Arista Records, LLC v. Launch Media, Inc.

07-2576-cv
Arista Records, Inc. v. Launch Media, Inc.

1 UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
2
3 F OR THE S ECOND C IRCUIT
4
5
6
7 August Term, 2008
8
9 (Argued: March 17, 2009 Decided: August 21, 2009)
10
11 Docket No. 07-2576-cv
12
13
14 Arista Records, LLC, formerly known as Arista Records, Inc.,
15 Bad Boy Records, BMG Music, doing business as The RCA Record
16 Label and Zomba Recording LLC, formerly known as Zomba
17 Recording Corporation,
18
19 Plaintiffs-Appellants,
20
21 Capitol Records, Inc., Virgin Records America, Inc., Sony
22 Music Entertainment, Inc., UMG Recordings Inc., Interscope
23 Records and Motown Records Company L.P.,
24
25 Plaintiffs,
26
27 –v.–
28
29 Launch Media, Inc.,
30
31 Defendant-Appellee.
32
33
34
35 Before:
36 C ALABRESI, W ESLEY, Circuit Judges, and D RONEY, * District Judge.
37
38

*
The Honorable Christopher F. Droney, Judge of the
United States District Court for the District of
Connecticut, sitting by designation.

Page 1 of 42
 1 Arista Records, LLC, Bad Boy Records, BMG Music, and
2 Zomba Recording LLC (collectively, “BMG”), appeal from the
3 judgment of the United States District Court for the
4 Southern District of New York (Owen, J.), and from
5 interlocutory orders merged into the judgment, finding that
6 the webcasting – internet radio – service LAUNCHcast
7 provided by Defendant-Appellee Launch Media, Inc. (“Launch”)
8 was not an interactive service within the meaning of 17
9 U.S.C. § 114(j)(7). We affirm because as a matter of law
10 LAUNCHcast was not an interactive service. It does not
11 provide copyrighted sound recordings on request, nor does it
12 transmit a program specially created for the user within the
13 meaning of § 114(j)(7).
14
15 A FFIRMED.
16
17 H ADRIAN R. K ATZ (Sarah M. Brackney, on the brief),
18 Arnold & Porter, LLP, Washington, DC (Robert
19 A. Goodman, on the brief, New York, NY), for
20 Plaintiffs-Appellants.
21
22 M ICHAEL S. E LKIN, (Thomas P. Lane, Shari Markowitz
23 Savitt, on the brief), Winston & Strawn LLP,
24 New York, NY, for Defendant-Appellee.
25
26
27
28
29
30 W ESLEY, Circuit Judge:

31 We are the first federal appellate court called upon to

32 determine whether a webcasting service that provides users

33 with individualized internet radio stations – the content of

34 which can be affected by users’ ratings of songs, artists,

35 and albums – is an interactive service within the meaning of

36 17 U.S.C. § 114(j)(7). If it is an interactive service, the

37 webcasting service would be required to pay individual

Page 2 of 42
1 licensing fees to those copyright holders of the sound

2 recordings of songs the webcasting service plays for its

3 users. If it is not an interactive service, the webcasting

4 service must only pay a statutory licensing fee set by the

5 Copyright Royalty Board. A jury determined that the

6 defendant does not provide an interactive service and

7 therefore is not liable for paying the copyright holders, a

8 group of recording companies, a licensing fee for each

9 individual song. The recording companies appeal claiming

10 that as a matter of law the webcasting service is an

11 interactive service, and alternatively, that the district

12 court’s instruction to the jury, as well as its admission

13 and exclusion of certain evidence and testimony, was harmful

14 error. 1 We affirm; the webcasting service is not an

15 interactive service as a matter of law.

16 Background 2

17 On May 24, 2001 Arista Records, LLC, Bad Boy Records,

1
The recording companies also ask us to reach an issue
of damages calculation and to reassign the case to another
district court judge. Because we affirm on the issue of law
we need not reach these issues.
2
Plaintiffs-Appellants appeal the judgment of the
United States District Court for the Southern District of
New York (Owen, J.), entered on May 16, 2007, and from
interlocutory orders merged into the judgment, finding in
favor of Defendant-Appellee Launch Media, Inc., now owned by
Yahoo!, Inc. (“Yahoo”).

Page 3 of 42
1 BMG Music, and Zomba Recording LLC (collectively, “BMG”)

2 brought suit against Launch Media, Inc. (“Launch”) alleging

3 that Launch violated provisions of the Digital Millennium

4 Copyright Act of 1998, Pub. L. 105-304, 112 Stat. 2860

5 (1998) (the “DMCA”), codified in relevant part in 17 U.S.C.

6 § 114, by willfully infringing sound recording copyrights of

7 BMG from 1999 to 2001. The United States District Court for

8 the Southern District of New York (Owen, J.) denied the

9 parties’ cross-motions for dismissal under Federal Rule of

10 Civil Procedure 12(b)(6) and summary judgment. The case was

11 tried before a jury, and after the district court denied

12 BMG’s motion for judgment as a matter of law, the jury

13 returned a verdict for Launch.

14 Launch operates an internet radio website, or

15 “webcasting” service, called LAUNCHcast, which enables a

16 user to create “stations” that play songs that are within a

17 particular genre or similar to a particular artist or song

18 the user selects. BMG holds the copyrights in the sound

19 recordings of some of the songs LAUNCHcast plays for users.

20 BMG, as a sound recording copyright holder, has no

21 copyright in the general performance of a sound recording,

22 see 17 U.S.C. §§ 106(4), 114(a), but BMG does have the

23 exclusive right “to perform the copyrighted [sound

Page 4 of 42
1 recording] publicly by means of a digital audio

2 transmission,” 17 U.S.C. § 106(6). Launch does not dispute

3 that LAUNCHcast provides a digital audio transmission within

4 the definition of § 106(6). See 17 U.S.C. §§ 101,

5 114(j)(5). BMG has a right to demand that those who perform

6 – i.e., play or broadcast – its copyrighted sound recording

7 pay an individual licensing fee to BMG if the performance of

8 the sound recording occurs through an “interactive service.”

9 See 17 U.S.C. § 114(d)(3)(C).

10 An interactive service is defined as a service “that

11 enables a member of the public to receive a transmission of

12 a program specially created for the recipient, or on

13 request, a transmission of a particular sound recording . .

14 . , which is selected by or on behalf of the recipient.”

15 Id. § 114(j)(7). If a digital audio transmission is not an

16 interactive service and its “primary purpose . . . is to

17 provide to the public such audio or other entertainment

18 programming,” id. § 114(j)(6), the transmitter need only pay

19 a compulsory or statutory licensing fee set by the Copyright

20 Royalty Board made up of Copyright Royalty Judges appointed

21 by the Library of Congress, 3 see id. § 114(f).

