dissenting:
Law enforcement authorities have increasingly resorted to “consensual” encounters with citizens travelling on public transportation to ferret out drug couriers. At the trial of this case, Detective William Buss testified that during his four years as a member of the Narcotics Interdiction Unit of the Metropolitan Police Department he had approached over 500 persons at Union Station who he suspected of carrying drugs, and of that number, only three had refused to speak with him. It is of course well accepted that “the Fourth Amendment permits police officers to approach individuals at random in airport lobbies and other public places to ask them questions and to request consent to search their luggage, so long as a reasonable person would understand that he or she could refuse to cooperate.” Florida v. Bostick, — U.S. -, -, 111 S.Ct. 2382, 2384, 115 L.Ed.2d 389 (1991). However, it is equally well accepted that a person so approached may exercise his unequivocal right “to disregard the police and go about his business.” California v. Hodari D., — U.S. -, -, 111 S.Ct. 1547, 1552, 113 L.Ed.2d 690 (1991). Only if the police have “reasonable, articu-lable suspicion, premised on objective facts, that the luggage contains contraband or evidence of a crime,” United States v. Place, 462 U.S. 696, 702, 103 S.Ct. 2637, 77 L.Ed.2d 110 (1983), may they seize the person’s luggage for purposes of conducting a limited investigation, such as the canine sniff that occurred here.
My colleagues admirably recognize that “[t]he constitutional right to withdraw one’s consent to a search ... would be of little value if the very fact of choosing to exercise that right could serve as any part of the basis for finding the reasonable suspicion that makes consent unnecessary.” Majority opinion (“Maj. op.”) at 1097. However, in the next breath, they allow the police to base the necessary “reasonable suspicion” for a luggage detention on the manner in which a person withdraws his consent. In my view that is cutting the Fourth Amendment right of a citizen to resist an otherwise unlawful search too fine. In order to preserve the Fourth Amendment as an effective safeguard against “police conduct which is overbearing or harassing,” Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 15, 88 S.Ct. 1868, 1876, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968), the courts must give full credit to a citizen’s right to decline a police officer’s entreaties to search his personal belongings when there is no probable cause or even reasonable suspicion for the search. Today’s decision permitting the police to base an investigative seizure on the way in which a person withdraws (or presumably initially declines) consent to a police search takes too big a bite for me out of a fast eroding Fourth Amendment.
At oral argument, the government conceded that although Carter had arrived from a “source” city, carried what appeared (to Detective Buss at least) to be inappropriate equipment and clothing for the construction work he said he was seeking, and exhibited “nervous” behavior, these standard items in the typical drug courier profile were not, by themselves, sufficient to establish the reasonable, artic-ulable suspicion required under Terry, 392 *1099U.S. at 22, 88 S.Ct. at 1880, for even the limited seizure of Carter’s tote bag necessary to conduct a canine sniff. See, e.g., Reid v. Georgia, 448 U.S. 438, 441, 100 S.Ct. 2752, 2754, 65 L.Ed.2d 890 (1980) (defendant’s arrival from source city insufficient foundation for reasonable suspicion); United States v. Grant, 920 F.2d 376, 386 (6th Cir.1990) (arrival from source city and nervousness insufficient). Rather, the government admitted that the critically decisive element in this case was the fact that in snatching the bag away from Detective Buss, Carter had simultaneously offered to show him its contents and then reneged on that offer by folding it up and keeping it firmly in his possession.1 The majority similarly finds that it was this behavior that tipped the scale in favor of reasonable suspicion and allowed Detective Buss to snatch the bag back from Carter and take it away for the canine sniff. Maj. op. at 1097.
