United States Court of Appeals
For the First Circuit
No. 98-2349
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Appellee,
v.
JOHN ALEXIS MOJICA-BAEZ,
Defendant, Appellant.
No. 98-2350
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Appellee,
v.
JOSUE G. REYES-HERNANDEZ,
Defendant, Appellant.
No. 98-2351
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Appellee,
v.
RODOLFO E. LANDA-RIVERA,
Defendant, Appellant.
No. 98-2352
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Appellee,
v.
NELSON CARTAGENA-MERCED,
Defendant, Appellant.
No. 98-2353
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Appellee,
v.
JOSE RAMOS-CARTAGENA,
Defendant, Appellant.
APPEALS FROM THE UNITED STATES DISTRICT COURT
FOR THE DISTRICT OF PUERTO RICO
[Hon. José Antonio Fusté, U.S. District Judge]
Before
Stahl and Lynch, Circuit Judges,
and Gorton, District Judge.*
* Of the District of Massachusetts, sitting by designation.
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Robin J. Adler for appellant Mojica-Baez.
David W. Roman, with whom Brown & Ubarri was on brief, for
appellant Reyes-Hernandez.
Rafael F. Castro Lang for appellant Landa-Rivera.
Roberto Roldan-Burgos, by appointment of the court, for appellant
Cartagena-Merced.
Miriam Ramos Grateroles for appellant Ramos-Cartagena.
Timothy L. Faerber and Nelson Pérez-Sosa, Assistant United States
Attorneys, with whom Guillermo Gil, United States Attorney, and Jorge
E. Vega-Pacheco, Assistant United States Attorney, were on brief, for
appellee.
August 30, 2000
LYNCH, Circuit Judge. Three armed men dressed in
security guard uniforms held up the Loomis, Fargo & Co. armored
car depot in Ponce, Puerto Rico, on May 13, 1997, while a fourth
robber stood watch outside. The robbers took the Loomis Fargo
guards captive as they returned to the company's offices in
armored vehicles from runs to area banks. All told, the robbers
got away with an estimated $5.5 million. Only about half a
million dollars was recovered; the weapons used were never
recovered. Four of the five defendants involved in this appeal
were convicted of the robbery and received sentences ranging
from 308 months to 355 months; the fifth defendant was convicted
of helping in the aftermath and was sentenced to 150 months
imprisonment.
The defendants originally raised a myriad of arguments
on appeal. In addition, after the Supreme Court decided United
States v. Castillo, 120 S. Ct. 2090 (2000), we requested that
the parties brief the effect of that decision. None of the
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defendants had raised at trial or on appeal a Castillo claim
that the use of a semiautomatic assault weapon in the robbery
was an element -- and not merely a sentencing factor -- of a
firearms offense. See 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1)(A), (B). This is
our first occasion to discuss the effects of Castillo on trials
and indictments, and our view on the indictment issue is quite
different from the view of another circuit. Save for one
sentencing issue regarding one defendant -- as to which the
government agrees that there was error and that the matter
should be remanded -- we reject the defendants' arguments.
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I.
The four main defendants are John Alexis Mojica-Baez,
Josue G. Reyes-Hernandez, Nelson Cartagena-Merced, and Jose
Ramos-Cartagena. After a trial lasting almost a month, they
were convicted of committing the robbery. Specifically, all
four of these defendants were convicted of two counts of armed
robbery, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 2113(a), (d); one count
of assault, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 2114(a); one count
of breaking and entering, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 2117;
and one count of using and carrying a firearm in relation to a
crime of violence, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2, 924(c)(1).
Another co-defendant, Rodolfo E. Landa-Rivera, was convicted of
being an accessory after the fact to the robbery, in violation
of 18 U.S.C. §§ 3, 2113(a).1
The jury reasonably could have found the following
facts. Loomis Fargo2 armored trucks and vans began arriving at
the Loomis Fargo depot in Ponce shortly after 7 p.m. on May 13,
1997. The vehicles were returning with cash from the day's
1 We address the appeal of another co-defendant, Jessica Vega-
Coreano, in United States v. Vega-Coreano, No. 99-1343, in an opinion
published simultaneously with this one.
2 At the time, the company was named Wells Fargo.
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routes, which included a stop at a United States Post Office and
two federally insured banks, Banco Popular and Banco Santander.