3
Prior to 2004, parties were required to submit their
claims for statutory licensing fees to Copyright Arbitration
Royalty Panels. This system was phased out by the Copyright

Page 5 of 42
1 At trial, BMG claimed that between November 1999 and

2 May 2001 Launch – through LAUNCHcast – provided an

3 interactive service and therefore was required to obtain

4 individual licenses from BMG to play BMG’s sound recordings.

5 To demonstrate how LAUNCHcast functioned, BMG submitted an

6 email from Jeff Boulter, Senior Director of Product

7 Development at Launch, in which Boulter described how

8 LAUNCHcast generated a list of songs using the user’s

9 preferences. In turn, Launch submitted a report from

10 Margaret L. Johnson, a computer science professor at

11 Stanford University, which also detailed how LAUNCHcast

12 generated songs for a user. 4 There is no material dispute

13 between the parties with regard to how LAUNCHcast works.

14 The jury returned a verdict in favor of Launch.

15 BMG appeals the district court’s denial of BMG’s

16 motions for dismissal under 12(b)(6), summary judgment after

17 discovery, and judgment as a matter of law before the jury

18 verdict, arguing that LAUNCHcast is an interactive service

19 as a matter of law because LAUNCHcast is “designed and

Royalty and Distribution Reform Act of 2004, Pub. L. 108-
419, 118 Stat. 2341 (2004), codified in relevant part at 17
U.S.C. § 114(f).
4
The substance of Boulter and Johnson’s accounts of
LAUNCHcast operation are provided in greater detail infra.

Page 6 of 42
1 operated to enable members of the public to receive

2 transmissions of programs specially created for them.” BMG

3 claims that under the DMCA there is no tipping point for the

4 level of influence a user must assert before the program

5 becomes an interactive service – all that matters is that

6 the alleged copyright infringer is “transmi[tting] . . . a

7 program specially created for” the user. Alternatively, BMG

8 claims the district court’s jury instruction was error in

9 several respects.

10 Discussion

11 The district court charged the jury with determining

12 whether LAUNCHcast was an interactive service within the

13 meaning of § 114(j)(7). The district court indicated that it

14 was for the jury “to decide how much influence a consumer or

15 a recipient can have on the programing offered by the

16 transmitting entity – . . . the broadcaster – before that

17 activity must be characterized as interactive, keeping in

18 mind the purpose of the statute.” On two separate occasions

19 the district court noted that “there is no bright line

20 marking the limits between an interactive service and a

21 noninteractive service.” These instructions may have misled

22 the jury into believing that it was the jury’s

23 responsibility to determine the legal definition of

Page 7 of 42
1 interactive, a task far beyond the scope of its duty. See

2 LNC Invs., Inc. v. First Fid. Bank, N.A. N.J., 173 F.3d 454,

3 467-68 (2d Cir. 1999).

4 But we need not determine the propriety of the

5 instruction because we agree with BMG that the central issue

6 of this case – interactivity – presents an issue of law. 5

7 The parties do not materially disagree on how LAUNCHcast

8 works; their point of conflict centers on whether the

9 program is “interactive” as defined by the statute – clearly

10 an issue of law and therefore strictly under the purview of

11 the courts. See United States v. Nolan, 136 F.3d 265, 271

12 (2d Cir. 1998).

13 An “interactive service” according to the statute “is

14 one that enables a member of the public to receive a

15 transmission of a program specially created for the

16 recipient, or on request, a transmission of a particular

17 sound recording, whether or not as part of a program, which

18 is selected by or on behalf of the recipient.” 17 U.S.C.

19 § 114(j)(7). The statute provides little guidance as to the

20 meaning of its operative term “specially created.”

5
BMG has argued as much by moving for dismissal under
12(b)(6), summary judgment, and for judgment as a matter of
law on the issue of interactivity and appealing the denial
of these motions to this Court.

Page 8 of 42
1 According to Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary,

2 “specially” means: (1) “in a special manner”; (2) “for a

3 special purpose”; (3) “in particular” or “specifically”; or

4 (4) “especially.” Create, the root of “created,” means: (1)

5 “to bring into existence”; (2) “to produce”; (3) to “cause”

6 or “occasion”; or (4) to “design.”

7 These definitions indicate that a “specially created”

8 program is a program produced or designed specifically for

9 the user – not much help defining the terms of the statute

10 in this case. BMG sees the issue as a simple one. BMG

11 argues that any service that reflects user input is

12 specially created for and by the user and therefore

13 qualifies as an interactive service. But we should not read

14 the statute so broadly. Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes once

15 wrote that “[a] word is not a crystal, transparent and

16 unchanged, it is the skin of a living thought and may vary

17 greatly in color and content according to the circumstances

18 and the time in which it is used.” Towne v. Eisner, 245

19 U.S. 418, 425 (1918) (internal citation omitted). Holmes’s

20 observation seems pertinent here. The meaning of the phrase

21 in question must significantly depend on the context in

22 which Congress chose to employ it.

23 Congress extended the first copyright protection for

Page 9 of 42
1 sound recordings in 1971 by creating a right “[t]o reproduce

2 and distribute” “tangible” copies of sound recordings.

3 Sound Recording Act of 1971 (the “SRA”), Pub. L. 92-140, 85

4 Stat. 391; see also Bonneville Int’l Corp. v. Peters, 347

5 F.3d 485, 487-89 (3d Cir. 2003) (detailing the history and

6 evolution of the sound recording copyright). Congress

7 drafted the SRA to address its concern about preventing

8 “phonorecord piracy due to advances in duplicating

9 technology.” H.R. Rep. No. 104-274, at 11 (1995)

10 (summarizing the history of sound recording copyright).

11 Notably, unlike the copyright of musical works, the sound

12 recording copyright created by the SRA did not include a

13 right of performance. See Digital Performance Right in

14 Sound Recordings Act of 1995, Pub. L. No. 104-39, 109 Stat.

15 336, codified as 17 U.S.C. § 106. Therefore, holders of

16 sound recording copyrights – principally recording companies

17 such as BMG – had no right to extract licensing fees from

18 radio stations and other broadcasters of recorded music.

19 The reason for this lack of copyright protection in sound

20 recordings, as the Third Circuit has put it, was that the

21 “recording industry and [radio] broadcasters existed in a

22 sort of symbiotic relationship wherein the recording

23 industry recognized that radio airplay was free advertising

Page 10 of 42
1 that lured consumers to retail stores where they would

2 purchase recordings.” Bonneville Int’l Corp., 347 F.3d at

3 487. As the Bonneville court also noted, however, the

4 relationship has been, and continues to be, “more nuanced”

5 and occasionally antagonistic. Id. at 488 n.3. In response

6 to continued lobbying by the recording industry, Congress

7 and the Copyright Office (the “Office”) studied the need for

8 stronger copyright protection for sound recordings for two

9 decades after passage of the SRA. See 141 C ONG. R EC.

