(dissenting).
I dissent and would affirm the judgments of conviction of both Soviero and Tomaiolo.
In the early afternoon of November 29, 1955 two men entered a branch of the State Bank of Suffolk, a small bungalow-type building surrounded by a clump of trees in Brentwood on Long Island, New York. One of them, wearing rubber gloves, with a submachine gun in one hand, held the other hand over the upper part of his face. His cap was drawn down over his forehead, but his eyes, eyebrows and part of his hair as well as the contour of his face were visible. The other and taller man, armed with a revolver, forced the manager of the bank to lie down on the floor in the conference room behind the tellers’ cage and took possession of what currency he could find in the safe, while the man with the submachine gun forced one of the tellers to fill a bag with the money in the drawer under her teller’s window. The two tellers and a customer who arrived while the robbery was in progress were herded into the conference room; and the robbers left with $35,033 in currency and travellers’ checks in the amount of $6,290. The man with the revolver was Abraham Nirenberg, who was tried separately, and we have already affirmed the judgment of his conviction. United States v. Nirenberg, 2 Cir., 242 F.2d 632, certiorari denied 354 U.S. 941, 77 S.Ct. 1405, 1 L.Ed.2d 1539. Despite his attempt to cover his face, the identification of the man with the submachine gun as gun as appellant Charles Tomaiolo was satisfactory, adequate and convincing.
Pauline Katz, who was living with Nirenberg at the time of the robbery and who was with him and appellant Louis Soviero when they were arrested in Buffalo, New York, on February 12, 1956, testified as a Government witness, and she related with a wealth of detail the circumstances under which the robbery was planned and consummated.
In barest outline, Louis Soviero was to steal a car to be used for the getaway; three men, Nirenberg, Tomaiolo and Soviero, were to enter the bank, intimidate the employees and take whatever money they could lay their hands on. After making their escape they were to abandon the getaway car at an appointed place and shift over to Charles Tomaiolo’s Oldsmobile and drive off with the loot. Louis Soviero did provide the stolen car, but at the last moment he refused to go with the others, although he consented to their use of the stolen car provided by him. It was decided to procure a submachine gun to afford the protection which would otherwise have been furnished by the presence of a third confederate, and Monday, November 28, 1955 was devoted to the purchase of the submachine gun. On the morning of November 29, 1955 Louis Soviero still refused to go and the conspirators, accompanied by Pauline Katz, left the Tomaiolo home in Brooklyn and started for Brentwood, Pauline and Nirenberg, who also went by the names of Newman, Sherman and Simon, in the stolen car, a black Buick, and appellant Tomaiolo in his Oldsmobile. Tomaiolo thought the Oldsmobile, which had recently been repaired, was not running as well as it should, and so they all decided on the spur of the moment to go and borrow the car of Nicholas Tomaiolo, the brother of appellant Charles Tomaiolo, who lived and had his place of business not far away. Nirenberg went off and in ten or fifteen minutes came back with a blue Plymouth belonging to Nicholas Tomaiolo.
*698So Pauline, Nirenberg and Charles Tomaiolo, using the black Buick and the blue Plymouth, started toward the bank. At a place made inconspicuous by the surrounding trees and bushes Pauline was left in the blue Plymouth. The others proceeded to the bank, consummated the robbery and returned. The men changed their clothes, transferred the loot to the Plymouth and backed the Buick far into the bushes preparatory to their departure to the house of Nicholas, where Nirenberg and Charles Tomaiolo went down to the basement and wrapped the stolen currency in Christmas packages. This, less some distributions to Soviero and to the young men who helped steal the Buick, was divided 50-50 between Nirenberg and Charles Tomaiolo.
When they tried to take the license plate from the rear of the Buick they discovered to their dismay that it was bolted on with rivets and they had no tools to remove it. The license plate bore the number QQ 6991; and this proved the undoing of both appellants, as the various circumstances which the ensuing investigation revealed demonstrate beyond peradventure of doubt the guilt of both appellants and lend such corroboration to the testimony of Pauline Katz that I am quite convinced that no jury qualified to serve in that capacity could have arrived at any verdict other than the one rendered in this case.
As will appear in a later portion of this opinion, I find no error in any of the rulings of the trial judge, and his charge not only covered every legal phase of the case with unexceptionable accuracy but it was also a model of brevity, a quality much to be desired and all too seldom come across.
Not long after the robbery Louis Soviero thought it best to run away. This he did in the company of Pauline Katz and Nirenberg. Their travels took them to Kentucky and to Florida; they returned and again followed much the same route. On February 12, 1956 the FBI caught up with them in Buffalo, where the submachine gun used in the robbery and a number of revolvers were found in Nirenberg’s Cadillac car, im which the trio had been touring the-country. In his statement to the FBI agents Soviero denied that he had had any part in the planning of the bank robbery or in the robbery itself, but he admitted that the submachine gun found in Nirenberg’s car was the one used in the robbery, and he described in some-detail the leaving of the machine gun with Salvatore Catapano, who later pleaded guilty to the charge of being an. accessory after the fact, and its removal' to the trunk of the Cadillac. It is impossible to read this statement, which Louis Soviero said was accurate but refused to sign, without an abiding conviction that the man who made it knew of the plans of the conspirators and. participated to some extent in carrying them out. The admission most damaging to Soviero in the light of what was. later discovered, was Soviero’s statement that he was told “about two days after the bank robbery * * * something-happened, we used your brother’s plate- and it may come back to you, we didn’t, have a chance to take it off.” Testimony to the same effect was given by Pauline Katz.
