance, the construction adopted by the Court may have in other cases far-reaching and regrettable results.
Enforcement of the “ laws respecting the revenue ” forms only a part of the ocean patrol duties imposed by Congress upon the Coast Guard. And seizure on the high seas of vessels which have “ become liable to seizure ” does not exhaust the services required of the Coast *513Guard to ensure enforcement there of the laws respecting the revenue. Unless the Coast Guard has authority to seize the ship and to arrest persons thereon found violating óur laws, no American official is authorized to do so. If the statutes are construed as granting to the Coast Guard express authority to make the seizure in question in order to protect the revenue, the authority so granted is obviously very narrow, and the express grant may possibly be read as exhausting the authority conferred beyond the twelve-mile limit; in other words, as showing that no implied authority is conferred. For this reason it seems to me important to state why I cannot assent to the view expressed by the Court.
The claimant concedes that, within the United States, the Coast Guard is charged with the duty of enforcing our navigation laws, and for this purpose, may board, search, and seize American vessels there; that our navigation laws govern American merchant vessels on the high seas; and that the United States could by appropriate legislation authorize the Coast Guard to seize, without a warrant, any such vessel violating our law on the high seas, regardless of distance from our coast. See United States v. Bowman, 260 U. S. 94, 97; Cunard Steamship Co. v. Mellon, 262 U. S. 100, 125, 129. His contention apparently is that Congress does not impose upon officers of the Coast Guard any duty to enforce the navigation laws on the high seas beyond the twelve-mile limit; and that, even if it does impose the duty, it has not conferred authority to enforce compliance by means of a seizure to be made there. The question for decision is the power of the Coast Guard to seize American vessels beyond the twelve-mile limit.1
*514The Coast Guard is a part of the civil establishment. It is a bureau of the Treasury Department,2 established by Act of January 28, 1915, c. 20, 38 Stat. 800, in lieu of the existing Revenue Cutter Service and Life-Saving Service. These had thereofore been separate — the Revenue Cutter Service a division, the Life-Saving Service a bureau, of the Treasury. Louisville & Nashville R. R. Co. v. United States, 258 U. S. 374. The Revenue Cutter Service was established by Act of August 4, 1790, c. 35, §§ 31 and 62-65, 1 Stat. 145, 164, 175. That statute was superseded by the Act of March 2, 1799, c. 22, §§ 54, 70, 97-102, 1 Stat. 627, 668, 678, 699, 700. The provisions of the Act of 1799 concerning search and seizure specifically by revenue cutters were embodied without substantial change in the Revised Statutes, §§ 2760, 2761, 2763, 3067, 3069, 3070 and 3072. Their scope and purpose will be discussed later. They are now in full force, except so far as they were repealed by the Tariff Act of 1922 or may have been modified by § 581 thereof. The *515Act of 1915 did not add to or abridge in any respect existing duties and powers of officers of revenue cutters. It merely transferred to the Coast Guard the duties and powers theretofore possessed.
When the Revenue Cutter Service was established, its duties were limited to the protection of the revenues. In 1793, the duty of enforcing also the navigation laws was imposed.3 Thereafter, from time to time, the duty of enforcing many other laws relating to transactions involving marine operations was added. Revenue cutters became thus America’s civil ocean patrol.4 But their service is not limited to enforcing our municipal law. They have been employed also in protecting the lives and property of Americans against foreigners in international controversies falling short of war; and they have served during. wars in operations against the enemy.5 Revenue cutters are armed cruisers. Naval discipline, drill and routine prevail on all the ships. Their officers are commissioned, and their men enlisted, like officers and men in the Army, Navy and Marine'Corps. The Secretary of the Treasury assigns them to a particular vessel; and the vessel is usually assigned to a particular station. But he may make such transfer of an officer from one vessel to another, and of the vessel from one station to another, as he deems desirable. Both the Secretary of the Treasury and the President may direct any *516revenue cutter to-cruise in any waters in order to perform any duty of the service. Wiley v. United States, 40 Ct. Cl. 406; Act of April 21, 1910, c.. 182, § 2, 36 Stat. 326; Regulations of Coast Guard (1923), Art. 101.