10 S11,945-04, 11,949 (daily ed. Aug. 8, 1995) (statement of

11 Sen. Hatch).

12 With the inception and public use of the internet in

13 the early 1990s, the recording industry became concerned

14 that existing copyright law was insufficient to protect the

15 industry from music piracy. At the time, the United States

16 Register of Copyrights referred to the internet as “the

17 world’s biggest copying machine.” Stephen Summer, Music on

18 the Internet: Can the Present Laws and Treaties Protect

19 Music Copyright in Cyberspace?, 8 C URRENTS: I NT’ L T RADE L. J.

20 31, 32 (1999). What made copying music transmitted over the

21 internet more dangerous to recording companies than

22 traditional analog copying with a tape recorder was the fact

23 that there is far less degradation of sound quality in a

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1 digital recording than an analog recording. See id.

2 Although data transmission over the internet was slow – in

3 1994 it took on average twenty minutes to download one song

4 – the recording industry foresaw the internet as a threat to

5 the industry’s business model. See Judy Holland, Music

6 Industry is Encouraged, S TATES N EWS S ERV., Jul. 24, 1994. If

7 an internet user could listen to music broadcast over, or

8 downloaded from, the internet for free, the recording

9 industry worried that the user would stop purchasing music.

10 Jason Berman, president of the Recording Industry

11 Association of America (the “RIAA”), the lobbying arm of the

12 recording industry, stated in 1994 that without a copyright

13 in a right of performance via internet technology, the

14 industry would be “unable to compete in this emerging

15 digital era.” Jube Shiver, Jr., Digital Double Trouble,

16 L.A. T IMES (Apr. 11, 1994). Berman warned that “digital

17 delivery would siphon off and eventually eliminate the major

18 source of revenue for investing in future recordings” and

19 that “[o]ver time, this [would] lead to a vast reduction in

20 the production of recorded music.” Digital Performance

21 Right in Sound Recording: Hearing on H.R. 1506 Before the H.

22 Comm. on the Judiciary, Subcomm. on Courts & Intellectual

23 Prop., 104th Cong. (1995) (statement of Jason Berman,

Page 12 of 42
1 President, RIAA).

2 The Commerce Department, which oversees the Copyright

3 Office, recognized that failing to provide more protections

4 to the recording industry would drive the music industry

5 away from using the internet as a medium for legitimate

6 music distribution. As then-Assistant Secretary of Commerce

7 Bruce Lehman said, “If we don’t make it clear you can’t

8 transmit a work without the permission of the owner,

9 copyright owners aren’t going to use the information highway

10 . . . . There won’t be any cars on the highway if we don’t

11 make certain the cars don’t get hijacked at the entrance

12 ramp.” Teresa Riordan, Writing Copyright Law For an

13 Information Age, N.Y. T IMES (Jul. 7, 1994) (internal

14 quotation marks omitted). In a white paper to President

15 Clinton, an information infrastructure task force chaired by

16 Lehman recommended that Congress give sound recording

17 copyright holders a right of performance. Bruce A. Lehman,

18 Intellectual Property and the National Information

19 Infrastructure: The Report of the Working Group on

20 Intellectual Property Rights, I NFORMATION I NFRASTRUCTURE T ASK

21 F ORCE 221-25 (1995).

22 In light of these concerns, and recognizing that

23 “digital transmission of sound recordings [were] likely to

Page 13 of 42
1 become a very important outlet for the performance of

2 recorded music,” Congress enacted the Digital Performance

3 Right in Sound Recordings Act of 1995 (the “DPSR”), giving

4 sound recording copyright holders an exclusive but “narrow”

5 right to perform – play or broadcast – sound recordings via

6 a digital audio transmission. H.R. Rep. No. 104-274, at 12,

7 13-14. The right was limited to exclusive performance of

8 digital audio transmissions through paid subscriptions

9 services and “interactive services.” See 17 U.S.C. § 114(d)

10 (1995). While non-interactive subscription services

11 qualified for statutory licensing, interactive services were

12 required to obtain individual licenses for each sound

13 recording those interactive services played via a digital

14 transmission. See Lydia Pallas Loren, Untangling the Web of

15 Music Copyrights, 53 C ASE W. R ES. L. R EV. 673, 692 (2003).

16 Under the DPSR, interactive service was defined as

17 one that enables a member of the public to
18 receive, on request, a transmission of a
19 particular sound recording chosen by or on behalf
20 of the recipient. The ability of individuals to
21 request that particular sound recordings be
22 performed for reception by the public at large
23 does not make a service interactive. If an entity
24 offers both interactive and non-interactive
25 services (either concurrently or at different
26 times), the non-interactive component shall not be
27 treated as part of an interactive service.
28
29 17 U.S.C. § 114(j)(4) (1995).

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1 The House report noted that the DPSR was enacted to

2 address two related concerns. First, without “appropriate

3 copyright protection in the digital environment, the

4 creation of new sound recordings and musical works could be

5 discouraged, ultimately denying the public some of the

6 potential benefits of the new digital transmission

7 technologies.” H.R. Rep. No. 104-274, at 13. Second,

8 “certain types of subscription and interaction audio

9 services might adversely affect sales of sound recordings

10 and erode copyright owners’ ability to control and be paid

11 for use of their work.” Id. With regard to the latter

12 concern, the House noted that “interactive services are most

13 likely to have a significant impact on traditional record

14 sales, and therefore pose the greatest threat to the

15 livelihoods of those whose income depends upon revenues

16 derived from traditional record sales.” Id. at 14. As one

17 article has noted, these interactive services were likely to

18 have an impact on record sales “because the more advance

19 information the user has about the digital transmission, the

20 more the transmission facilitate[d] a user’s private copying

21 (in perfect digital copies) of the recorded performance, or,

22 at least, enable[d] the user to substitute listening to the

23 targeted performance for purchasing a copy of it.” Jane C.

Page 15 of 42
1 Ginsburg, Copyright Legislation for the “Digital

2 Millennium,” 23 C OLUM.-VLA J.L. & A RTS 137, 167 (1999)

3 (emphasis added).

4 The House also noted the importance of striking a

5 balance between, on one hand, protecting sound recording

6 copyright holders to promote sales, distribution, and

7 development of new music, and, on the other hand, making

8 development of new media and forms of distribution

9 “economically []feasible.” H.R. Rep. No. 104-274, at 14.

10 Congress attempted to address this concern by making the

11 right “narrow” – limiting it to performance of digital audio

12 transmissions and exempting nonsubscriber services. See id.