Of course, if Soviero furnished the-stolen car to be used in the robbery, and participated in the concealment of thesubmachine gun, he was guilty of conspiracy, of aiding and abetting and of being an accessory after the fact to the-robbery, as charged.
Where did license number QQ 6991 come from ? How was it connected with, appellant Soviero?
Frank Labocetta was a nephew of appellant Soviero, and he had a friend named Vincent Boecia. Labocetta testified that on November 25, 1955 his uncle asked him if he wanted “to make a couple of bucks” by picking up a car “for a friend of his.” Soviero described the-black Buick that was later used in the-robbery, told his nephew where it was. and gave him the keys. The two boys, found the car drove it back and parked it in front of Soviero’s house. The next morning Labocetta was given a license *699plate by Soviero and he bolted it in on the Buick. Had he tied it on with string the perpetrators of the robbery might never have been discovered. Soviero gave Labocetta $150, or $75 for each of the two boys, as compensation for their services. Soviero received additional moneys on his own behalf from Nirenberg, some of it in an envelope wrapped up in a skirt and delivered to him by Pauline Katz.
Francis E. Hodge, the owner of the black Buick, identified the car and testified that he had parked it in front of his home and that it was stolen on the night of November 25, 1955. His license plate, CK 8041, was found inside the car after the robbery.
The trail led from license plate QQ 6991 back to appellant Soviero not only because he gave the plate to Labocetta with directions to put it on the car, but because it was a license plate owned by appellant’s brother Vincent Soviero, who had registered a 1950 Plymouth under the fictitious name of “James Russo.” There was no way open to the prosecution to prove the essential details connected with this 1950 Plymouth and the QQ 6991 license plate except by the testimony of Vincent Soviero’s wife Jean and that of Vincent’s parole officer Robert V. Sterzer. The testimony of both was relevant and significant and its probative force would have been weakened if not destroyed unless given in the context of Sterzer’s relationship to Vincent. It is well settled in this Circuit that evidence otherwise material to the issues of a case is not to be excluded simply because it incidentally discloses conviction for crime. United States v. Chiarella, 2 Cir., 184 F.2d 903; Vause v. United States, 2 Cir., 53 F.2d 346.
The reason Vincent Soviero used the fictitious name “James Russo” was because, as a parolee, he was not permitted to drive a car without the consent of his parole officer. And he took the precaution to apply on March 15, 1955, the same day license QQ 6991 was issued to him, for a learner’s permit under the name “James Russo.”
Accordingly, Vincent Soviero was picked up by Sterzer on May 20, 1955, the license and the permit were found on his person and the use of the alias “James Russo” discovered. The parole officer then took the keys of the car and the license and permit and left them at Vincent’s home in Brooklyn.
Jean Soviero filled in the remaining details. After Vincent was arrested and forced to give up the 1950 Plymouth, she proceeded to sell it with the assistance of her brother-in-law, appellant Louis Soviero. Accordingly, Louis Soviero took the 1950 Plymouth with the QQ license number, and, because of the fictitious name “James Russo,” it was decided first to transfer the 1950 Plymouth to a cousin named Renato Voccia, which was done. Voccia then owned a 1938 Pontiac with license plate 9K4940, and this license plate was transferred to the 1950 Plymouth at the time of the transfer of that car to Voccia. Later, Voccia sold the 1950 Plymouth and gave the proceeds to Vincent’s wife. Thus there was no further legitimate use for license plate QQ 6991, which Louis Soviero put away for future contingencies; and the occassion to use it arose when Hodge’s black Buick was stolen preparatory to the robbery of the bank. To have left Hodge’s plate on the car would have exposed the conspirators to the risk of arrest, as it was to be assumed that the owner of the stolen car would report his loss and the license number to the police.
It is against this background that the jury considered appellant Soviero’s flight with Pauline Katz and Nirenberg; and it is not conceivable to me that the jury could have failed to find that he provided the getaway car according to his undertaking to do so for the purpose of the robbery, that he was paid for this out of the money stolen from the bank and that he participated actively in the concealment of the submachine gun used in the robbery. As to appellant Tomaiolo there was direct proof that it was he who, with a submachine gun in his hand, actually robbed the bank, accompanied by Nirenberg. And the web of circum*700stances surrounding the activities of these two appellants leaves in my mind no doubt whatever of their guilt.
I turn now to appellant Soviero’s points. The contention that the evidence is insufficient to support the verdict against Soviero, as charged in Counts 1, 2 and 4 of the indictment, is nothing short of' frivolous, as is apparent from the factual recital just given, from which many incriminating details have been omitted in the interest of brevity. Some of these details will be adverted to in connection with the discussion herein of the various law points. Indeed, to use the classic expression found in Lutwak v. United States, 344 U.S. 604, 619, 73 S.Ct. 481, 97 L.Ed. 593, the “record fairly shrieks” the guilt of both appellants. Cf. United States v. Tramaglino, 2 Cir., 197 F.2d 928, 932; United States v. Raspovich, 2 Cir., 241 F.2d 779, 781; United States v. Chieppa, 2 Cir., 241 F.2d 635, 640; United States v. Apuzzo, 2 Cir., 245 F.2d 416.
The principal contention is that a motion by Soviero for a mistrial should have been granted because, on October 3, 1956, the first day of the trial, Frank J. Liddy, Jr., an FBI agent, in the course of his testimony relative to Soviero’s authentication of the written statement containing a summary of the principal admissions made orally by Soviero, gave the following answers to the following questions :
“Q. What if anything did he say with respect thereto? * * * A. After reading the statement he stated that the contents therein were true and correct, however, he declined to sign it at this time.