With the enlargement of the revenue cutters’ functions came necessarily an extension of the field of their operations. They range the seas coastwise or far into the ocean, ' as occasion and the particular duties demand. The earlier regulations-6 issued by the Secretary of the Treasury, included.among the laws to be enforced, those prohibiting the slave trade,7 the laws to preserve neutrality,8 laws for the suppression of piracy,9 and the law to prevent the cutting and removing of timber from public lands “ for exportation. to any foreign country.” 10 Among the duties recited in the later regulations 11 are lending medical aid to vessels of the United States engaged in deep sea fisheries;'12 enforcing the sponge fishing law;13 assisting vessels in distress upon the oceans14 and *517the Great Lakes;15 removing derelicts;16 suppressing mutinies;17 patrolling the North Pacific and the Bering Sea for the purpose of enforcing the laws for the protection of the fur seal and sea otter;18 and the service of ice observation and patrol, pursuant to the .Convention of January 20, 1914, designed to promote safety on the North Atlantic, following the International Conference of November 12, 1913.19 By no act or regulation is the field of activity restricted to the twelve-mile limit. Some of the duties imposed upon revenue cutters involve necessarily service hundreds of miles from any American coast.20
*518Forfeiture of the offending vessel is a punishment commonly prescribed for violation of our navigation laws, and of many other laws which revenue cutters are required to aid in enforcing. Of these there are many which are in no way concerned with the collection of the revenue.21 In order to enforce these laws adequately, it is necessary that some officials of the Government shall *519have authority to seize American vessels which are found violating them. Many of the offenses are of such a character that they can be committed anywhere on the high seas. The challenge of the authority of the Coast Guard
*520to make a seizure beyond the twelve-mile limit presents, therefore, questions, affecting the enforcement not only of the navigation laws, but also of the customs laws, the National Prohibition Law, and others. If the officers of revenue cutters were without authority to seize American merchant vessels found violating our laws on the high seas beyond the twelve-mile limit, or-to seize such vessels found there which are known theretofore to have violated our laws without or within those limits, many offenses against our laws might, to that extent, be committed with impunity. For clearly no other arm of the Government possesses such authority.
. The questions presented necessitate enquiry into early and recent administrative practice, as well as into legislation and judicial decisions. I shall consider first whether officérs of revenue cutters had authority to seize on the high seas for violation of the navigation laws prior to *521the Tariff Act of 1922; then, whether that Act abridged their authority.
First. The provisions of the navigation laws alleged to have been violated, have been in force since the beginning of our Government. Act of February 18, 1793, c. 8, §§ 8, 32, 1 Stat., 305, 308, 316; Rev. Stat. §§ 4337, 4377. The express authority to board and search in terms beyond the territorial limits of the United States appeared first in §§ 31 and 64 of the customs-collection Act of August 4, 1790, c. 35, 1 Stat. 145, 164, 175, which established the Revenue Cutter Service. The authority there conferred upon it was to board and search within “ the United States or within four leagues [twelve miles] of the coast.” It applied to all vessels — foreign as well as American; but was limited to inbound vessels.. These sections, which granted power to board and search, contained no express grant of power to seize. Express statutory authority to seize in terms beyond the territorial limits of the United States for violation of its laws was not conferred, until the Tariff Act of 1922, in respect to any offence except in those few instances in which Congress, in pursuance of specific treaties, provided that any vessel, .foreign or American, might be seized.22 We are concerned' here only with the right of the Coast Guard to seize an American vessel for violation of a law applicable solely to such vessels.
The only express statutory authorization upon Which, prior to the Tariff Act of 1922, a claim of power in any official to seize a vessel on any waters for violation of the navigation laws could possibly be predicated were § 27 of the Act of February 18, 1793, c. 8, 1 Stat. 305, 315 (a navigation law), which was repealed by its omission from *522the Revised Statutes;23 and § 2 of the Act of July 18, 1866, c. 201, 14 Stat. 178 (a customs-collection law), which was embodied in § 3059 of the Revised Statutes as a part of “ Title XXXIV, Collection of Duties upon Imports; ” and § 3072 of the Revised Statutes, which dealt with seizures for violation of “ any law respecting the revenue.”24 Section 3059 authorized “ any officer of the customs, including” those “of a revenue cutter,” to “go on board of any vessel ... to inspect, search and examine the same . . .; and if it shall appear that any breach or violation of the laws of the United States has been committed, whereby . . . such vessel ... is liable to forfeiture, to make seizure of the same ...”
The authority which § 3059, § 3072, and the earlier acts, expressly conferred upon all officers “of the customs” was to seize “as well without as within his district.” No distinction was there made between foreign and domestic vessels; nor between inbound and outbound vessels. The clause appeared first in the Act of July 31, 1789, c. 5, § 26, 1 Stat. 29, 43, the earliest law regulating the collection of customs. As there used, the clause clearly meant only that collectors, naval officers and surveyors should have the authority to seize in other districts of the United States besides the particular ones to which *523they were respectively appointed. For the clause antedated the first express authorization of either search or seizure without the territorial limits of the United States; and antedated also the establishment of the Revenue Cutter Service.25 Did the phrase “without ... his district,” when used in § 3059, continue to mean within some other customs collection district of the United States; or did it acquire the' new meaning'of anywhere, even without the territorial waters of the United States? Compare Taylor v. United States. 3 How, 197, 205.