13 The Senate Report noted that it had similar concerns. See

14 S. Rep. 104-128, at 13-17 (1995), reprinted in 1995

15 U.S.C.C.A.N. 356, 360-64.

16 Fairly soon after Congress enacted the DPSR, critics

17 began to call for further legislation, charging that the

18 DPSR was too narrowly drawn and did not sufficiently protect

19 sound recording copyright holders from further internet

20 piracy. See Summer, 8 C URRENTS: I NT’ L T RADE L. J. at 36; see

21 also Public Performance of Sound Recordings: Definition of

22 Service, 65 Fed. Reg. 77330, 77,331 (letter of the Copyright

23 Office noting that the digital transmission of sound

Page 16 of 42
1 recording “license was amended in 1998 in response to the

2 rapid growth of digital communications networks, e.g., the

3 Internet, and the confusion surrounding the question of how

4 the DP[S]R[] applied to certain nonsubscription digital

5 audio services”). For instance, webcasting services, which

6 provide free – i.e., nonsubscription – services that do not

7 provide particular sound recording on request and are

8 therefore not interactive within the meaning of term under

9 the DPSR, at that time fell outside the sound recording

10 copyright holder’s right of control. See Ginsburg, 23

11 C OLUM.-VLA J.L. & A RTS at 167. Recording companies became

12 concerned that these webcasting services were allowing users

13 to copy music transmitted to their computer via webcast for

14 free, see Note, June Chung, The Digital Performance Right in

15 Sound Recording Act and Its Failure to Address the Issue of

16 Digital Music’s New Form of Distribution, 39 A RIZ. L. R EV.

17 1361, 1367 (1997) (explaining how a webcasting user could

18 record and copy webcasted music onto the user’s computer),

19 or to listen to these webcasting services in lieu of

20 purchasing music, see Comment, Kimberly L. Craft, The

21 Webcasting Music Revolution Is Ready to Begin, as Soon as We

22 Figure Out the Copyright Law: The Story of the Music

23 Industry at War with Itself, 24 H ASTINGS C OMM. & E NT. L.J. 1,

Page 17 of 42
1 12-13 (2001). Record companies were concerned that these

2 webcasting services were causing a diminution in record

3 sales, which the companies feared would cut into profits and

4 stunt development of the recording industry. See Craft, 24

5 H ASTINGS C OMM. & E NT. L.J. at 12-13. According to Cary

6 Sherman, Senior Executive Vice President and General Counsel

7 of the RIAA, by 1997, the record industry was losing $1

8 million a day due to music piracy. Copyright Piracy in the

9 Internet: Hearing on H.R. 2265 Before H. Comm. on the

10 Judiciary, Subcomm. on Courts & Intellectual Prop., 105th

11 Cong. (1997) (statement of Cary H. Sherman, Senior Executive

12 Vice President and General Counsel of the RIAA).

13 In light of these concerns, Congress enacted the

14 current version of § 114 under the DMCA in 1998. The term

15 “interactive service” was expanded to include “those that

16 are specially created for a particular individual.” H.R.

17 Rep. No. 105-796, at 87 (1998) (Conf. Rep.). As enacted,

18 the definition of “interactive service” was now a service

19 “that enables a member of the public to receive a

20 transmission of a program specially created for the

21 recipient, or on request, a transmission of a particular

22 sound recording, whether or not as part of a program, which

23 is selected by or on behalf of the recipient.” 17 U.S.C.

Page 18 of 42
1 § 114(j)(7).

2 According to the House conference report,

3 The conferees intend that the phrase “program
4 specially created for the recipient” be
5 interpreted reasonably in light of the remainder
6 of the definition of “interactive service.” For
7 example, a service would be interactive if it
8 allowed a small number of individuals to request
9 that sound recordings be performed in a program
10 specially created for that group and not available
11 to any individuals outside of that group. In
12 contrast, a service would not be interactive if it
13 merely transmitted to a large number of recipients
14 of the service’s transmissions a program
15 consisting of sound recordings requested by a
16 small number of those listeners.
17
18 H.R. Rep. No. 105-796, at 87-88 (Conf. Rep.).
19
20 The House report continued that a transmission is

21 considered interactive “if a transmission recipient is

22 permitted to select particular sound recordings in a

23 prerecorded or predetermined program.” Id. at 88. “For

24 example, if a transmission recipient has the ability to move

25 forward and backward between songs in a program, the

26 transmission is interactive. It is not necessary that the

27 transmission recipient be able to select the actual songs

28 that comprise the program.” Id.

29 On April 17, 2000, the Digital Media Association

30 (“DiMA”), the lobbying arm of transmitters of digital media

31 such as Launch, filed a petition with the Copyright Office

Page 19 of 42
1 requesting that the Office amend the definition of “service”

2 “to state that a service is not interactive simply because

3 it offers the consumer some degree of influence over the

4 programming offered by the webcaster.” DiMA asked the

5 Copyright Office to adopt the following as a rule:

6 A Service making transmissions that otherwise meet
7 the requirements for the section 114(f) statutory
8 license is not rendered “interactive,” and thus
9 ineligible for the statutory license, simply
10 because the consumer may express preferences to
11 such Service as to the musical genres, artists and
12 sound recordings that may be incorporated into the
13 Service’s music programming to the public.
14
15 The DiMA did not ask the Copyright Office to determine

16 whether any particular services was non-interactive.

17 On November 21, 2000, the Copyright Office issued a

18 letter stating that because “of the rapidly changing

19 business models emerging in today’s digital marketplace, no

20 rule can accurately draw the line demarcating the limits

21 between an interactive service and a noninteractive service.

22 Nor can one readily classify an entity which makes

23 transmissions as exclusively interactive or noninteractive.”

24 The Copyright Office stated that determinations of

25 interactivity “must be made on a case-by-case basis after

26 the development of a full evidentiary record.”

27 Despite refusing to make a broad rule governing

28 interactivity, the Copyright Office did opine that in

Page 20 of 42
1 enacting the § 114(j)(7), “Congress sought to identify a

2 service as interactive according to the amount of influence

3 a member of the public would have on the selection and

4 performance of a particular sound recording.” However, the

5 Office stated that “the fact that some degree of consumer

6 influence on a service’s programming is permissible does not

7 mean that a regulation to clarify that fact is necessary or

8 even desirable.” The Copyright Office also noted that

9 “because the law and the accompanying legislative history

10 make it clear that consumers can have some influence on the

11 offerings made by a service without making the service

12 interactive, there is no need to amend the regulations to

13 make this point.”