When one of the guards from the first vehicle to arrive entered
the depot office, he was met by three men carrying long
firearms. They told him it was a hold up and that he was not to
move or they would shoot him. The three were dressed in
uniforms similar to Loomis Fargo uniforms and were wearing
bulletproof vests. As four successive trucks arrived at the
depot, the three men disarmed the guards, handcuffed them, and
locked them in a bathroom. The contents of the Loomis Fargo
vehicles were systematically transferred to a Loomis Fargo van
commandeered by the robbers. A fourth person, outside, worked
in tandem with the three fake guards, communicating with them by
walkie-talkie.
The robbers were voluble, threatening the guards,
telling them, "Last week we had to kill one guy, so you guys
better do what we say." They also told the guards several times
how powerful their weapons were, claiming, "This AK-47 that I
have here can actually punch through 12 guys," and "This thing
can even go through cement." One of the guards recognized a
weapon as an AK-47 and heard one of the robbers say, "This is an
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AK-47, and if I shoot you with this, I'll rip you up. I'll just
rip a part of you off." Another guard described the firearms
carried by the robbers as "assault weapons, big weapons."
The robbers also commented on their professionalism.
One of the guards testified that the robbers kept saying, "Look
how professional we are. We're really professionals." The
robbers reiterated that they were professionals, unlike the
other robbers who had been quickly caught after a recent,
unrelated Brinks robbery.
Once the Loomis Fargo van was loaded, the guard the
robbers had forced to help them was trussed and pushed into the
small bathroom that held nine other guards. The guards were
then locked in and they heard the robbers threaten to set the
place on fire. It took the guards about forty minutes to free
themselves; they then called for help. The handcuffs had to be
cut off of the guards, as the key holes had been soldered (or
welded) closed.
The robbers drove the Loomis Fargo van to another
location and transferred the money to a different vehicle, but
they left thirty unopened bags of money in the Loomis Fargo van.
Evidence tied the defendants to the robbery almost
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immediately afterwards. When news of the robbery was broadcast
on television, Ramos-Cartagena's wife, Jessica Vega-Coreano,
told Jessica Diaz-Nevarro, a friend and upstairs neighbor, that
Ramos-Cartagena and Reyes-Hernandez had committed the robbery.
The evening of the robbery, Ramos-Cartagena and Reyes-Hernandez
arrived back at Ramos-Cartagena's house driving a heavily laden
van. Reyes-Hernandez was wearing a uniform similar to a Loomis
Fargo uniform. Ramos-Cartagena ran into the house and asked
Vega-Coreano for keys. He had a cut on his head and was
shirtless. Vega-Coreano gave him a shirt to put on and asked
why they had not gotten rid of the clothes, to which he
responded, "Forget the shirt, I need the keys, I want the keys,
because we have to leave." He found the keys and drove off. A
short time later, Cartagena-Merced and Mojica-Baez arrived.
Mojica-Baez appeared happy, and he embraced Vega-Coreano and
said, "We did it. We did it" or "We won, we won." Cartagena-
Merced also appeared to be happy.
The robbery was, of course, planned in advance.
According to Diaz-Nevarro, the defendants met almost daily
during the two weeks prior the robbery. Diaz-Nevarro also saw
Ramos-Cartagena, Mojica-Baez, and Reyes-Hernandez loading
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ammunition into two long and three short guns the day before the
robbery. Landa-Rivera, who ultimately took some of the money to
hide, was also seen around the house before the robbery.
A confidential informant reported to the FBI that
before the robbery the defendants had stolen a van in the San
Juan area. After the robbery, a white van containing veterinary
products was found in a parking lot near the Loomis Fargo depot.
The van had been stolen from a veterinary products distributor
about a week before the robbery. Diaz-Nevarro testified to
seeing similar veterinary products in Ramos-Cartagena's house,
and, after having obtained warrants to search the defendants'
homes (based upon information provided by the confidential
informant), FBI agents found such products when they searched
the house.
The searches of the defendants' homes produced a wealth
of other incriminating evidence, including: $387,000 in cash
buried near Mojica-Baez's uncle's house and $13,000 in cash
inside the house;3 AK-47 ammunition and part of the barrel of an
AR-15 assault rifle at Mojica-Baez's house; $2,500 in cash in a
3 Mojica-Baez's uncle told police that someone had given him
the $13,000 to hold and had told him that it was from the Loomis Fargo
robbery.