But it is well settled that even after consent to search is initially given, a person may subsequently limit or withdraw that consent. See United States v. Springs, 936 F.2d 1330, 1334 (D.C.Cir.1991); United States v. Ward, 576 F.2d 243, 244 (9th Cir.1978); Mason v. Pulliam, 557 F.2d 426, 428-29 (5th Cir.1977). Thus, I believe that my colleagues would agree that at the front-end of their “consensual” encounter, Carter could have offered to show Detective Buss the entire contents of the tote bag except for the brown paper bag, without raising reasonable suspicion. Similarly, even after offering to reveal the contents of the brown paper bag, Carter was entitled to change his mind, and withdraw the offer. Indeed, that is precisely what Carter did by rolling up the bag and clutching it, provoking Detective Buss to ask the obvious “I take it that you don’t want me to search that?” and Carter to respond “That’s right.”
We would all agree as well that Carter’s withdrawal of his prior consent, as manifested by his snatching back of the brown paper bag and refusal to display its contents, could not by itself supply the reasonable suspicion necessary for an investigative seizure. See United States v. White, 890 F.2d 1413, 1417 n. 4 (8th Cir.1989), cert. denied, 498 U.S. 825, 111 S.Ct. 77, 112 L.Ed.2d 50 (1990); see also Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 498, 103 S.Ct. 1319, 1324, 75 L.Ed.2d 229 (1983) (plurality opinion) (a person “may not be detained even momentarily without reasonable objective grounds for doing so; and his refusal to listen or answer does not, without more, furnish those grounds”). However, under the majority’s reasoning, it was the allegedly “peculiar way,” Maj. op. at 1097, in which Carter reneged on his offer to reveal the contents of the bag that provided the basis for finding reasonable suspicion to seize the bag for inspection. While Carter was entitled to. “just say no” to any further search of the bag, he had to do so in a way that would not raise the detective’s suspicion that he had something to hide; not an easy feat under the circumstances. In my *1100view, such an approach effectively eviscerates the right to withdraw consent (certainly midway through a previously consented-to search) to nothing more than a pious throwaway sentence in judicial opinions approving searches. The reality is that so-called consensual encounters with the police are bound to be unnerving, and that most citizens — innocent or guilty — will feel the need to explain or excuse themselves when refusing to comply with a police request to search their luggage or anything contained therein,2 and, in so doing, create the very suspicion that will be used to justify the previously unauthorized detention. In short, a person’s refusal or withdrawal of consent to cooperate with the police can be inevitably expected to be accompanied by some nervous or even “suspicious” behavior. Permitting the police to rely on the atmospherics of the refusal or withdrawal of consent to supply the reasonable suspicion necessary to objectively justify an otherwise unlawful search or detention strips the legal right of withdrawal of all practical value. The citizen’s Fourth Amendment right to refuse or withdraw consent to an otherwise unjustified search should not rest on so slender a distinction as the majority creates between a defendant’s terse “No” and a refusal to consent couched in a “nervous” a/k/a “suspicious” manner.3 If the right to withdraw consent for a “consensual” search is to have any meaning on the streets, as well as in the jurisprudence, it must encompass the manner as well as the fact of its exercise.
United States v. Wilson, 953 F.2d 116 (4th Cir.1991), also cited by the majority, is instructive in this regard. In that case, the defendant had (1) arrived from New York, a known source city; (2) looked back several times as he was leaving the airport and made eye contact with a government agent; (3) claimed to be arriving from Boston; (4) failed to produce any identification but a check-cashing identification card; and (5) had a bulge in his coat. Id. at 120. The court found that “these facts alone d[id] not suffice to justify” a seizure, and “that the real reason for ... the seizure was Wilson’s refusal to allow a search of his coat.” Id. at 125-26. It continued:
The government, however, avoids the obvious pitfall of positing the denial itself as a basis for suspicion and instead points to the particular wording of the reply.... As recounted by Officer Crooke: “I asked him if I may search his coats. And in an angry tone he replied back to me, no, you had your chance, and I wasn’t permitted to search them.” After some time, Wilson stated that “there • were some things in there he didn’t want us to see .. .■ [,] some private things he didn’t want us to seeThe government does not suggest what form of denial would not have contributed to the officer’s suspicion.