If the former meaning is the true one, there was prior to -the Tariff Act of 1922 no express authority in officers of revenue cutters to seize for violation of any law beyond the territorial limits of the United States. If the latter meaning is the true one, not only officers of revenue cutters, but also all other customs officers were given by § .3059 express authority to seize anywhere on the high seas any vessel, foreign or American, found violating our laws. In my opinion the former meaning is clearly the true one. Congress cannot have intended to confer the general authority to seize foreign vessels upon the high seas.26 And the clause in question is used in § 581 of the Act of 1922 in the same sentence with an express territorial limitation. But it does not follow that American vessels violating our laws beyond the territorial limits could not be seized. Authority to seize American vessels *524there was conferred upon officers of revenue cutters by implication. They possessed the authority as an incident of théir office of ocean patrol. They are officers of the branch of the Government charged with the faithful execution of the laws. Wherever on the high seas they were charged with enforcing compliance with our laws, there they were, in my opinion, , authorized to seize American vessels, regardless of the distance from our coast.27 Compare United States v. Macdaniel, 7 Pet. 1, 15; United States v. Tingey, 5 Pet. 115, 126; 28 Op. Atty. Gen. 121, 124, 549, 552.
There is no limitation upon the right of the sovereign to seize without a warrant vessels registered under its laws, similar to that imposed by the common law and the Constitution upon the arrest of persons and upon the seizure of “ papers and effects.” 28 See Carroll v. United *525States, 267 U. S. 132, 151-153. Smuggling is commonly attended by violation of the navigation laws. From the beginning of our Government officers of revenue cutters have, for the purpose of enforcing the customs laws, been expressly authorized to board and search inbound vessels on the high seas within twelve miles of our coast. It is not to be lightly assumed that Congress intended to deny to revenue cutters so engaged authority to seize American vessels found to be violating our navigation laws. Nor is it lightly to be assumed that Congress intended to deny to officers of revenue cutters engaged in enforcing other laws of the United States beyond the twelve-mile limit, the authority *to seize American vessels found to be violating our navigation laws beyond those limits.
From the beginning of our government, it has been the practice of revenue cutters to make such seizures. The official records and judicial decisions show that revenue cutters were employed early in our history, and that they have been employed continuously since, in enforcing our navigation laws upon the high seas regardless of distance from the coast;. and that, whether operating within the United States or without, they have, regardless of distance from the coast, seized American vessels found violating our laws, without regard to whether the laws violated related to the revenue.29 Congress has by its ac*526tion sanctioned this exertion of power. It supported the activities of the service by ever increasing appropriations.30 It equipped the Coast Guard) before the Tariff Act of 1922, with able cruising cutters,' many of which were engaged largely in patrol beyond the twelve-mile limit. To seize anywhere on the high seas American ves*527seis found violating our laws was thus, I think, within the implied authority of its officers before the Act of 1922. It remains to consider whether that Act abridged the authority theretofore possessed.
Second: The Tariff Act of 1922 includes as Title IV a revision of the customs administrative provisions then in force. 42 Stat. 858, 948, et seq. In § 642 it recites the provisions of the earlier law which the Act repealed. Among these are §§ 3059 and 3067 of the Revised Statutes. The former is the section which conferred upon officers of the customs express power to seize “ within or without his district.” The latter is the section which conferred upon them authority to board and search inbound vessels within twelve miles of our coast. The sections parallel to § 3067, relating specifically to officers of revenue cutters, first found in § 64 of the Act of 1790, reenacted as § 99 of the Act of 1799, and again as §§ 2760, 2761, 2762 of the Revised Statutes, were neither repeated nor repealed by the Act of 1922. Nor did it- repeat or repeal § 3072. For the provisions repealed it substituted § 581, which, so far as material, is as follows:31
*528“Boarding Vessels. — Officers of the customs or of the Coast Guard, and agents or. other persons authorized by the Secretary of the Treasury, or appointed for that purpose in writing by a collector may at any time go on board of any vessel or vehicle at any place in the United States or within four leagues of the coast of the United States, without, as well as within their respective districts, to examine the manifest and to inspect, search, and examine the vessel or -vehicle, and every part thereof, and any person, trunk, or package on board, and to this end to hail, and stop such vessel or vehicle, if under way, and use all necessary force to compel compliance, and if it shall appear .that any breach or violation of the laws of the United States has been committed, whereby or in consequence of which such vessel or vehicle, or the merchandise, or any part thereof, on board of or imported by such vessel or vehicle is liable to forfeiture, it shall be the duty of such officer to make seizure of the same, and to arrest, or, in case of escape or attempted escape, to pursue and arrest any person engaged in such breach or violation.”