14 In a footnote, the Copyright Office noted that the RIAA

15 and DiMA had discussed LAUNCHcast “to illustrate the type of

16 offerings that are in dispute.” The Copyright Office

17 concluded that “[f]rom these descriptions, there is

18 considerable doubt whether [LAUNCHcast] would qualify as an

19 ‘interactive service.’” On December 8, 2000, the Copyright

20 Office posted a message on its website that there had been a

21 typographical error in its letter. It then reissued its

22 letter with identical substantive language, but altered the

23 footnote to read: “From these descriptions, there is

Page 21 of 42
1 considerable doubt whether [LAUNCHcast] would qualify as a

2 noninteractive service.” In the published version of the

3 letter, however, the Copyright Office again altered the

4 footnote to read as it had read in the November 21, 2000

5 letter – noting that there was considerable doubt that

6 LAUNCHcast was interactive. 6 Public Performance of Sound

7 Recordings, 65 Fed. Reg. at 77332.

8 In sum, from the SRA to the DMCA, Congress enacted

9 copyright legislation directed at preventing the diminution

10 in record sales through outright piracy of music or new

11 digital media that offered listeners the ability to select

12 music in such a way that they would forego purchasing

13 records.

14 Armed with the statute’s text and context, we must

15 examine the complex nature of the service LAUNCHcast

6
In a memorandum from Kenneth L. Steinthal, attorney
for Launch, admitted into evidence at trial, Steinthal
stated that he spoke with the individual in the Copyright
Office who drafted the footnote. Steinthal stated that
according to that individual, someone from the RIAA had
called the Copyright Office and as a result, the substance
of the footnote was changed. According to Steinthal, the
individual told him that the footnote “had been intended to
send a message . . . that . . . it would be a ‘long shot’
for a service such as Launchcast . . . to be considered non-
interactive.” Whatever the etiology of the Copyright
Office’s inability to make up its mind, we find the
Copyright Office efforts here of little help.

Page 22 of 42
1 provided. 7 Throughout the life of this case, the parties

2 have expressed little disagreement as to how LAUNCHcast

3 operates, however, the conclusions they reach as to whether

4 the statute applies to LAUNCHcast are, not surprisingly,

5 radically different. 8

6 After creating a username and password, and entering

7 basic information and preferences unrelated to the music

8 LAUNCHcast provides, a LAUNCHcast user is able to create and

9 modify personalized radio stations. First, the user is

10 prompted to select artists whose music the user prefers.

11 The user is then asked which music genres the user enjoys

12 and asked to rate the genres on a scale. The user is also

13 asked the percentage of new music – songs the user has not

14 previously rated – the user would like to incorporate into

15 the user’s station (the “unrated quota”) 9 and whether the

7
For the following analysis of LAUNCHcast’s service we
rely on Plaintiffs’ Exhibits 260 and 262, in which Boulter
describes how LAUNCHcast operated, as well as the report
submitted by Johnson offering essentially the same analysis.
8
Federal judges are appointed for life. U.S. C ONST.
art. III, § 1. Our familiarity with the ever-changing terms
and technology of the digital age is, to say the least,
varied. We have attempted to portray the processes and
procedures of LAUNCHcast in lay terms, understandable to
ourselves and the public.
9
LAUNCHcast disregards the unrated quota selected by
the user if the number of rated songs LAUNCHcast uses to
generate a playlist for the user is less than 100. This is

Page 23 of 42
1 user permits playing songs with profane lyrics. The minimum

2 unrated quota is 20%, meaning no less than 20% of the songs

3 played can be unrated.

4 Once LAUNCHcast begins playing music based on the

5 user’s preferred artists and genres, the user rates the

6 songs, artists, or albums LAUNCHcast plays between zero and

7 100, with 100 being the best rating. Below the rating field

8 are hyperlinks termed “history,” “share,” and “buy.” The

9 history hyperlink allows the user to see a list of the songs

10 previously played, and the buy hyperlink facilitates the

11 user’s purchase of the songs. The share hyperlink allows

12 the user to share the station with other users. This

13 feature facilitates the “subscription” of one user to

14 another user’s station. When user A subscribes to the

15 station of user B, user B becomes a “DJ” for user A. The DJ

16 feature of LAUNCHcast does not allow a user to play

17 particular songs for other users, but instead gives users

18 access to each other’s stations, which they can modify by

19 rating songs, artists, or albums. These modifications only

20 affect what songs the user hears on the DJ’s station and do

21 not affect the songs the DJ hears on the DJ’s station, nor

22 do the modifications affect the DJ’s personal modification

detailed further infra.

Page 24 of 42
1 of the DJ’s station. While a song is playing, the user has

2 the ability to pause the song, skip the song, or delete the

3 song from the station by rating the song zero. Notably, the

4 user may not go back to restart the song that is playing, or

5 repeat any of the previously played songs in the playlist.

6 Whenever the user logs into LAUNCHcast and selects a

7 station, LAUNCHcast generates a playlist of fifty songs

8 based on several variables. 10 LAUNCHcast does not provide a

9 list of the pool of songs or of the songs in the generated

10 playlist, and therefore, the user does not know what songs

11 might be played. LAUNCHcast selects the songs by first

12 looking to the unrated quota and whether to exclude songs

13 with profane lyrics or songs that cannot be transmitted over

14 the user’s bandwidth. Next LAUNCHcast creates a list of all

15 the potential songs that can be put in the playlist (called

16 a “hashtable”). LAUNCHcast then generates a list of all

17 songs played for the user within the last thirty days, a

18 list of all DJs, genres, and radio stations to which the

19 user subscribes, and a list of all the ratings of all the

10
If there are more than eight songs left unheard on
the playlist previously begun by the user during the last
session, the playlist is less than a week old, and fewer
than fifteen songs of the playlist that have been played
have been rated by the user for the first time, then
LAUNCHcast will begin the old playlist from the first
unheard song.

Page 25 of 42
1 songs, artists, and albums rated by either the user or any

2 DJ to which the user subscribes. 11 Songs that the user has

3 rated are “explicitly rated” songs. LAUNCHcast “implicitly

4 rates” songs that appear in an album that the user or a

5 subscribed-to DJ has rated and songs that appear in the same

6 album as another song the user has already rated. 12 All of

7 these songs are initially added to the hashtable.

8 LAUNCHcast then excludes: (1) all songs that the user, or a

9 DJ to which the user subscribes, requests be skipped

10 permanently (rated as zero) and (2) songs played within the

11 last three hours for the user on any LAUNCHcast station.

12 This yields approximately 4,000 songs.

13 LAUNCHcast then adds to the hashtable the 1,000 most

14 popular songs – songs most highly rated by all LAUNCHcast

15 users – in the bandwidth specified by the user, provided

11
Ratings for individual songs are modified based on
the ratings the user (or the DJ to which the user
subscribes) has given the artist performing the song or the
album on which the song appears. The scope of the
modification is irrelevant for purposes of this opinion.
12
In other words, if the user rates the band U2 or U2’s
album The Joshua Tree, then U2’s song “With or Without You”
on the album will be implicitly rated. Likewise, if the
user rates Gordon Lightfoot’s song “Rainy Day People” but
does not rate Lightfoot’s iconic song “Canadian Railroad
Trilogy” – found on a different album – “Rainy Day People”
will be explicitly rated while “Canadian Railroad Trilogy”
will be implicitly rated.