“Q. Did he say why? A. He stated that he would rather wait until he got down to New York City and see his parole officer.”
There was no objection to this question by Soviero’s counsel, who at the time the answer was given made no motion to strike the answer or for any other relief. There followed considerable discussion concerning the deletion of various parts of Soviero’s statement before-receiving it in evidence against Soviero- and reading it to the jury. In the course of this discussion the trial judge agreed to eliminate all references to Soviero’s “previous record, convictions and parole,” the most significant of which was Soviero’s statement that, approximately two weeks after the bank robbery, he went to Nirenberg’s home and “told him I decided to jump parole.”
Having thus secured the advantage of the elimination of this damaging and» perhaps admissible gloss on Soviero’s flight, the undeleted portions of the statement were read to the jury and the-trial proceeded.
Twelve days later, and after some 600 pages of testimony had been taken, counsel for Soviero moved for a mistrial on the basis of the answer given by Liddy, which I have already quoted.
I can find no basis for a ruling by us that it was an abuse of discretion to-deny this motion. Had counsel objected to the question or moved to strike the answer there is no reason to doubt that a proper ruling would have been made, and such interim instructions given as the occasion required. I think it quite clear that the point was waived.
But the motion for a mistrial, though, made in the absence of the jury, must have been known to appellant Tomaiolo, who took occasion to volunteer a statement, during his cross-examination later in the trial, which counsel, quite unfairly I think, attributes to overzeal and impropriety on the part of the prosecutor, rather than to the cunning of appellant Tomaiolo, who may well have thought he saw another opportunity to cause a mistrial and put off the evil day.
The prosecutor was questioning Charles Tomaiolo, who testified in his own defense although Soviero did not, on the subject of his acquaintance with appellant Louis Soviero. This was of significance as Tomaiolo had testified on direct examination that he met Louis Soviero for the first time at a New Year’s Eve party, about a month after the robbery. In Soviero’s statement to *701the FBI Soviero had admitted that he met Nirenberg “prior to Thanksgiving of 1955,” and that he knew Charles Tomaiolo “since prior to my meeting Nirenberg” as he “was a friend of my brother, Vincent Soviero.” As the statement was read to the jury, however, the name “Mr. X” was substituted for Charles Tomaiolo, as was quite proper.
In the course of the cross-examination the relationship between appellant Tomaiolo and Vincent Soviero was developed with some success and it appeared that appellant Tomaiolo had visited repeatedly at Vincent’s home, 325 Linwood Street in Brooklyn. The entire incident now relied upon for reversal appears in the following quotation from the transcript :
“Q. So that you spent a half hour or an hour on these occasions? A. Yes.
“Q. How often would you say that happened? A. Every couple of weeks, maybe a month.
“Q. About how many times all together? A. A dozen, maybe.
“Q. About twelve to eighteen times? A. Yes, sir.
“Q. Don’t you know that that’s where Louis Soviero lived? A. Sir, I — you want me to answer that question ?
“Q. Yes or no.
“Mr. Sabbatino: There he goes again, your Honor.
“A. I presume he lives there.
“Q. You heard testimony here that that’s where he lived?
“Mr. Edelbaum: That doesn’t make it so.
“The Court: Yes. That doesn’t make it so. You are asking him if he knew before this trial.
“Q. Didn’t you know before this trial that that’s where he lived? A. I imagined he lived there.
“Q. Did you meet any other members of the Soviero family there besides Jean and Vincent? A. Yes, sir; I met Charlie and his sister.
“Q. So you met Charlie there and you met his sister there, and you met Vincent there, but you never met Louis there? A. Sir, he was in prison at the time.”
This last answer was in my judgment not only clearly not responsive to the question propounded to the witness, it was also unexpected and not to be anticipated by the prosecutor. In the Government brief it is characterized as “a designed falsehood,” and I see no reason to doubt that this is so. Undoubtedly appellant Soviero had been convicted of crime as his statement to the FBI reveals, but there is ample in this record to show that he had his freedom and had opportunity to visit with appellant Tomaiolo at Vincent’s home. In other words, that he was not in jail as appellant Tomaiolo said he was. In any event, the trial judge directed the jury to disregard the statement complained of; and, in my judgment, it was quite proper for the trial judge to deny the motion for a mistrial which Soviero’s counsel promptly made. If we were to hold a mistrial mandatory under such circumstances we would, to paraphrase the suggestion made by Chief Judge Clark in his opinion in United States v. Apuzzo, 2 Cir., 245 F.2d 416, 422, place in the hands of shrewd defendants or defense witnesses an unjustifiable tactic for obtaining mistrials or reversing fair convictions of guilty men.
Parenthetically, it is interesting to note that, only a few moments before the incident now under discussion, counsel for appellant Soviero inadvertently let the cat out of the bag and himself informed the jury that Soviero had been at one time in Auburn State Prison with appellant Tomaiolo.
The cross-examiner was inquiring of Charles Tomaiolo whether Nirenberg had been in Auburn State Prison with him and the answer was yes. Then the following occurred:
*702“Q. Was Vincent Soviero there with you too? A. Yes, sir; he was in Auburn State Prison.
“Mr. Sabbatino: I move for a mistrial on the ground that the United States Attorney has brought out that my client has a record.
“Mr. Gliedman: Vincent Soviero.
“Mr. Sabbatino: I am sorry, I thought * * *.
“Mr. Gliedman: Do you withdraw your application?