The provision quoted above was adopted by Congress without substantial change from the draft of a bill contained in the report “ Upon the Revision of the Customs Administrative Laws ” made by the United States Tariff Commission to the Committee on Ways and Means in 1918, and re-submitted in 1921. Whether intentionally or not, the paragraph of § 581 quoted above introduced *529two changes into the statutory law. Unlike the earlier statutes, it did not limit to inbound vessels the right to board and search. And, unlike the earlier statutes, it apparently conferred (through the inclusion of the grant of authority to seize in the same paragraph with the grant of authority to board or search) upon all customs officers the right to seize any vessel on any waters within the twelve-mile limit.32 The reports of the Commission and those of the Committees of Congress discuss many proposed changes in the customs administrative laws. But nowhere in the reports of the Commission or of Congress, or in the statute enacted, is there a suggestion of purpose to abridge by this provision the authority theretofore possessed by the Coast Guard to make seizure on the high seas. It seems clear that Congress did not by this revision intend that the power to seize on the high seas for violation of laws respecting the revenue should remain, but that the similar power to seize for violation of other laws should be taken away.
Since, in my opinion, R. S. § 3059 had not conferred any express power to seize beyond territorial waters, I do not think its repeal shows any intention to take away the then, existing implied power of the Coast Guard to seize American vessels anywhere on the high seas, for violation of any law of the United States. There is no foundation for the assumption of the claimant that the first paragraph of § 581 was intended as the exclusive grant of the power to seize. The primary purpose of that paragraph was not to provide for the seizure of American vessels of known or suspected guilt. It was to facilitate, by means of boarding and examination of manifest before arrival in port, both the entry of admittedly innocent vessels and the collection of revenues. This end was furthered by enabling customs officers to board and search any vessel, foreign or domestic, within *530the stated limits, without the necessity of establishing probable cause. The authority to board and search foreign vessels beyond the territorial limits would doubtless not have been implied as a mere incident of the customs officers’ duties, and it is probable that the authority to board and search American vessels in the absence of probable cause was not regarded as clear.
Other action of Congress taken at about the same time shows that Congress had no purpose to abridge the Coast Guard’s activities or powers. The appropriation acts make provision for large increases in equipment and personnel to enable it to combat the increased smuggling operations following upon the enactment of the National Prohibition Law. Moreover, conventions were negotiated with Great Britain and other foreign nations to secure permission to seize their vessels on the high seas if found engaged in smuggling operations.33 Neither in the negotiations nor in the conventions was any reference made to a twelve-mile limit. The limitation agreed upon was an hour’s run from our coast. The distance covered by the hour’s run would often greatly exceed twelve miles from our coast. But Congress did not deem it necessary to enact supplementary legislation in order to make the conventions effective.34
*531In my opinion, then, the Coast Guard is authorized to arrest American vessels subject to forfeiture under our law, no matter what the place of seizure and no matter what the law violated.
Mr.- Justice Holmes joins in this opinion.The power, in relation to American vessels, was upheld in The Rosalie M., 4 F. (2d) 815, affirmed without passing upon the point in 12 F. (2d) 970. See The Homestead, 7 F. (2d) 413, 415. Contra, *514United States v. Bentley, 12 F. (2d) 466; Lee v. United States, 14 F. (2d) 400, reversed by this Court, United States v. Lee, post, p. 559. For seizures of foreign vessels, beyond territorial waters, under the hour’s run treaties, see Ford v. United States, 273 U. S. 593; The Pictonian, 3 F. (2d) 145; The Over The Top, 5 F. (2d) 838; United States v. Henning, 7 F. (2d) 488, reversed in 13 F. (2d) 74; The Sagatind, 11 F. (2d) 673; Haughan v. United States, 13 F. (2d) 75. For seizures of foreign vessels beyond the treaty limits, see The Frances Louise, 1 F. (2d) 1004; The Panama, 6 F. (2d) 326. - For seizures of foreign -vessels between the three and twelve mile limits, under the hovering statutes, before the treaties, see United States v. Bengochea, 279 Fed. 537; The Grace and Ruby, 283 Fed. 475; United States v. 1,250 Cases of Intoxicating Liquors, 292 Fed. 486; Arch v. United States, 13 F. (2d) 382.
The Act of 1915, § 1, like the earlier law, provides that the Coast Guard "shall operate as a part of the Navy, subject to the orders of the Secretary of the Navy, in time of war or when the President shall so direct.”
Act of February 18, 1793, c. 8, § 27, 1 Stat. 305, 315.
The Coast Guard regulations make it the duty of officers to enforce “ all . . . maritime laws of the United States.” Regulations, 1923, Art. 2501. The cutters are frequently called upon to furnish transportation and other assistance to other departments of the Government. Reports of Revenue Cutter Service and Coast Guard, 1872, p. 12; 1873, pp. 11-13; 1891, p. 4; 1914, p. 101; 1915, pp. 24, 130-140; 1916, p. 21.
Revenue Cutter Service Report for 1891, p. 13; Report for 1897, p. 7; Coast Guard Report for 1920, p. 9.