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McDonald's bag hidden in a mattress and over $1,000 in a box and
in a magazine at Cartagena-Merced's house; a photograph of
Ramos-Cartagena holding an AK-47, AK-47 ammunition, police
uniforms similar to Loomis Fargo uniforms, two ski masks, four
boxes of two-way radios, some welding equipment, and wrappers
from Banco Popular and Banco Santander at Ramos-Cartagena's
house; wrappers from Banco Santander, a bag containing almost
$8,000 in cash, and a $45,000 check from the Lottery of Puerto
Rico made out to Reyes-Hernandez's mother and issued a week
after the robbery4 at Reyes-Hernandez's house; and a total of
$8,800 in cash in Landa-Rivera's car.
After their homes were searched, Ramos-Cartagena,
Reyes-Hernandez, Mojica-Baez, and Vega-Coreano traveled together
to the Geminis Hotel and rented rooms there. From there they
moved to the Joyuda Beach Parador Hotel, registering for three
rooms under a false name.
Unable to contain themselves with the riches, some of
the defendants went on spending sprees. The day after the
4 The record does not reveal the government's theory with
regard to the lottery check. It would seem that the government
believed the check was evidence of money laundering, see, e.g., United
States v. Gonzalez-Maldonado, 115 F.3d 9, 19 (1st Cir. 1997), but there
is no evidence in the record to that effect.
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robbery, Reyes-Hernandez bought a jet ski for $9,300 in cash
(carried in a plastic grocery bag). A search of the car in
which Ramos-Cartagena, Reyes-Hernandez, Mojica-Baez, and Vega-
Coreano were traveling when they were arrested turned up a
jewelry store receipt for a $900 cash purchase of two watches.
Cash abounded.
Unable to contain themselves verbally, the different
defendants made incriminating statements to others. Two days
after the robbery, Diaz-Nevarro overheard Reyes-Hernandez, in
the presence of Ramos-Cartagena, detailing what happened at the
Loomis Fargo office to Vega-Coreano. Diaz-Nevarro also
overheard Landa-Rivera describing to Vega-Coreano how the guards
had been tied up as they arrived at the depot. Diaz-Nevarro
testified that Ramos-Cartagena and Reyes-Hernandez were laughing
in response. Once arrested, Reyes-Hernandez, Ramos-Cartagena,
and Landa-Rivera told a fellow jailmate, Luis Nevarez-Marrero,
details of the planning and execution of the crime and their
efforts to get away. When arrested, Landa-Rivera told police
that he had been paid $6,000 to watch over two suitcases
containing $200,000 each from the Loomis Fargo robbery.
After he was arrested, Ramos-Cartagena told an FBI
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agent, "We were millionaires for a short time." The jury
decided that statement was true.
II.
Many of the arguments are joined by several of the
defendants and we cluster them. We deal first with
jurisdictional arguments, then with evidentiary objections. As
the defendants argue that their evidentiary objections are
precursors to their sufficiency of the evidence arguments, we
next deal with those sufficiency arguments. Finally, we address
the Castillo and sentencing issues.
A. Jurisdiction: Whether the money stolen was insured by the
FDIC or belonged to the United States
Counts 1 and 2 of the indictment, which alleged
violations of 18 U.S.C. § 2113(a), (d), required the government
to prove that the money taken during the robbery was insured by
the FDIC. See United States v. Wood, 780 F.2d 555, 556 (6th
Cir. 1986). At the close of the prosecution's case, Reyes-
Hernandez and Ramos-Cartagena moved for acquittal under Federal
Rule of Criminal Procedure 29, arguing that the government had
failed to prove this essential element. The motion was denied,
and they renew the argument on appeal.
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It appears that the prosecution simply forgot to put
on evidence as to FDIC insurance in its case in chief.