“Mr. Sabbatino: Yes, I withdraw it; I misunderstood him * *
Appellant Soviero urges us to hold that the testimony of the witness Eileen Calvo, which was received against Soviero alone, was given as a result of “extortion” by the trial judge, who overruled Calvo’s claim of constitutional privilege to refuse to answer. The witness lived with Catapano and her testimony corroborated many of the admissions in Soviero’s statement to the FBI about the hiding of the submachine gun. She saw appellant Soviero, together with Nirenberg and another man in the Catapano apartment on February 10, 1956; she described a package about the size of the sub-machine gun; and she identified the bag or pillow case in which the submachine gun was found in Nirenberg’s car at the time of the arrest in Buffalo on February 12, 1956.
As so often happens in cases of trial for bank robberies or other crimes of violence, witnesses are reluctant to testify for the prosecution, but they will do so if their testimony has all the appearance of being given because there is no alternative. Here I can find nothing in the record to indicate that the prosecutor expected Calvo to plead the Fifth Amendment. But when she was called as a witness she refused to be sworn or to answer any questions whatever on the ground of self-incrimination. After she had refused to answer a few questions, despite the direction of the trial judge that she do so, she said, “I think I want a lawyer.” The trial judge accordingly assigned a Mr. Theodore Rosenberg, whose qualifications are not disputed, and the result of a conference between Mr. Rosenberg and the witness was that the witness said she would object to answering each question but that she would answer if the trial judge directed her to do so. Accordingly, she answered each of the questions put to her.
I find no error in the reception of this testimony. All of it was relevant to the issues. The prosecutor was not responsible for the reluctance of the witness to testify; nor has appellant Soviero any standing to argue the question whether or not Calvo’s claim of constitutional privilege should have been sustained. It is well settled law that only the person whose constitutional rights are alleged to be violated may protest their infringement. This Circuit has held that even “where testimony is privileged, and the witness waives the privilege, or the court disregards it, the party against whom the evidence is used cannot complain of the error.” Kunglig Jarnvagsstyrelsen v. Dexter & Carpenter, 2 Cir., 32 F.2d 195, 202, certiorari denied 280 U.S. 579, 50 S.Ct. 32, 74 L.Ed. 629; Morgan v. Halberstadt, 2 Cir., 60 F. 592, certiorari denied 154 U.S. 511, 14 S.Ct. 1149, 38 L.Ed. 1078.
An entirely different situation arises where the prosecution calls a witness who steadfastly refuses to answer and the prosecutor knew that this would be the case. In such instances no relevant testimony is given but the jury is left with the impression that had the witness answered the questions the answers would have been favorable to the Government. But the proof that this was designedly done in bad faith by the prosecutor must be substantial and convincing. Here we have nothing whatever to indicate any such design. Moreover, the jury was not left to speculate on what the answers might or might not have been; for every question was answered.
My brothers have found what appears to them to be another questionable practice resorted to by the prosecutor, although it apparently did not seem so to counsel for appellants who made no point *703of it. Here again I find no impropriety whatever. My brothers say questions were addressed to appellant Tomaiolo on cross-examination which called for matter privileged either because of the attorney and client relationship or because of the marital status. The inference is that the prosecutor knew the privilege would be asserted and hence should not have asked the questions. I say he could not have known that the privilege would not be waived and that the questions were in every way proper. As always the background is important.
Mrs. Margaret McGuirk, a sort of practical nurse, had been called to Charles Tomaiolo’s apartment in November, 1955 to take care of Mrs. Jordan, the mother of Tomaiolo’s wife, who had been confined to the hospital as a result of a stroke and had just come home. Mrs. McGuirk was very positive in her recollection of November 29, 1955 and testified that she was in the Tomaiolo home from 8:30 in the morning until 4:30 in the afternoon and saw appellant Tomaiolo there all this time on the couch or looking at television. She remembered this because it was the day she started to take care of Mrs. Jordan, and this was fixed in her mind because on the evening of November 28 she had come to the apartment for an interview with Mrs. Jordan’s son John with respect to her employment as a practical nurse and had been kept waiting around for four hours before John could see her.
Mrs. Julia Hickey, an old friend of Tomaiolo’s wife and her mother, was even more emphatic, indeed quite belligerent in her support of Tomaiolo’s alibi.
One difficulty with this testimony, however, was that each of these witnesses admitted that no one had mentioned the subject of their presence in the apartment on the day of the robbery until a week before they testified, when, during the progress of the trial, they went to the office of Tomaiolo’s lawyer and were questioned.
As soon as he was arrested on January 23, 1956, Charles Tomaiolo knew he was suspected of complicity in the robbery of the bank. On February 21, 1956 the indictment was handed down and the date of November 29, 1955 was stated as the date of the robbery. The trial commenced on October 3, 1956. If appellant Tomaiolo really was in his apartment on the day of the robbery, in the presence of Mrs. McGuirk and Mrs. Hickey, it is more than passing strange that neither Tomaiolo’s lawyer nor his wife nor anyone else asked them long prior to the trial whether they remembered seeing Tomaiolo in the apartment that day.
Accordingly, it was not only proper but essential that the prosecutor ask Tomaiolo on cross-examination if he had told his lawyer and his wife about Mrs. McGuirk and Mrs. Hickey. Otherwise counsel for Tomaiolo in summation would doubtless have argued that he could not bring out the conversation on Tomaiolo’s direct examination, as it was self-serving, but that the prosecutor could have pursued the subject had he chosen to inquire on cross-examination.