“Instructions to officers of the United States Revenue Cutter Service” issued by the Treasury Department October 3, 1834, p. 1; “ Rules and Regulations for the Government of the United States Revenue Marine, issued November 1, 1843,” p. ix.
Act of March 22, 1794, c. 11, § 1, 1 Stat. 347; April 20, 1818, c. 91, §§ 2, 4, 3 Stat. 450, 451; see March 3, 1819, c. 101, § 1, 3 Stat. 532.
Rev. Stat. §§ 5283-5287; Act of March 4, 1909, c. 321, 35 Stat. 1088, 1090; Act of June 15, 1917, c. 30, Title V, 40. Stat. 217, 221. See Revenue Cutter Service Report for 1897, pp. 21-22.
Act of April 30, 1790, c. 9, § 8, 1 Stat. 112, 113; Act of March 3, 1819, c. 77, §§ 1, 4, 3 Stat. 510, 511, 513. See Act of May 15, 1820, c. 113, 3 Stat. 600.
Act of March 1, 1817, c. 22, §§ 2, 3, 4, 3 Stat. 347.
Regulations U. S. Coast Guard, 1923, c. 2.
Act of June 24, 1914, c. 124, 38 Stat. 387.
Act of June 20, 1906, c. 3442, 34 Stat. 313; Act of August 15, 1914, c. 253, 38 Stat. 692.
Rev. Stat. § 1536; Act of April 19, 1906, c. 1640, §§ 1-3, 34 Stat. 123. Reports of Revenue Cutter Service, 1873, pp. 7-9; 1881, pp. 9, 15; 1891, pp. 14, 39.
Rev. Stat. § 2759.
Act of May 12, 1906, c. 2454, 34 Stat. 190.
See e. g., Reports, 1881, pp. 14-23; 1915, p. 20.
Concerning the service of revenue cutters - in connection with the forfeiture of vessels killing otter, fur seals, etc,, in the Alaskan waters and beyond, see the Acts of July 27, 1868, c. 273, §§ 6, 7, 15 Stat. 240, 241; March 2, 1889, c. 415, § 3, 25 Stat. 1009; July 1, 1870, c. 189, 16 Stat. 180; June 20, 1878, c. 359, 20 Stat. 206, 212; March 3, 1879, c. 182, 20 Stat. 377, 386; December 29, 1897, c. 3, § 8, 30 Stat. 226, 227; March 3, 1899, c. 429, §§ 173-183, 30 Stat. 1253, 1279-1281; June 14, 1906, c. 3299, § 4, 34 Stat. 263, 264; April 21, 1910, c. 183, 36 Stat. 326. To give effect to the convention of July 7, 1911, between Russia, Japan, England, and the United States (37 Stat. 1542), Congress passed the Act of August 24, 1912, c. 373, 37 Stat. 499, which specifically provided (§ 9) for the search and seizure of American vessels on the high seas. An earlier statute giving effect to a similar treaty between England and the United States carried the same provision. Act of April 6, 1894, c. 57, §§ 11, 12, 28 Stat. 52, 55. See also In re Cooper, 143 U. S. 472; The James G. Swan, 50 Fed. 108; The La Ninfa, 75 Fed. 513; The Alexander, 75 Fed. 519; The James G. Swan, 77 Fed. 473; United States v. The Jane Gray, 77 Fed. 908. For some years a special fleet of revenue vessels has been assigned to the Bering sea patrol, sometimes in cooperation with the Navy and Department of Commerce, See e. g., Report for 1920, pp. 22-31.
See Report for 1914, p. 86.
See Reports, 1891, pp. 3, 14; 1897, pp. 21-22; 1913, p. 42; 1914, pp. 35, 85, 126, 149-151, 158-161; 1915, pp. 7, 11, 14, 16-18, 24, *518130-140; 1916, pp. 11-13, 21, 105; 1917, pp. 13-14, 19-20, 102, 118; 926, p. 22.
Aside from the customs and registry and enrollment acts, referred to at length in the text, there have been many statutes providing for the seizure and forfeiture of -vessels, or for a penalty which is made a lien upon the vessel. Some of these statutes confer power of seizure upon the revenue cutters, either specifically or by reference to officers of the customs or officers of the revenue; some provide for seizure by some other means, usually by the navy under the direction of the President; the majority make no specific provision for seizure.