Page 26 of 42
1 those songs are not already on the hashtable. LAUNCHcast

2 then adds another 5,000 songs. To generate this group of

3 songs, LAUNCHcast first counts the total number of songs

4 contained in each of all the genres the user has selected

5 and divides that number by the total number of songs in

6 LAUNCHcast’s database. If the resulting quotient is less

7 than 5% of the number of songs in LAUNCHcast’s database then

8 LAUNCHcast picks only songs listed as within the genres the

9 user has selected. 13 This calculation is performed in order

10 to ensure that of the 5,000 “random” songs added to the

11 hashtable, a sufficiently large number are of genres

12 eligible to be selected for inclusion on the final playlist.

13 That means that when a user has selected a very small number

14 of genres, the selection of songs of those genres from the

15 hashtable would return only a few songs allowable for play.

16 If the quotient of total songs in the user’s selected

17 genres is greater than 5%, however, a sufficiently large

18 number of the 5,000 randomly chosen songs added to the

13
For example, if the user selects five genres and
LAUNCHcast has 1,000 songs listed under each of those
genres, with no songs being counted twice for being in
multiple genres, and 150,000 songs in its database (the
total number of songs in LAUNCHcast’s database at that time
according to Boulter), then the total number of songs in a
selected genre is 5,000. Because 5,000 is 3.3% of 150,000,
LAUNCHcast would choose the 5,000 songs from this pool.

Page 27 of 42
1 hashtable will be eligible for inclusion on the final

2 playlist such that limiting the selection of playlist songs

3 by genre will not perceptively decrease the randomness of

4 the songs actually played; therefore, LAUNCHcast picks the

5 5,000 songs randomly from its entire database, rather than

6 solely from the user’s selected genres.

7 At this point, the hashtable contains approximately

8 10,000 songs. All of the songs in the hashtable are then

9 sorted according to rating: (1) explicitly rated; (2)

10 implicitly rated; or (3) unrated. Based on these

11 categories, LAUNCHcast determines which songs will be played

12 from each category based on several criteria. First, if the

13 user’s list of explicitly and implicitly rated songs is

14 smaller than 100, 90% of the songs LAUNCHcast selects for

15 the playlist are unrated. If the user’s list of explicitly

16 and implicitly rated songs is greater than 100, LAUNCHcast

17 uses the unrated quota provided by the user – the minimum

18 unrated quota the user can choose being 20%. 14 Second, no

14
The record is unclear whether the unrated quota – if
not selected by the user – was fixed at 50% or 20%. See
Plaintiffs’ Exhibits 260, 447. However, for our purposes
the dispute is irrelevant because in determining whether
LAUNCHcast is an interactive service we consider the
particular aspect of LAUNCHcast that is the most
interactive, or in other words, the aspect that provides the
user with the greatest possible amount of influence on the
outcome of the LAUNCHcast playlist. Therefore, we assume a

Page 28 of 42
1 more than 20% of all explicitly rated songs are selected

2 from the hashtable for the playlist. In other words, if a

3 user has only rated ten songs, no more than two of those

4 songs can be selected for the playlist. Third, LAUNCHcast

5 selects no more than three times the quotient of the total

6 number of explicitly rated songs divided by the sum of

7 implicitly and explicitly rated songs. In other words, if a

8 user rates five songs and ten others are implicitly rated –

9 making a total of fifteen songs – then no more than one

10 explicitly rated song can be selected (3 x (5/[5+10]) = 3 x

11 1/3 = 1). Fourth, if the user is listening to the station

12 of a DJ and the total number of explicitly and implicitly

13 rated songs is greater than 200, then the total number of

14 explicit songs LAUNCHcast selects will be the lesser of 20%

15 of all explicit songs or half of the songs to be selected in

16 the playlist. In other words, if the user, who has

17 explicitly rated 150 songs and as a result has fifty-one

18 implicitly rated songs (totaling 201), selects the station

19 of a DJ, twenty-five explicitly rated songs will be selected

20 for the playlist from the DJ’s station because half of the

user has a 20% unrated quota.

Page 29 of 42
1 songs in the playlist of fifty 15 (twenty-five) is less than

2 20% of the number of explicitly rated song (20% of 150 =

3 30).

4 Next, after determining what songs can be selected from

5 the hashtable, LAUNCHcast picks songs from the hashtable to

6 add to the playlist. To do this, LAUNCHcast first selects a

7 song at random from one of the three categories, explicitly

8 rated, implicitly rated, or unrated, but with some

9 restrictions. First, songs are excluded from the playlist

10 if including them would violate the criteria listed above.

11 Second, LAUNCHcast does not play the same song twice in a

12 playlist. Third, LAUNCHcast excludes a song from a playlist

13 if three other songs by that artist have already been

14 selected for the playlist. In other words, if the Beatles’

15 “Here Comes the Sun,” “A Day in the Life,” and “Eleanor

16 Rigby” have already been selected for the playlist, no other

17 Beatles’ song could be added to the playlist. Fourth,

18 LAUNCHcast excludes a song from a playlist if two other

19 songs from the same album have already been selected for the

15
For purposes of describing how LAUNCHcast functions,
Boulter “[a]ssume[s] the size of a playlist is 50 songs.”
We also assume this.

Page 30 of 42
1 playlist. 16 Fifth, LAUNCHcast has an additional layer to

2 prevent songs by the same artist or from the same album from

3 playing on the playlist. If a song being reviewed for

4 selection for the playlist is by an artist already included

5 in the playlist or from the same album as the previous song

6 selected for the playlist, that song is excluded from the

7 playlist unless – at the end of the process – a user has a

8 playlist with less than 50 songs. Although selection is

9 random, according to Boulter the algorithm used to select

10 songs for the playlist “[is] biased towards the top” of the

11 list – i.e., choosing more highly rated songs – “but would

12 pick randomly from there. So maybe the first time it picked

13 No. 2 and then it picked 37. Then maybe it picked one and

14 then it picked 300.” In her report, Johnson stated that “a

15 random song from that particular list of songs is chosen . .

16 . such that there is a high probability that the song is

17 picked from the higher scored songs in the list.”