It is sheer unsupported assertion, I think, to say that the prosecutor knew in advance that the privilege would be asserted and that the questions would be objected to. On the contrary, it was more reasonable to expect that Tomaiolo would assert that he had told his lawyer and his wife, prior to the trial. As a matter of fact, that is precisely what he did at a later stage, after his counsel had made a show of indignation over the asking of the questions, had asserted Tomaiolo’s privilege, and had his objections sustained. I find no impropriety here nor anything remotely suggesting the making of any erroneous ruling by the trial judge. United States v. Augustine, 3 Cir., 189 F.2d 587.
Parenthetically, it may be noted that the alibi was pretty well battered after Mrs. Jordan’s attending physician, Dr. James A. Lynch, testified that Mrs. Jordan was discharged from the hospital on November 17 and that when he saw her at the Tomaiolo home on November 20 Mrs. McGuirk was there. He also saw Mrs. McGuirk there on the occasion of *704his many othér visits. So, according to this testimony, Mrs. McGuirk did not start work on November 29, as she claimed.
I now turn to the remaining points made in support of Tomaiolo’s appeal or urged by both appellants as a basis for a reversal of the judgments of conviction.
Vigorous objection was made by both appellants to the conduct of part of the trial in the home of the prosecution witness Patricia Jennings, who lived in Central Islip, Long Island, and precisely across the street from the residence of Nicholas Tomaiolo. The unanticipated delay in the birth of Mrs. Jennings’ child, all of which I think was explained in a satisfactory manner, made this unusual step entirely proper in the circumstances of this particular case. Certainly there is no basis for any claim of abuse of discretion. Counsel insists that this procedure “could have been avoided by a short adjournment of the trial.” But this is far from clear to me; nor was any such suggestion made at the trial. The birth of the child was perhaps a matter of hours, or a day or two, but no one could predict when Mrs. Jennings would be in a condition to make the trip to Brooklyn to testify in court; and the trial had already taken three weeks.
The importance and relevancy of the testimony of Mrs. Jennings cannot be gainsaid. She saw Nirenberg and Louis Soviero and the black Buick at the home of Nicholas Tomaiolo on the evening of Sunday, November 27, 1955, and she saw the blue Plymouth drive up to the house of Nicholas Tomaiolo just a short time after the robbery on Tuesday afternoon, November 29, 1955, at which time she observed three persons get out and go in the house. The importance of this corroboration of the testimony of Pauline Katz needs no explanation, and there is more of it, which I omit for the sake of brevity.
The prosecutor showed that, because of Mrs. Jennings’ physical condition, her testimony could best be taken in her home, and he made a timely application to the trial court for such a removal. There is statutory authority for “Special terms of district court (to) be held at such places in the district as the nature of the business may require * * 28 U.S.C. § 141. In view of the importance of this witness’s testimony and the circumstances which confined her to her home, there was clearly no abuse of discretion by the trial judge in ordering the removal. See United States v. Haderlein, D.C.N.D.Ill.1953, 118 F.Supp. 346.
In connection with this incident, and others to be discussed later, as with others already covered, it is claimed that the prosecutor acted in bad faith. But we are all familiar with the temptation, all too seldom resisted by defense counsel, to attack the prosecutor rather than to discuss the evidence. I can find nothing in this record which even remotely suggests that the prosecutor wilfully delayed calling Mrs. Jennings until it became necessary to close the case without the advantage to the Government of her testimony, or to adjourn the trial to her home. The explanation by Dr. Lobozzetta, including his testimony of his conferences with the prosecutor on the subject, is in my opinion entirely reasonable and satisfactory.
Another group of objections relate to the very successful efforts of the prosecutor to controvert evidence brought out by defense counsel. Those experienced in trial strategy are well aware of the fact that seasoned and resourceful lawyers such as those defending these appellants never open up a subject without a purpose. Often the subject matter seems of little significance, but it may lay a foundation for a plausible argument on summation or, more often, it may be done merely to sow seeds here and there which it is hoped will germinate and bear fruit covertly in the minds of the jurors. Whenever this is done, whenever defense counsel opens up a subject, the extent to which the other side may go by way of countervailing proof is matter for the discretion of the trial judge. McCormick, Evidence Section 57 (West Pub. Co. 1954 ed.); see Vause v. United States, 2 Cir., 53 F.2d 346, certiorari denied 284 *705U.S. 661, 52 S.Ct. 37, 76 L.Ed. 560; Cohen v. United States, 2 Cir., 157 F. 651; McBoyle v. United States, 10 Cir., 43 F.2d 273, reversed on other grounds, 283 U.S. 25, 51 S.Ct. 340, 75 L.Ed. 816; cf. Crawford v. United States, 91 U.S.App.D.C. 234, 198 F.2d 976. I cannot see any basis in this case for a ruling by us that there has been any abuse of the discretion thus exercised.
In his opening to the jury counsel for appellant Tomaiolo described how “when he was about twenty years of age” and “because of a brother-in-law who was desperately in need of funds for his wife” appellant “became involved in a robbery” and that “he admitted his guilt.” Counsel went on to state how appellant Tomaiolo was paroled the first time he went before the Parole Board as “they in their discretion felt that he was a fit subject to go out and be rehabilitated.” There is more about how he was supervised by his parole officer and became a longshoreman in which employment he had to be investigated by the Waterfront Commission, which issued him a card permitting him to go to work. There was more about his arrest and how a man could be put back in prison for violation of parole without any reason at all. The inferences from all this are inescapable: he at once pleaded guilty in connection with the first robbery and would have pleaded guilty here too had he robbed the Brentwood bank; that he was such a good prisoner that the Parole Board, after careful examination of his record, released him as soon as he was eligible for release; and that the Waterfront Commission, which was particularly alert to eliminate ex-convicts who were bad characters, and had, as counsel asserted, discharged “some sixteen hundred people with records,” who “weren’t allowed to work after being investigated,” gave appellant Tomaiolo a clean bill of health as a result of its investigation and let him work on the docks. None of these matters had anything to do with the issues in this case, but defense counsel chose to introduce them.