(1) Power to seize or enforcé conferred specifically upon revenue cutters. Embargo and non-intercourse acts: Joint Resolution of March 26, 1794, 1 Stat. 400; Act of May 22, 1794, c. 33, 1 Stat. 369; Act of April 18, 1806, c. 29, 2 Stat. 379; Act of December 22, 1807, c. 5, 2 Stat. 451 (supplemented by the Act of April 25, 1808, c. 66, § 7, 2 Stat. 499); Act of March 1, 1809, c. 24, 2 Stat. 528; Act of April 4, 1812, c. 49, 2 Stat. 700; Act of December 17, 1813, c. 1, 3 Stat. 88. Slave trade: Act of February 28, 1803, c. 10, 2 Stat. 205 (prohibiting importation into states forbidding admission); Act of March 2, 1807, c. 22, 2 Stat. 426 (not providing for the use of the cutters, but recognizing that use by giving the seizing crew part of the proceeds, whether the seizure “ be made by an armed vessel of the United States, or revenue cutters thereof”); Act of March 3, 1819, c. 101, 3 Stat. 532 (same provision). Miscellaneous: Act of June 25, 1798, c. 58, 1 Stat. 570 (failure to report aliens on board); Act of July 13, 1861, c. 3, § 7, 12 Stat. 255 (closing confederate ports and forfeiting vessels of confederate citizens); Act of August 15, 1914, c. 253, 38 Stat. 692 (regulating sponge fishing in Gulf of Mexico); Act of August 31, 1852, c. 113, § 5, 10 Stat. 121, 140 (illegal carriage of mail); Act of June 8, 1872, c. 335, §§ 235-237, 17 Stat. 283, 312 (same); Act of March 6, 1896, c. 49, 29 Stat. 54 (anchorage in St. Mary’s River); Act of May 27, 1796, c. 31, 1 Stat. 474 (state quarantine laws); Act of July 13, 1832, c. 204, 4 Stat. 577 (same); Joint *519Resolution of May 26, 1866, 14 Stat. 357 (same); Act of June 7, 1924, c. 316, § 7, 43 Stat. 604, 605 (Oil Pollution Act).
(2) Power to seize or enforce conferred upon some other arm of the government (not necessarily excluding a similar power in the revenue cutters). Embargo and non-intercourse acts: Act of February 9, 1799, c. 2, 1 Stat. 613; Act of February 27, 1800, c. 10, 2 Stat. 7; Act of January 9, 1809, c. 5, 2 Stat. 506. Neutrality laws: Act of June 5, 1794, c. 50, 1 Stat. 381; Act of April 20, 1818, c. 88, 3 Stat. 447; Act of March 10, 1838, c. 31, 5 Stat. 212; Act of June 15, 1917, c. 30, Title V, 40 Stat. 217, 221. Piracy laws: Act of March 3, 1819, c. 77, 3 Stat. 510; Act of August 5, 1861, c. 48, 12 Stat. 314. Miscellaneous: Act of May 10, 1800, c. 51, 2 Stat. 70 (slave trade); Act of February 4, 1815, c. 31, 3 Stat. 195 (trading with the enemy); Act of August 2, 1813, c. 57, 3 Stat. 84 (seizure of American vessel using English pass on high seas); Act of February 19, 1862, c. 27, 12 Stat. 340 (coolie trade); Act of September 8, 1916, c. 463, § 806, 39 Stat. 756, 799 (vessel departing without clearance); Act of June 15, 1917, c. 30, Title II, 40 Stat. 217, 220 (regulations governing vessels in territorial waters in time of emergency).
(3) No express provision for seizure or enforcement. Navigation regulations: Act of March 1, 1817, c. 31, 3 Stat. 351 (foreign vessels in coasting trade); Act of March 3, 1817, c. 39, 3 Stat. 361 (same); Act of March 2, 1819, c. 46, 3 Stat. 488 (excess of passengers); Act of February 22, 1847, c. 16, § 2, 9 Stat. 127, 128 (same); Act of March 3, 1855, c. 213, 10 Stat. 715 (same); Act of July 4, 1864, c. 249, § 7, 13 Stat. 390, 391 (false passenger list); Act of July 7, 1838, c. 191, 5 Stat. 304 (inspection and license for steam vessels); Act of May 5, 1864, c. 78, § 2, 13 Stat. 63, 64 (deception as to name of vessel); Act of February 28, 1871, c. 100, §§ 1, 45, 16 Stat. 440, 453 (same); Act of March 3, 1805, c. 42, § 3, 2 Stat. 342, 343 (armed vessel departing without clearance); Act of June 7, 1897, c. 4, § 4, 30 Stat. 96, 103 (rules of navigation); Act of June 9, 1910, c. 268, § 7, 36 Stat. 462, 463 (motorboat regulations); Act of May 28, 1906, c. 2566, § 1, 34 Stat. 204 (foreign-built dredge not documented). Embargo and non-intercourse acts: Act of June 13, 1798, c. 53, 1 Stat. 565; Act of February 28, 1806, c. 9, 2 Stat. 351; Act of April *52018, 1818, c. 70, 3 Stat. 432; Act of May 15, 1820, c. 122, 3 Stat. 602; Act of March 1, 1823, c. 22, 3 Stat. 740. Trading with the enemy: Act of July 6, 1812, c. 129, 2 Stat. 778. Quarantine laws: Act of August 30, 1890, c. 839, § 6, 26 Stat. 414, 416; Act of February 15, 1893, c. 114, 27 Stat. 449. Opium laws: Act of February 23, 1887, c. 210, 24 Stat. 409; Act of February 9, 1909, c. 100, 35 Stat. 614; Act of January 17, 1914, c. 9, 38 Stat. 275. Miscellaneous: Act of April 30, 1790, c. 9, § 8, 1 Stat. 112, 113 (piracy); Act of March 22, 1794, c. 11, 1 Stat. 347 (slave trade); Act of March 1, 1817, c. 22, 3 Stat. 347 (transportation of timber cut from navy lands); Act of March 2, 1831, c. 66, 4 Stat. 472 (same); Act of March 3, 1825, c. 107, 4 Stat. 132 (taking wrecks on Florida coast to foreign port); Act of May 6, 1882, c. 126, § 10, 22 Stat. 58, 61, amended by the Act of July 5, 1884, c. 220, § 10, 23 Stat. 115, 117 (Chinese exclusion); Act of July 2, 1890, c. 647, § 6, 26 Stat. 209, 210 (property transported in restraint of trade); Act of August 13, 1912, c. 287, §§ 1, 9, 37 Stat. 302, 308 (use of radio apparatus on vessel on high seas). See also the enumeration of certain offenses under the criminal code which usually take place on the high seas, in United States v. Bowman, 260 U. S. 94, 98-100.