Consequently, the defendants moved for entry of judgment of
acquittal after the government rested. Recognizing its blunder,
the prosecution requested that the court reopen the
prosecution's case in chief to permit it to present such
evidence or, alternatively, that the court take judicial notice
of the fact that Banco Popular and Banco Santander are insured
by the FDIC. The district court then indicated its inclination
to reopen to correct a "purely technical" error and urged the
parties to enter into a stipulation. The parties did enter into
a stipulation, without prejudice to their appellate rights, that
Banco Popular and Banco Santander were both insured by the FDIC.
The stipulation was presented to the jury.
On appeal the defendants object to the trial court’s
intervention on this issue, saying the court assumed the role of
the prosecution. We disagree and find that the district court
did not abuse its discretion in deciding to reopen. See United
States v. Santana 175 F.3d 57, 64 (1st Cir. 1999). There was no
serious dispute that the banks were federally insured, and the
government’s lapse was recognized in time.
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Count 3 of the indictment, which alleged a violation
of 18 U.S.C. § 2114(a), required the government to prove that
the money belonged to the United States. See United States v.
Lawrence, 699 F.2d 697, 701-02 (5th Cir. 1983). With regard to
his conviction on this count, Ramos-Cartegena presses two
arguments. First, he says, § 2114 is limited to offenses having
a "postal nexus," and, although the jury instruction indicated
that the jury needed to find that postal service money was
stolen, the indictment failed specifically to allege that the
stolen money belonged to the United States Postal Service.
Second, he says there was insufficient evidence for the jury to
find that the money belonged to the United States Postal
Service. In fact, there was testimony from a Loomis Fargo guard
that he had stopped at a United States Post Office before the
robbers emptied his truck of its contents at the depot, and
documents were introduced estimating losses to the postal
service of over $2 million. The evidence was sufficient, and
the indictment, which referenced the statute and specifically
charged the robbers with stealing money belonging to the United
States, adequately and fairly charged the crime.
B. Evidentiary Rulings
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We review the district court's evidentiary rulings for
abuse of discretion. See United States v. Lara, 181 F.3d 183,
195 (1st Cir.), cert. denied, 120 S. Ct. 432 (1999).
1. Admission of Hearsay Statement of Deceased Informant
At trial, FBI Agent Raymond Lopez testified that, as
a result of information from a confidential informant, he
prepared an affidavit that led to warrants to search the four
main defendants' homes on May 23, 1997. Agent Lopez said that
the informant had provided information that was detailed,
specific, and consistent with information that was not publicly
available. As a condition of the admissibility of Agent Lopez's
testimony as to what he was told by the informant, the court
inquired into why the informant was not available to testify.
The response was that he had been murdered. Defense counsel
moved for a mistrial, which was denied, or for an instruction.
The court, in response, simply instructed the jury that the
reason the informant was not there was that he was dead.
Agent Lopez, over objection, testified that the
informant had told him that two weeks before the robbery "this
group" had stolen a white van in the metropolitan San Juan area
in order to commit the Loomis Fargo robbery; that they had
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tinted the windows of the van to make it look like a standard
Loomis Fargo van; and that the van could be found at a K-Mart
shopping plaza near the Loomis Fargo depot. The van was found
there. The ostensible purpose of the testimony was to establish
that the stolen van had been used in the robbery, and the agent
never explicitly testified that the informant meant that the
defendants on trial constituted "this group." The court found
that the information from the informant had sufficient
guarantees of trustworthiness to be admissible hearsay under
Federal Rule of Evidence 807.
The court, apparently recognizing in hindsight the
dangers posed by the testimony that the informant had been
murdered, instructed the jury the next day that there was no
claim that the informant’s death was related to the case and
that his death could not be considered against any defendant.
The defendants level two objections. First, they claim
it was error for the court to have allowed the government to
introduce evidence that the informant had been murdered.
Second, they argue that the informants' statements did not meet
the trustworthiness requirements established under Ohio v.
Roberts, 448 U.S. 56, 66 (1980). This error, they say, denied
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them their Sixth Amendment right to be confronted with the
witnesses against them. See Lilly v. Virginia, 527 U.S. 116,
139 (1999).
The testimony that the witness was unavailable because
he had been murdered was unfortunate, and the trial judge's
initial instruction was insufficient. It would have been far
better if the trial judge had immediately made clear that there
was no claim, implicit or explicit, that these defendants were
somehow responsible for the murder. If matters had been left at
that, the defendants would have a very serious claim. But
matters were not left at that; the court quickly corrected the
error as its first order of business the next morning. That was
sufficient.