18 Finally, once all fifty songs are selected for the

19 playlist, LAUNCHcast orders the playlist. The ordering of

20 the songs is random, provided LAUNCHcast does not play more

21 than two songs in the same album or three songs by the same

16
This could occur independent of the second rule if
the album is a compilation of multiple artists.

Page 31 of 42
1 artist consecutively. 17

2 It is hard to think of a more complicated way to

3 “select songs,” but this is the nature of webcast music

4 broadcasting in the digital age. Given LAUNCHcast’s format,

5 we turn to the question of whether LAUNCHcast is an

6 interactive service as a matter of law. 18 As we have already

7 noted, a webcasting service such as LAUNCHcast is

8 interactive under the statute if a user can either (1)

9 request – and have played – a particular sound recording, or

10 (2) receive a transmission of a program “specially created”

11 for the user. 42 U.S.C. § 114(j)(7). A LAUNCHCAST user

12 cannot request and expect to hear a particular song on

13 demand; therefore, LAUNCHcast does not meet the first

17
This brings LAUNCHcast into compliance with the
“sound recording performance complement,” which limits
webcasters to playing no more than three selections from a
given record in a three-hour period. 17 U.S.C.
§ 114(d)(2)(C)(i), (j)(13).
18
While we have on other occasions noted that
“administrative agencies have broad discretion to interpret
the statutes they are charged with implementing,” Khan v.
U.S. Dep’t of Justice, 494 F.3d 255, 258 (2d Cir. 2007), we
will not give weight to the Copyright Office’s footnote
regarding LAUNCHcast in its December 2000 letter.
Notwithstanding the fact that the footnote specifically
discusses LAUNCHcast, the footnote is surplusage to the
issue before the Office, and the history of its revisions –
complete reversals of opinion by the Copyright Office over a
matter of days – seriously call into question the thought
process, if any, that went into drafting the footnote.

Page 32 of 42
1 definition of interactive. But LAUNCHcast may still be

2 liable if it enables the user to receive a transmission of a

3 program “specially created” for the user. It comes as no

4 surprise to us that the district court, the parties, and

5 others have struggled with what Congress meant by this term.

6 The language and development of the DPSR and DMCA make

7 clear that Congress enacted both statutes to create a narrow

8 copyright in the performance of digital audio transmissions

9 to protect sound recording copyright holders – principally

10 recording companies – from the diminution in record sales.

11 Congress created this narrow right to ensure that “the

12 creation of new sound recordings and musical works [would

13 not] be discouraged,” and to prevent the “threat to the

14 livelihoods of those whose income depends upon revenues

15 derived from traditional record sales.” H.R. Rep. No. 104-

16 274, at 13-14.

17 Contrary to BMG’s contentions, Congress was clear that

18 the statute sought to prevent further decreases in revenues

19 for sound recording copyright holders due to significant

20 reductions in record sales, perceived in turn to be a result

21 of the proliferation of interactive listening services. 19 If

19
While file-sharing services like Napster initially
caused a decline in records sales, see Anita Hamilton, The
Pirates of Prime Time, T IME, Feb. 25, 2002, at 54 (noting

Page 33 of 42
1 the user has sufficient control over the interactive service

2 such that she can predict the songs she will hear, much as

3 she would if she owned the music herself and could play each

4 song at will, she would have no need to purchase the music

5 she wishes to hear. Therefore, part and parcel of the

6 concern about a diminution in record sales is the concern

7 that an interactive service provides a degree of

8 predictability – based on choices made by the user – that

9 approximates the predictability the music listener seeks when

10 purchasing music.

11 The current version § 114(j)(7) was enacted because

12 Congress determined that the DPSR was not up to the task of

13 protecting sound recording copyright holders from diminution

that in 2001 CD sales declined for the first time in a
decade), recently webcasting services have been credited
with “becom[ing] a massive driver in digital [music] sales”
by exposing users to new music and providing an easy link to
sites where users can purchase this music. Jeb Gottlieb,
Pandora Lifts Lid on Personalizing Online Radio, B OSTON
H ERALD, Feb. 26, 2008, at 32; see also SoundExchange Open to
Bill Targeting Small Webcasters, C OMMC’ NS D AILY, May 3, 2007
(noting that independent musician Mike Holden “enjoyed a
‘huge increase’ in iTunes downloads . . . when Pandora[,
another webcasting service,] added his music”). The
difference between the two types of services likely explains
the different effect on record sales. File-sharing services
allow users to copy music files to their computer, thereby
enabling the user to listen to the music any time.
Webcasting services, however, do not allow the user to
download files of the music being webcast, and therefore, do
not enable music piracy.

Page 34 of 42
1 in record sales, presumably because programs not covered by

2 the DPSR’s definition of interactive service provided a

3 degree of control – predictability – to internet music

4 listeners that dampened the music listeners’ need to purchase

5 music recordings. By giving sound recording copyright

6 holders the right to require individual licenses for

7 transmissions of programs specially created for users,

8 Congress hoped to plug the loophole the DPSR had left open

9 for webcasting services.

10 To determine what additional service or program Congress

11 intended to include as an interactive service under the DMCA,

12 we look to what language was added to the definition of

13 interactive service. One term notably absent from the DPSR

14 definition, which was later included under the DMCA, is

15 “transmission of a program.” 17 U.S.C. § 114(j)(7). While

16 not semantically identical, Title 17 defines “transmission

17 program” as “a body of material that, as an aggregate, has

18 been produced for the sole purpose of transmission to the

19 public in sequence and as a unit.” 17 U.S.C. § 101. This

20 definition views a transmission program as a body of material

21 presented as a single unit, as opposed to a selection of

22 individual works. Therefore, in expanding the definition of

23 interactive service to include the transmission of programs

Page 35 of 42
1 specially created for the user, Congress intended to include

2 bodies of pre-packaged material, such as groups of songs or

3 playlists specially created for the user. Given this

4 definition, we turn to the ultimate issue of whether the

5 LAUNCHcast playlists, uniquely generated for the user each

6 time the user selects a station, are specially created and

7 therefore interactive.

8 Launch does not deny that each playlist generated when a

9 LAUNCHcast user selects a radio station is unique to that

10 user at that particular time. However, this does not

11 necessarily make the LAUNCHcast playlist specially created

12 for the user. 20 Based on a review of how LAUNCHcast

13 functions, it is clear that LAUNCHcast does not provide a

14 specially created program within the meaning of § 114(j)(7)

15 because the webcasting service does not provide sufficient

16 control to users such that playlists are so predictable that

17 users will choose to listen to the webcast in lieu of

18 purchasing music, thereby – in the aggregate – diminishing

20
While we decline to give weight to the Copyright
Office’s analysis in its November and December 2000 letters,
it is worth noting that in these letters the Office found
that the “RIAA readily acknowledges that consumers may
express preferences for certain music genres, artists, or
even sound recordings without the service necessarily
becoming interactive.”