See, for example, the treaties mentioned in note 18, supra, and statutes giving effect thereto.
Section 27 was never expressly repealed. In the “Revision of United States Statutes as Drafted by the Commissioners” (1872), it appeared as § 620 of Title 36, c. 10. It does not appear in the Revised Statutes as finally enacted, however, and hence, under § 5596, must be deemed to have been repealed, because of the omission, since many other sections of the Act of February 18, 1793, were included therein. It is in phraseology and substance similar to § 2 of the Act of July 18, 1866, c. 201, 14 Stat. 178.
That section also is a re-enactment of identical provisions in earlier customs collection laws. See Acts of March 2, 1799, c. 22, § 70, 1 Stat. 627, 678; August 4, 1790, c. 35, § 50, 1 Stat. 145, 170; July 31, 1789, c. 5, § 26, 1 Stat. 29, 43.
See also Alexander Hamilton’s Report of February 2, 1795, American State Papers, Finance, Vol. I, No. 77, pp. 348, 349, urging the insertion of a similar clause in the statutes dealing with the power of internal revenue officers, who, of course, operate on land only.
It has been commonly asserted that, even under the hovering laws, a sovereign may not seize a foreign vessel until it enters the territorial waters. These do not extend beyond the three-mile limit. John Bassett Moore, 1 Digest International Law, 726; L. H. Woolsey, Foreign Relations of the United States (1912), p. 1289; Charles Cheney Hyde, Int. Law, pp. 417-420. But see last group of cases cited in note 1, supra.
The power of the ordinary peace officers to arrest and to seize does not seem to have been conferred originally by statute. As to the sheriff, statutes dealt with the method of appointment, tenure of office, and qualifications, but not with the extent of his powers. See 1 Blackstone Comm., 339-346; Dalton, Sheriff, passim.; Watson, Sheriff, c. I, c. III. Similarly as to constables and watchmen. See 4 Blackstone Comm., 292. These powers, including of course the power to arrest, are in this country thought to inhere in these offices, except in so far as they may be limited by statute. See South v. Maryland, 18 How. 396, 401-2; Mayor of Baltimore v. State, 15 Md. 376, 393 (constables and justices of the peace); Kirksey v. Bates, 7 Port. (Ala.) 529, 532 (notaries); Doering v. State, 49 Ind. 56, 61 (policeman); Hawley v. Butler, 54 Barb. (N. Y.) 490, 494-495 (marshals); State v. Reichman, 135 Tenn. 653, 661-662, 667 (sheriff). See Mechem, Public Officers, § 502. Compare Allor v. Board of Auditors, 43 Mich. 76 (constables); People v. Keeler, 29 Hun. (N. Y.) 175, 178; State v. Brunst, 26 Wis. 412; State v. Dews, R. M. Charlt. (Ga.) 397, 439; State v. De Lorenzo, 81 N. J. L. 613, overruling Virtue v. Freeholders, 38 Vroom, 139; Commonwealth v. O’Cull, 7 J. J. Marsh (Ky.) 149, 150; Turner v. Holtzman, 54 Md. 148, 159-160; Quinn v. Heisel, 40 Mich. 576.
See also Boyd v. United States, 116 U. S. 616, 622-624. The right of the sovereign to seize a vessel for violation of the municipal *525law, is in some respects analogous to the right of a belligerent, recognized by the international law, to seize contraband. See 2 Moore, Digest International Law, § 309; The Marianna Flora, 11 Wheat. 1, 42; United States v. La Jeune Eugenie, 26 Fed. Cas. No. 15,551.