On his direct examination appellant Tomaiolo testified to these matters as his counsel said he would. Indeed, when asked whether he had been convicted of the crime of robbery in the first degree in 1941, appellant, quite aware of the notion his counsel was trying to put in the minds of the jurors, insisted, “I wasn’t convicted. I pleaded guilty.” His testimony about the Parole Board and his relations with his parole officer, and the investigation by the Waterfront Commission followed the outline of his counsel’s opening. And he threw in for good measure a pass issued to him by the Coast Guard.
Naturally the prosecutor, knowing the facts, could not be expected to remain silent and let appellant Tomaiolo get away with what he was trying to do. So, on cross-examination the details of the first robbery came out. Appellant Tomaiolo and others had robbed a candy store and earlier the same night a filling station, although Tomaiolo insisted he remained in the car while the others were holding up the filling station. The upshot was that the group of young desperadoes was pursued by the police and Tomaiolo was caught at pistol point, with a number of bullets in his pocket. So, the jury might infer, Tomaiolo pleaded guilty not on general principles of cooperating with the law enforcement agencies but because he was caught red-handed and had no possible defense.
On the same theory it was brought out on Tomaiolo’s cross-examination that, far from being a model prisoner, he had been guilty of theft in prison, and had been placed in solitary confinement after a fight with another inmate. There was ample basis for his rearrest for violation of parole, as the New York State Parole Board rules were received in evidence and it appeared that appellant Tomaiolo had not only consorted with evil companions with criminal records, some of this having come out also on his direct examination, but had violated the rules in many other respects, such as driving a car without permission. Gambling was *706another of these; and Tomaiolo was in the uncomfortable position of admitting he violated the parole rules or recanting his testimony on direct examination to the effect that the five hundred odd dollars found on his person at the time of his arrest were won in a crap game.
The trial judge instructed the jury that association with ex-convicts, “people with a record,” was neither a crime nor a misdemeanor in New York. This was in accord with the argument of Tomaiolo’s counsel. He also charged that evidence of conviction of crime as affecting credibility is limited to conviction of felony, an infamous crime or a crime involving moral turpitude.
But what we have here is not an improper attack upon Tomaiolo’s character, nor an improper attack upon his credibility by emphasizing matters not pertinent to his credibility under federal law. This is merely a case of meeting irrelevant matter introduced by the defense. This has always been permitted, and is matter for discretionary rulings by the trial judge to prevent abuse. To have prevented the prosecutor from bringing out these matters in this case would have been, in my judgment, a clear abuse of discretion. Were the rule otherwise a prosecutor would have to sit idly by while astute lawyers, wise in the ways of jurors and familiar with every cunning maneuver known to those experienced in the trial of criminal cases, sabotaged the Government’s case with a series of seemingly innocuous irrelevancies. The trial of a criminal case is no place for this sort of heads I win tails you lose game.
There is another instance of the same sort of thing in the cross-examination of Nicholas Tomaiolo. On direct examination it was brought out that the witness had served in the army, had served overseas and had been honorably discharged. On cross-examination it appeared that during much of the time he spent in the armed forces he was AWOL for which he was sentenced by court martial on three separate occasions to six months imprisonment. Was the jury to be left with the impression that such a man had served his country well and honorably?
Another instance, which is also specified as an impropriety on the part of the prosecutor, is a variant of the same principle of completeness. As a result of a conscious or unconscious cooperation between counsel for Soviero and counsel for Tomaiolo certain new matter was introduced during the cross-examination of Pauline Katz. Like the others discussed above the irrelevant facts introduced seem of little consequence, until one becomes aware of the implications involved in this subtle and indirect approach. But we are entitled to assume that when experienced counsel ask questions, they have a purpose in mind. One can never be absolutely certain what that purpose is. At the same time it is clear to me that whatever is brought out by the defense, however seemingly unimportant, may be rebutted by the prosecutor ; and this rebuttal may be by the introduction of other evidence or by argument in summation.
Maurice Edelbaum, counsel for Tomaiolo, had represented him at the time he pleaded guilty to the first robbery in 1941, he also was the lawyer consulted by Nicholas Tomaiolo who advised Nicholas to plead the Fifth Amendment when called to testify before the Grand Jury. During the long direct examination of Pauline Katz not a word had been said about any consultation between Pauline Katz and Mr. Edelbaum nor of any attempt by Pauline Katz to retain Mr. Edelbaum as her lawyer.
Counsel for Soviero, however, opened the subject and brought out the fact that a day or two before she was called before the Grand Jury Pauline Katz had called Mr. Edelbaum. Mr. Edelbaum, further cross-examining Pauline Katz, followed this up. He brought out that he went to her apartment and had a conversation with her. Then follow a number of leading questions. Did she tell him that she had been forced to make a statement about Tomaiolo. “Forced? No.” Did she tell him that she was called before the Grand Jury and didn’t want to testi*707fy. “No.” Had he told her that at that time he represented Tomaiolo on a violation of parole. “You told me you were defending Charles Tomaiolo, but you didn’t tell me for what reason.” Finally, Mr. Edelbaum brought out that he told her he could not or would not talk to her, that he told her to get a lawyer who had no interest in the case; and she said “Correct” to his statement that he spent about three to five minutes in the apartment and then left.