The second attack, based on Federal Rule of Evidence
807, rests on the premise that the informant's statements lacked
common attributes of trustworthiness: the informant never gave
his statement under oath, and he never claimed to be an
eyewitness. Moreover, his unavailability cannot be attributed
to the defendants so as to warrant admission of his statement.
Under Roberts, hearsay statements are considered
sufficiently trustworthy when the evidence either falls within
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a firmly rooted hearsay exception or it possesses particularized
guarantees of trustworthiness. See Roberts, 448 U.S. at 66.
This test was recently reaffirmed in Lilly, which emphasized
that appellate courts should conduct an independent review of
the trustworthiness finding. See Lilly, 527 U.S. at 136. The
informant's statements do not fall within the category of a
firmly rooted hearsay exception, so we look for any guarantees
of trustworthiness. The justification for a finding of
trustworthiness in this case is very thin, and the record on the
point is sparse. But this is not a case in which the issue is
important to the outcome. The testimony was admitted primarily
to show that the defendants stole the van (from which the
inference could be drawn that they stole it to use in the
robbery). This fact was established by evidence regarding the
veterinary products (1) that the van's owner testified were in
the van when it was stolen; (2) that Diaz-Nevarro saw in Ramos-
Cartagena's house; (3) that the FBI found in Ramos-Cartagena's
house; and (4) that the FBI found in the stolen van. Moreover,
there was considerable other evidence linking the defendants to
the robbery. If there was any error, it was harmless beyond a
reasonable doubt. See Chapman v. California, 386 U.S. 18, 24
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(1967).
2. Admission of Statements of Witnesses Nevarez-Marrero and
Diaz-Nevarro
Reyes-Hernandez and Mojica-Baez seek to raise an
argument that had its brief moment in the sun but has since
faded. The claim is that two prosecution witnesses received
something of value from the government in return for their
testimony, to wit, a reduced sentence and a cash stipend
respectively, and that this violates 18 U.S.C. § 201(c)(2),
which prohibits offering "anything of value" as an inducement to
a witness. This court flatly rejected that argument in Lara,
181 F.3d at 197-98, and we do so here.
3. Exclusion of Melendez testimony
The defendants wanted to put on evidence from Tomas
Melendez attacking the credibility of FBI agent Carlos Cintron,
who gave testimony inculpating the defendants. In particular,
they wanted to attack the investigation performed by the agent.
The issue of the exclusion of such evidence is,
however, more complicated than that. The first salvo by the
defense was to move to dismiss the second superceding
indictment, supporting that motion with an affidavit from
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Melendez to the effect that the indictment was based on
statements from Melendez and that Melendez had been coached on
what to say by agent Cintron. In response to this, the district
court held an evidentiary hearing and heard Melendez testify.
The court found that Melendez had committed perjury and ordered
his imprisonment. The agent next testified. In the end, the
government moved to dismiss the second superceding indictment
and proceeded at trial only on the first superceding indictment.
Agent Cintron testified at trial. Cintron testified
that he participated in the arrests of Ramos-Cartagena, Reyes-
Hernandez, Mojica-Baez, and Vega-Coreano on May 28, 1997, at the
Joyuda Beach Parador, and he identified evidence obtained at the
time of the arrests. The evidence included false identification
cards and a receipt for a May 21, 1997, cash purchase of two
expensive watches, both found in Vega-Coreano's handbag; false
identification cards in Ramos-Cartagena’s wallet; more than
$1,000 in cash taken from Reyes-Hernandez's person; and
newspapers with stories about the Loomis Fargo robbery. Cintron
also testified that Landa-Rivera provided a false name upon his
arrest.
After the agent's examination, the defendants indicated
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they wanted to subpoena the agent to testify in their case. The
court, noting the agent had an obligation to testify in another
court a few days hence, offered the defendants the opportunity
to call him as their witness at that time. The court also noted
that it would not permit testimony on the matters already
covered at the evidentiary hearing, that is, matters regarding
the second superceding indictment. At the end of the day, the
defendants pressed the issue and said they wanted to inquire
about the limits and inadequacy of the investigation. The trial
judge said those matters could have been covered on cross-
examination and that this agent played only a limited role in
the investigation, but that he would allow the defendants to
recall Agent Cintron if, after a proffer outside of the jury, he
was convinced counsel was not attempting to reintroduce the
Melendez issue related to the second superceding indictment.