In most cases, the cutters merely report violations of law, without making seizures. The reports do show, however, that when it was thought' necessary to arrest American vessels, the seizures were made without regard to location. See The Elizabeth, 8 Fed. Cas. No. 4, 352 (1810); The Eliza, 8 Fed. Cas. No. 4, 346 (1813); United States v. The Little Ann, 26 Fed. Cas. No. 15,611 (1809), reversed in 15 Fed. Cas. No. 8, 397; The Brig Ann, 9 Cranch, 289 (1815); *526Burke v. Trevitt, 4 Fed. Cas. No. 2, 163 (1816). Compare 3 Op. Atty. Gen. 405. See also “Instructions to Officers in the United States Revenue Cutter Service,” October 3, 1834, p. 9; “Rules and Regulations for the Government of the Revenue Marine,” November 1, 1843, p. xv. Thus, in regard to specific American vessels, the' Commandant’s office frequently sends out confidential orders to “ seize whenever and wherever found ”, or to “ board and search whenever and wherever found.”
The files of the Coast Guard show that from September 1, 1922, to February 10, 1927, at least ‘seventy-five American vessels were seized beyond the twelve-mile limit, for violations of the Prohibition Act alone; of these seizures at least twenty-one were made more than thirty miles from the coast.
After the adoption of the Eighteenth Amendment Congress made each year a large increase in the appropriation for the Coast Guard; and provided for the acquisition of additional vessels of the cruiser type. Before the passage of the Tariff Act of 1922 the year’s appropriations had been increased to $9,800,000 and the acquisition or construction of additional cruising vessels had been authorized. On April 2, 1924, a special appropriation of $12,194,900 was made for construction of additional ocean-going vessels and for reconditioning and equipping those vessels which it authorized the Navy to transfer to the Coast Guard. The appropriation for maintenance increased to $20,800,000 by 1926.
In 1919, the aggregate of vessels boarded was 2,005; in 1922, 31,653; in 1925, 53,080. The number of vessels seized or reported for violations of law increased from 601 in 1919 to 1,887 in 1925. It should be noted that comparatively few of the penalties for minor infractions of the law are collected. By the Act of February 14, 1903, c. 552, § 10, 32 Stat. 825, 829, the power to remit penalties and forfeitures for violation of laws “relating to merchant vessels”, theretofore in the hands of the Secretary of the Treasury, was given to the Secretary of Commerce. This poweir has been liberally exercised. See e. g., 1913 Annual Report of Commissioner of Navigation, p.23.
The second paragraph of § 581, 42 Stat. 979, relates solely to officers of vessels of the Department of Commerce. It is as follows:
“Officers of the Department of Commerce and other persons authorized by such department may go on board of any vessel at any place in the United States or within four leagues of the 'coast of the United States and hail, stop, and board such vessels in the enforcement of the navigation laws and arrest or, in case of escape or attempted escape, pursue and arrest any person engaged in the breach or violation of the navigation laws.”
Prior to 1903, the Secretary of the Treasury was charged with both the administration and the enforcement of the navigation laws. The administration was committed in part to the collectors of the ports, in part to the Bureau of Navigation. The enforcement was committed in part to the collectors, in part to the Revenue Cutter Service. In that year Congress created the Department of Commerce and Tabor and transferred to it the Bureau of Navigation. Act of February 14, 1903, c. 552, 32 Stat. 825. In 1913 that bureau became a *528part of the new Department of Commerce. Act of March 4, 1913, c. 141, 37 Stat. 736. Thereby certain duties in respect to the administration of the navigation laws passed to the Department of Commerce. To enable it to take some part also in the enforcement of the navigation laws Congress provided it with a few cutters. See Annual Report of Commissioner of Navigation, 1915, pp. 31-32. The above paragraph was inserted at the instance of the Department of Commerce when the Customs Administration law was in the conference committea
See note 26, supra.
At least nine suck treaties bave been proclaimed. England, January 23, 1924, 43 Stat. 1761; Norway, May 24, 1924, 43 Stat. 1772; Denmark, May 29, 1924, 43 Stat. 1809; Germany, May 19, 1924, 43 Stat. 1815; Sweden, May 22, 1924, 43 Stat. 1830; Italy, June 3, 1924, 43 Stat. 1844; Panama, June 6, 1924, 43 Stat. 1875; Netherlands, August 21, 1924; Cuba, March 11, 1926.
On March 3, 1924, the Secretary of State (Mr. Hughes) addressed a communication to the House Committee on Foreign Affairs in which it was said: “ The proposed treaty is, in a strict sense, self-executing, requiring no legislation on the part of Congress to make it effective.” TTpa.rings before House Committee on Foreign Affairs on H. Res. 174, 68th Cong., 1st Session, p. 7.