What was this supposed to prove? Were these questions merely designed to bring out the fact that Mr. Edelbaum was an ethical lawyer? Or was the sequence designed to sow another of those seeds, to germinate in the minds of jurors and bear fruit? Surely one purpose was to attack the credibility of Pauline Katz by suggesting the thought that if the conversation took so short a time Pauline Katz really knew nothing about any connection between Tomaiolo and the robbery of the Brentwood bank, and that her testimony for the Government was a tissue of lies. It was entirely proper for the prosecutor to rebut this inference, whether or not argued in defense summations, by claiming that the more reasonable inference was that whatever Pauline Katz said to Mr. Edelbaum was quite consistent with her testimony at the trial. And so he said:
“Now, Gentlemen, you are not to leave your good hard common sense at home when you sit here in the jurybox. If she had told him anyone in the world other than Charlie Tomaiolo had committed this robbery, do you think he would have only spent 3 or 4 minutes with her. He would have been so tickled to get this, to hear this, to get all the evidence he needed in this situation he would have been there for an hour.”
There is nothing inflammatory about this argument. Nor can I perceive anything about it to merit rebuke by the trial judge. It will be a sorry day for the law when trial counsel for either side are deprived of the right to argue inferences to be drawn from the evidence. Nor is there anything sacrosanct about lawyers. Here the subject matter of the discussion was brought out by counsel for the defense and he is not in a position to complain if the prosecutor asks the jury to draw an inference at variance from the one apparently intended when the questions were answered. Viewed in another light, the prosecutor here did no more than suggest a possible explanation of why the interview of a potential witness familiar with the details of the robbery consumed so short a time. And I do not find the hypothesis an unreasonable one.
This is not a ease of counsel stating to the jury as facts matters having no basis in the evidence, or otherwise suggesting possession of evidence not before them. Nor is it a case of stressing facts which should not influence their decisions, such as that someone is a member of a minority group, that a party is a corporation or is insured, that crime is on the increase in the area, or that the defendant will or may be treated leniently if convicted. In short, I am aware of no principle which would affirmatively bar suggesting such an inference.
Nor is it significant that the inference is not compelling. “Counsel is allowed much latitude in drawing and arguing inferences from the evidence; he may draw conclusions from the evidence on his own system of reasoning, although such inferences as stated by counsel are inconclusive, improbable, illogical, erroneous, or even absurd, unless such conclusions are couched in language transcending the bounds of legitimate argument.” 88 C.J.S. Trial § 181 c, citations omitted. See also 53 Am.Jur., Trial § 485.
Moreover, if it be assumed that the prosecutor’s remark was improper, it does not follow that a new trial must be ordered. In the circumstances of this case the argument was at best of negligible significance. Mrs. Katz testified that Charles Tomaiolo was one of the robbers and the jury had ample opportunity to assess her credibility. In view of this fact, and of the strength of the *708Government’s case, the error, if there was error, was harmless.
The decision of the Supreme Court, 353 U.S. 391, 77 S.Ct. 963, 1 L.Ed.2d 931, reversing the judgment in United States v. Grunewald, 2 Cir., 233 F.2d 556, was handed down on May 27, 1957. The trial in the case before us took place in October, 1956. The most serious point urged as ground for reversal by appellant Tomaiolo is that, on the cross-examination of his brother Nicholas Tomaiolo the prosecutor was permitted, over objection, to bring out the fact that Nicholas had been called to testify before the Grand Jury and had refused to answer a question as to whether he knew Charles Tomaiolo, on the ground that his answer might incriminate him. On the same ground he made a general statement that he would refuse to answer any questions “in connection with the matter” of the robbery of the Brentwoood bank.
Was it error, in the light of the ruling in Grünewald, to receive this evidence? In that case the Court first considered whether there was, in fact, any inconsistency between the defendant’s grand jury testimony and his statements at the trial, and found that there was none. The questions asked of the defendant Halperin before the Grand Jury, if answered truthfully, would have required that he admit certain contacts with the other defendants. Halperin admitted such contacts at the trial. The Court felt that, although completely innocent, the defendant was nevertheless justified in refusing to answer questions which would link him with others who were under investigation. The Court stated, 353 U.S. at pages 423-424, 77 S.Ct. at page 983:
“We are not unmindful that the question whether a prior statement is sufficiently inconsistent to be allowed to go to the jury on the question of credibility is usually within the discretion of the trial judge. But where such evidentiary matter has grave constitutional overtones, as it does here, we feel justified in exercising this Court’s supervisory control to pass on such a question. This is particularly so because in this case the dangers of impermissible use of this evidence far outweighed whatever advantage the Government might have derived from it if properly used. If the jury here followed the judge’s instructions, namely, that the plea of the Fifth Amendment was relevant only to credibility, then the weight to be given this evidence was less than negligible, since, as we have outlined above, there was no true inconsistency involved; it could therefore hardly have affected the Government’s case seriously to exclude the matter completely. On the other hand, the danger that the jury made impermissible use of the testimony by implieity equating the plea of the Fifth Amendment with guilt is, in light of contemporary history, far from negligible.”