Id. at 126. ■ While the Fourth Circuit did indeed refuse to establish any per se rule that the way consent is denied can never be considered in the reasonable suspicion calculus, see Maj. op. at 1097-98 n. * (citing Wilson, 953 F.2d at 126), it also refused to permit the manner of declining consent to be the factor that “pushes the situation into the realm of ‘reasonable suspicion.’ ” Wilson, 953 F.2d at 126. I agree with the Fourth Circuit that in all but the most extraordinary circumstances the police should have sufficient objective evidence for an investigative detention independent of the refusal or withdrawal of consent and the manner in which either is executed.
Police-citizen encounters pass constitutional muster only when they are truly *1101consensual; that is, when the citizen “feel[s] free to decline the officers’ requests or otherwise terminate the encounter.” Bostick, — U.S. at -, 111 S.Ct. at 2387. If the police can disregard a person’s attempt to decline a search request and seize that person’s belongings simply because something about the way the person declined their request aroused their suspicion, the right to withdraw consent is fatally compromised and with it, the core notion of “consensual” police-citizen encounters. However urgent the police mission — and the avalanche of street arrests of drug couriers is now almost a decade old with little perceptible impact on the flow of drugs — the courts are “not empowered to suspend constitutional guarantees so that the Government may more effectively wage a ‘war on drugs.’ ... If that war is to be fought, those who fight it must respect the rights of individuals, whether or not those individuals are suspected of having committed a crime.” Bostick, at-, 111 S.Ct. at 2389. I think today’s decision represents a step backward in drawing the “delicate balance” between the citizen’s constitutional right to be left alone and safe streets.
I respectfully dissent.
. My colleagues suggest that the crucially suspect offer to show what was in the bag and subsequent retraction of that offer was "post-withdrawal conduct [which] in no way bears upon the extent to which a reasonable suspicion may be based upon 'the manner’ in which consent is withdrawn.” Maj. op. at 1097-98 n. *. I believe a careful reading of the totality of the detective’s testimony, set out below, belies any interpretation other than that the withdrawal of the offer to show the bag’s contents was part and parcel of the main withdrawal of consent to search the bag itself:
I got to a point where I found a brown paper bag, and as I was pulling that brown paper bag from inside the tote bag, literally he snatched it from my hands, and he said, "There’s food in there; I will show you," which is to me a legitimate reaction that he wouldn’t want a stranger to put his hands on somebody else’s food.
However, he put his hand inside this paper bag, which I recall looked like the size of a candy bag, and he churned his hand inside— just moved his hand inside.
Now, if he had pulled out some type of food — a ham sandwich or some type of food, it would have showed legitimacy. But what he did; he just pulled his hand out of the bag, rolled up the paper bag and just stood there and looked at me.
And I said, "I take it you don’t want me to search that?” and he said, "That’s right.”
At that point I told him I was going to have a narcotic dog sniff that bag.
I took the bag from him.
Transcript of May 13, 1991 Motions Hearing at 13 (testimony of Detective Buss).
. This is so because, as one notable commentator observes, “stonewalling would be perceived by the reasonable person (quite correctly) as a course which would make him an object of suspicion and thus a subject of further attention by the police team.” 3 Wayne R. LaFave, Search and Seizure § 9.2A (2d ed. 1987 & Supp.1993).
. It is not a sufficient yardstick that a reasonable person might have found Carter’s retraction of his offer to show the contents of the bag to be suspicious. A reasonable person might very well find any person’s refusal to comply with a police officer’s lawful request to search to be inherently suspicious and yet this refusal may not be used as the basis for investigative seizure. See White, 890 F.2d at 1417 n. 4. Thus, the issue here is not whether Carter's actions were in fact suspicious, but whether it is appropriate to consider these actions when they are an intrinsic part of the act of withdrawing consent.