Later in the trial, counsel for Ramos-Cartagena asked
the court to permit Melendez to testify. The defense theory was
that a cursory investigation had been done -- that once a few
pieces of seemingly incriminatory evidence were found, the
authorities concentrated on trying to link what was found in
Ramos-Cartagena's house with the Loomis Fargo robbery. This,
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they contended, evidenced bias by the government, and that bias
was exemplified by Melendez being used by Cintron to obtain the
second superceding indictment. The government responded that
while that argument may have been relevant to the second
superceding indictment, that indictment had been dismissed, and
the argument was not relevant to the charges before the jury.
Defense counsel countered that the testimony of two other
witnesses buttressed their claim that the government had not
adequately investigated the crime, and the government agreed
that Agent Cintron could be brought back so those points could
be pursued. The defendants pressed for permission to call
Melendez as a witness, but the court refused, saying Melendez
had committed perjury. Ramos-Cartagena, Reyes-Hernandez, and
Mojica-Baez claim the district court erred in not allowing them
to call Melendez as a witness.
The district court did not abuse its discretion. As
the trial judge recognized, there was considerable danger in
getting into a peripheral matter that had already been disposed
of -- the second superceding indictment. The probative value of
Melendez's testimony to the defendants' attempt to attack the
government’s investigation was weak, at best. The defendants
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had a number of opportunities to make such an attack, some of
which they took. They had the opportunity to recall agent
Cintron and chose not take it. The trial judge’s ruling,
particularly with regard to a witness already determined to be
a perjurer, was eminently reasonable.
We need not address the government’s additional
argument that the proposed Melendez testimony would be
prohibited under Federal Rule of Evidence 608 as impeachment by
extrinsic evidence.
4. Admission of Tools of the Trade
During the robbery, the gunmen bragged that they were
"professionals." At trial, the government put in certain
physical evidence seized from the defendants' homes on the
theory that the items were the "tools of the trade" of
professional robbers. The evidence included ski masks, bullets,
a blue police emergency light, and police uniforms. There was
no claim by the government that these were used during the
Loomis Fargo robbery.
Reyes-Hernandez, Ramos-Cartagena, and Mojica-Baez claim
the evidence is impermissible character propensity evidence
barred by Federal Rule of Evidence 404(b) and that it should
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have been excluded as overly prejudicial under Federal Rule of
Evidence 403.
There was no error. Disguises are common tools of the
trade and have been found admissible even if not used in the
crime charged. See, e.g., United States v. Candelaria-Silva,
162 F.3d 698, 705 (1st Cir. 1998). There was no unfair
prejudice to the defendants.
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5. Admission of Redacted Post-Arrest Admission of Papo, a Co-
Defendant Not On Trial
Rafael A. Baez-Gonzalez was a charged co-defendant who
was not on trial with these defendants. On May 23, 1997, FBI
agents went to his house and found almost $400,000 hidden on the
property. After he received his Miranda warnings, he signed a
waiver of rights and gave a statement. Baez-Gonzalez's
statement, redacted to remove the names of some of the
defendants, was admitted at trial through the testimony of an
FBI agent. The statement was that one week before the robbery
an individual told Baez-Gonzalez that he (the individual) would
be coming into some large money and asked Baez-Gonzalez whether
he would hold the money for him; and further, that the Friday or
Saturday after the robbery, the individual told Baez-Gonzalez
that the money was from the Loomis Fargo robbery.
Baez-Gonzalez’s redacted statement did not identify any
of the defendants. Other evidence identified Mojica-Baez as the
individual. Specifically, Nevarez-Marrero (the fellow jailmate)
testified that Mojica-Baez had told him that "somebody had taken
from one of his uncles almost half a million dollars, and he was
thinking that his own uncle was squealing on him." Nevarez-
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Marrero further testified that Mojica-Baez had told him that the
money was "[f]rom the holdup" and that he (Mojica-Baez) had
"given it to his uncle for safekeeping." While there was an
overruled objection to Nevarez-Marrero’s statement, there was no
objection to the FBI agent's testimony about Baez-Gonzalez's
statement. A Bruton objection was initially made to the Baez-
Gonzalez statement, see Bruton v. United States, 391 U.S. 123
(1968), but it was withdrawn upon counsel's learning that the
statement was redacted.5 Thus, there was no relevant objection
to the Baez-Gonzalez statement, although the issue is now
pursued on appeal by Mojica-Baez and Cartagena-Merced.