The case before us has no “grave constitutional overtones,” such as were present in the Grunewald case. The defendant Tomaiolo cannot validly contend that his constitutional rights were infringed since his testimony is in no way involved in this aspect of the appeal. Nor were the constitutional rights of the witness, Nicholas Tomaiolo, impaired by the admission of this evidence as his guilt or innocence were not in issue in the trial. Thus, the fact that “an innocent man may honestly claim that his answers may tend to incriminate him” is immaterial here. The question with which this court is confronted is “whether in the particular circumstances of this case the cross-examination should have been excluded because its probative value on the issue of (Nicholas Tomaiolo’s) credibility was so neglible as to be far outweighed by its possible impermissible impact on the jury.” Grunewald v. U. S., supra, 353 U.S. at page 420, 77 S.Ct. at page 982. In the Grunewald case the “impermissi*709ble impact” was that the jury might well consider that the defendant was guilty merely because he had pleaded the Fifth Amendment. The problem presented by the case at bar is quite different, for here the showing was that a witness other than the defendant had invoked the privilege, and the tendency to equate such action with guilt could only indirectly be harmful to the defendant.
Nicholas Tomaiolo’s testimony before the Grand Jury was inconsistent with that which he gave at the trial. When he appeared before the Grand Jury the witness refused to answer any question regarding the bank robbery. Yet when he testified at the trial he denied that he was involved in the robbery, and he also denied lending the car or even meeting the alleged robbers on the day of the crime. Such testimony is not consistent with a refusal to answer any questions concerning the robbery on the ground that the answers might tend to incriminate the witness. While Tomaiolo, although not involved in any way with the robbery, might have been unwilling to admit any association with his brother because of the belief that such testimony might incriminate him, there can be no reason for him to have felt that his truthful denial of any complicity in the crime could also have been used to his detriment. Thus, while Nicholas Tomaiolo could justifiably claim the Fifth Amendment privilege when asked whether he knew someone who was suspected of robbing the bank, he could not also, in a manner consistent with his testimony at the trial, refuse to answer any questions regarding the robbery. This inconsistency gave sufficient evidentiary value to the Grand Jury testimony to outweigh any prejudicial effect it might have had on the jury’s consideration of Nicholas Tomaiolo’s testimony as a whole. In any event, there is no basis, as there was in Grünewald, for a holding that the trial judge’s action in admitting the testimony for the purpose of impeaching the witness’s credibility was an abuse of discretion.
Moreover, so many other matters brought out on cross-examination demonstrated that Nicholas Tomaiolo was unworthy of belief, and the evidence of the guilt of these two appellants is so overwhelming that I conclude that this particular incident could not in any event have affected the result.
Another point urged as ground for re-’ versal in a brief submitted by appellant Soviero pro se is that it was error for the trial judge to refuse to direct the prosecution to produce an FBI report containing a list of the items found on Soviero at the time of his arrest. FBI Agent Liddy testified that several cards were found on this defendant’s person when he was arrested, including a social security and a business card each containing a name other than “Soviero,” but that no money was found on the defendant. Agent Liddy stated on cross-examination that “the entire possessions were tabulated by another agent and held as evidence,” and that a formal memorandum of what was found on Soviero was prepared. There is no evidence to indicate that such a report was prepared by agent Liddy or under his direction. Hence, this situation does not come within the rule of Jencks v. United States, 353 U.S. 657, 77 S.Ct. 1007, 1 L.Ed.2d 1103, which required that the prosecution make available to the defense, for the purposes of cross-examination, FBI reports prepared by the witness and relevant to his testimony at the trial.
Many other alleged errors are specified but they are of trivial consequence when the record is considered as a whole. The evidence which completely demolished appellant Tomaiolo’s claim of alibi was properly received, as was the proof of his extravagant expenditures and those of his wife after the robbery and the evidence that Nirenberg had given $500 to Louis Soviero to retain Mr. Edelbaum to defend Tomaiolo. The fact that wit*710nesses often say “I think” or “I believe” is a matter of argument to the jury rather than reason for exclusion of the testimony, as we have often pointed out. The motion for a mistrial because the prosecutor said he would not hesitate to convict and didn’t think the jury would hesitate very long in this case was properly denied. This was not misconduct on the prosecutor’s part since he did not intimate to the jury that he had other evidence, not introduced in court, from which he knew the defendants to be guilty. Henderson v. United States, 6 Cir., 218 F.2d 14, 50 A.L.R.2d 754, certiorari denied 349 U.S. 920, 75 S.Ct. 660, 99 L.Ed. 1253; Annotation, 50 A.L.R.2d 766. Also the trial judge instructed the jury to disregard the statement and I do not see how it could have been prejudicial, as no one could have listened to every phase of this bitterly contested trial without some suspicion of the fact that the prosecutor thought the defendants were guilty. See United States v. Antonelli Fireworks Co., 2 Cir., 155 F.2d 631. I shall not further lengthen this opinion by discussing the other alleged errors. There is no merit in the claims of appellants with reference to any of them.
It is only fair to add, in all humility and with all due respect for my brothers, that I can find no basis whatever in this record for the animadversions on the conduct of the trial judge nor for the excoriation of the prosecutor, who, in my judgment, only did his duty.
I am grateful to Marvin Schwartz and Andrew N. Heine, assigned counsel for appellant Soviero, for their earnest and highly competent presentation of his appeal in this case.
I would affirm both convictions; but the sentence of Tomaiolo on Count 2 must be vacated, as the crime alleged in Count 2 merged on the rendition of the verdict into the crime alleged in Count 3. United States v. Nirenberg, 2 Cir., 242 F.2d 632, certiorari denied 354 U.S. 941, 77 S.Ct. 1405, 1 L.Ed.2d 1539.