Page 36 of 42
1 record sales. 21

2 First, the rules governing what songs are pooled in the

3 hashtable ensure that the user has almost no ability to

4 choose, let alone predict, which specific songs will be

5 pooled in anticipation for selection to the playlist. At

6 least 60% of the songs in the hashtable are generated by

7 factors almost entirely beyond the user’s control. The

8 playlist – a total of fifty songs – is created from a pool of

9 approximately 10,000 songs, at least 6,000 of which (1,000 of

10 the most highly rated LAUNCHcast songs among all users and

11 5,000 randomly selected songs) are selected without any

12 consideration for the user’s song, artist, or album

13 preferences. 22 The user has control over the genre of songs

21
In its brief, BMG offers evidence of Launch
describing LAUNCHcast as “interactive” in its marketing
literature. But our task is to determine whether LAUNCHcast
was an interactive service as that term is defined in the
statute and not how it was marketed to the public.
22
This assumes that the word “specially” implies that
the program was made by taking some of the user’s
preferences into consideration. We cannot conclude that a
specially created program could include a playlist of
completely random songs selected without regard for the
user’s preferences. First, such a result would make no
sense because a unique playlist of random songs would be
little different from a radio station streamed over the
internet – which at least one Circuit has held only requires
that a broadcaster pay a statutory – and not an individual –
license. See Bonneville Int’l Corp., 347 F.3d at 487.
Second, such a random webcast should have no effect on
record sales, and therefore imposing an individual licensing

Page 37 of 42
1 to be played for 5,000 songs, but this degree of control is

2 no different from a traditional radio listener expressing a

3 preference for a country music station over a classic rock

4 station. LAUNCHcast generates this list with safeguards to

5 prevent the user from limiting the number of songs in the

6 list eligible for play by selecting a narrow genre. Also, no

7 more than 20% of the songs the user rates – marked by

8 LAUNCHcast as explicitly rated – can be pooled in the

9 hashtable, and no more than three times the number of

10 explicitly rated songs divided by the total number of rated

11 songs can be in the hashtable. This ensures that a limited

12 number of explicitly rated songs will eventually be selected

13 for the playlist. Ironically, this effectively means that

14 the more songs the user explicitly rates, the less the user

15 can predict which explicitly rated songs will be pooled in

16 the hashtable and played on the playlist.

17 Second, the selection of songs from the hashtable to be

18 included in the playlist is governed by rules preventing the

requirement for songs played on a random playlist would be
inconsistent with the congressional purpose of combating
diminutions in records sales. In its letters of November
and December 2000, the Copyright Office noted that the “RIAA
acknowledge[d] that all music programming services[,
including webcasting services,] are likely to be influenced
by their consumers’ tastes.”

Page 38 of 42
1 user’s explicitly rated songs from being anywhere near a

2 majority of the songs on the playlist. At minimum, 20% of

3 the songs played on the station are unrated – meaning the

4 user has never expressed a preference for those songs. If

5 the user attempts to increase her chances of hearing a

6 particular song by rating only a small number of songs –

7 making the user’s list of explicitly and implicitly rated

8 songs smaller than 100 – 90% of the songs LAUNCHcast selects

9 for the playlist will be unrated, flooding the playlist with

10 songs for which the user has never expressed a preference.

11 Even the ways in which songs are rated include variables

12 beyond the user’s control. For instance, the ratings by all

13 of the user’s subscribed-to DJs are included in the playlist

14 selection process. When the user rates a particular song,

15 LAUNCHcast then implicitly rates all other songs by that

16 artist, subjecting the user to many songs the user may have

17 never heard or does not even like. 23 There are restrictions

18 placed on the number of times songs by a particular artist or

19 from a particular album can be played, and there are

20 restrictions on consecutive play of the same artist or album.

21 Finally, because each playlist is unique to each user each

23
It would be wrong, for instance, to assume that
because a user likes the Beatles’ album A Hard Day’s Night
the user would also like The White Album.

Page 39 of 42
1 time the user logs in, a user cannot listen to the playlist

2 of another user and anticipate the songs to be played from

3 that playlist, even if the user has selected the same

4 preferences and rated all songs, artists, and albums

5 identically as the other user. Relatedly, a user who hears a

6 song she likes and wants to hear again cannot do so by

7 logging off and back on to reset her station to disable the

8 restriction against playing the same song twice on a

9 playlist. Even if a user logs off LAUNCHcast then logs back

10 on and selects the same station, the user will still hear the

11 remainder of the playlist to which she had previously been

12 listening with its restrictions still in operation, provided

13 there were at least eight songs left to be played on the

14 playlist – or, in other words, until the user listens to at

15 least forty-two of the playlist’s songs.

16 Finally, after navigating these criteria to pool a

17 hashtable and generate a playlist, LAUNCHcast randomly orders

18 the playlist. This randomization is limited by restrictions

19 on the consecutive play of artists or albums, which further

20 restricts the user’s ability to choose the artists or albums

21 they wish to hear. LAUNCHcast also does not enable the user

22 to view the unplayed songs in the playlist, ensuring that a

23 user cannot sift through a playlist to choose the songs the

Page 40 of 42
1 user wishes to hear.

2 It appears the only thing a user can predict with

3 certainty – the only thing the user can control – is that by

4 rating a song at zero the user will not hear that song on

5 that station again. But the ability not to listen to a

6 particular song is certainly not a violation of a copyright

7 holder’s right to be compensated when the sound recording is

8 played. 24

9 In short, to the degree that LAUNCHcast’s playlists are

10 uniquely created for each user, that feature does not ensure

11 predictability. Indeed, the unique nature of the playlist

12 helps Launch ensure that it does not provide a service so

13 specially created for the user that the user ceases to

14 purchase music. LAUNCHcast listeners do not even enjoy the

15 limited predictability that once graced the AM airwaves on

16 weekends in America when “special requests” represented love-

17 struck adolescents’ attempts to communicate their feelings to

24
The hyperlink in LAUNCHcast giving users the option
to buy the music being played also cuts against the
contention that LAUNCHcast’s service diminishes record
sales, as does the option to view a list of previously
played songs, which would give the user a reference for
selecting songs to purchase. See Music and Radio: Hearing
before S. Jud. Comm., 110th Cong. (2008) (statement of Joe
Kennedy, President and Chief Executive Officer Pandora
Media, Inc.) (claiming that “Pandora [is] . . . among the
top promotional partners of iTunes and Amazon.com” for
music).

Page 41 of 42
1 “that special friend.” Therefore, we cannot say LAUNCHcast

2 falls within the scope of the DMCA’s definition of an

3 interactive service created for individual users.

4 When Congress created the sound recording copyright, it

5 explicitly characterized it as “narrow.” There is no general

6 right of performance in the sound recording copyright. There

7 is only a limited right to performance of digital audio

8 transmission with several exceptions to the copyright,

9 including the one at issue in this case. We find that

10 LAUNCHcast is not an interactive service within the meaning

11 of 17 U.S.C. § 114(j)(7). Because we so conclude, we need

12 not reach the other issues raised by BMG on appeal.

13 Conclusion

14 The district court’s judgment of May 16, 2007 in favor

15 of Appellee is hereby AFFIRMED with costs.

Page 42 of 42