There was no clear theory of admissibility for Baez-
Gonzalez's statement; there is no evidence from the record that
the statement was admitted as a co-conspirator statement, and no
Petrozziello ruling was made as to the statement. See United
States v. Petrozziello, 548 F.2d 20, 23 (1st Cir. 1977). But
the defendants did not make these points at trial and so are in
a very weak position to argue them now.
The government urges that if there were any error, it
5 Reyes-Hernandez initially objected on the assumption that the
government was going to seek to introduce the statement as a
declaration against interest.
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was harmless. The defendants say that the claimed error was not
harmless, because if the Baez-Gonzalez statement had not been
admitted, the jury would have found that Nevarez-Marrero’s
statement, which was admissible, was not credible.
If there was any error, it was harmless. Baez-Gonzalez
was Mojica-Baez’s uncle; a huge and unexplained sum of money was
found buried at his home; and, considering the other evidence
that linked Mojica-Baez with the robbery, a jury could
reasonably infer that it came from Mojica-Baez, whether or not
Baez-Gonzalez's statement came in. The inference was given
greater strength by Nevarez-Marrero’s recounting of Mojica-
Baez’s own words.
6. Admission of Co-Conspirators' Statements
Mojica-Baez argues that it was a Petrozziello violation
for the district court to allow Diaz-Nevarro to testify
regarding statements made by co-conspirators after the robbery
had been committed and to admit the statement Baez-Gonzalez gave
following his arrest. See Petrozziello, 548 F.2d at 23. Baez-
Gonzalez's statement, which was not explicitly admitted as a co-
conspirator statement, was discussed above.
The main attack launched is that Diaz-Nevarro's
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testimony involved statements that were made after the robbery
and, thus, after the conspiracy ended. There is a distinction,
for purposes of the co-conspirator statement exception to the
hearsay rule, between an initial conspiracy to commit a crime
and later actions to conceal the crime. See Grunewald v. United
States, 353 U.S. 391, 399-406 (1957); Krulewitch v. United
States, 336 U.S. 440, 443-44 (1949); United States v. Twitty, 72
F.3d 228, 233-34 (1st Cir. 1995).
Our review of the district court's determination that
the statements were co-conspirator statements is for clear
error. See United States v. Portela, 167 F.3d 687, 703 (1st
Cir.), cert. denied, 120 S. Ct. 273 (1999). The district court
found that, in addition to the robbery, the conspiracy included
the division and hiding of the money, a ruling that is plainly
correct under United States v. Hickey, 596 F.2d 1082, 1089-90
(1st Cir. 1979). It was hardly clear error for the district
court to conclude that the robbers had not divided up all of the
abundant cash by the night of the robbery or even immediately
thereafter, and it is reasonable to conclude that it would have
taken at least a few days to count $5.5 million. The statements
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Diaz-Nevarro recounted were made well within this time frame.6
The district court also admitted the evidence on a
theory that the conspiracy included the concealment of the
crime. The district court found that the conspiracy included
"the use of false identifications by some of the defendants to
hide their true identities and escape detection and punishment."
This ground is much more problematic in light of Krulewitch, 336
U.S. at 443-44, but the other ground suffices to admit the
statements.
We do not reach the government's alternate ground, that
the statements are admissible under Federal Rule of Evidence
6 Diaz-Nevarro testified as to two statements Vega-Coreano made
to her. Vega-Coreano told Diaz-Nevarro on the day of the robbery that
Ramos-Cartagena and Reyes-Hernandez "went to Ponce" (the location of
the robbery), and, when Diaz-Nevarro mentioned news coverage of the
robbery, Vega-Coreano said "it was them." The two Vega-Coreano
statements are attacked as not being in furtherance of the conspiracy;
but they may be understood as an effort by the one woman implicitly to
secure the silence of the other.
Mojica-Baez also challenges Diaz-Nevarro's testimony that,
two days after the robbery, she overheard two of the conspirators
describing to Vega-Coreano how a guard was hit. Mojica-Baez describes
the statement Diaz-Nevarro overheard as coming from Reyes-Hernandez and
Landa-Rivera. Diaz-Nevarro testified, however, that she heard Reyes-
Hernandez making this statement. We assume this is the statement to
which Mojica-Baez raises an objection. We do not decide whether this
conversation was in furtherance of the conspiracy, as, even if it was
error to admit the statement, any error was harmless in light of all
the other testimony Diaz-Nevarro gave.
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807, the residual hearsay exception.
7. Cumulative Evidentiary Errors
The defendants also appear to argue that even if any
error in admitting a particular item of evidence was harmless,
the cumulative effects of the errors denied them a fair trial.
See United States v. Sepulveda, 15 F.3d 1161, 1195-96 (1st Cir.
1993). Given our rulings on the evidentiary issues and the very
limited number of errors we have deemed harmless, there is
nothing to this argument.
C. Limiting Instructions
Cartagena-Merced says instructions should have been
given limiting to other defendants the testimony of Nevarez-
Marrero, the flight evidence, and the evidence of use of false
identification cards. No such limiting instructions were
sought, and it was hardly plain error, much less an abuse of
discretion, for the district court not to give those
instructions sua sponte.
Cartagena-Merced also seeks to attack the admissibility
of the Diaz-Nevarro testimony and the tools of the trade
evidence, attacks that we have already rejected.
D. Sufficiency of the Evidence
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1. Mojica-Baez
Mojica-Baez's defense theory apparently was that he was
a 19-year-old innocent and that it was his 40-year-old uncle,
Baez-Gonzalez, who was one of the robbers. There was evidence,
though, that Mojica-Baez was at Ramos-Cartagena's house almost
daily during the two weeks preceding the robbery, that he loaded
weapons at the house the day before the robbery, and that, after
the robbery, he embraced Vega-Coreano, saying "We did it. We
did it," or "We won, we won." Mojica-Baez told Nevarez-Marrero
that he (Mojica-Baez) had given his uncle money from the Loomis
Fargo robbery for safekeeping and that he was worried his uncle
was squealing on him. AK-47 ammunition and part of the barrel
of an assault rifle were found in his home. Further, Mojica-
Baez was arrested while traveling from hotel to hotel after the
robbery with Ramos-Cartagena, Reyes-Hernandez, and Vega-Coreano.
The evidence was sufficient.
2. Cartagena-Merced
Cartagena-Merced offered an alibi defense that he was
at a birthday party for his mother the day of the robbery until
some time after 8:00 p.m., and he produced a photograph
allegedly showing him at the party. If he had been at the party
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until at least 8:00 p.m., he could not have been at the robbery.
Close scrutiny of the photo showed Cartagena-Merced was wearing
a watch, and, according to the government's expert, the time on
the watch was either 12:15 or 3:00.7 His false alibi was itself
evidence of guilt.
Cartagena-Merced ultimately premises his insufficiency
argument on the alleged "Limiting Instruction" errors discussed
above. There were no such errors and the argument fails.
Cartagena-Merced was seen at Ramos-Cartagena's house regularly
during the two weeks prior to the robbery; he arrived at the
house just after the robbery with Mojica-Baez (who then embraced
Vega-Coreano and exclaimed that they had been successful); and
FBI agents found a McDonald's bag containing $2,500 hidden in a
mattress and over $1,000 in a box and between the pages of a
magazine at his house. The evidence was sufficient to sustain
the conviction.
7 Cartagena-Merced's expert stated that the watch showed 7:10.
However, both Cartagena-Merced's expert and the government's expert
agreed that the photo from the previous frame on the roll (which was
not of Cartagena-Merced and which, if the photos in fact came from the
same roll, had to have been taken prior to the photo of Cartagena-
Merced) included a watch showing 7:50. Thus, the jury was entitled to
discredit Cartagena-Merced's expert's opinion that Cartagena-Merced's
watch showed 7:10 and to infer that the photo of Cartagena-Merced was
taken at 12:15 or 3:00 some time after the party.
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E. Sentencing
1. Use of Semi-Automatic Assault Weapon
Mojica Baez, Reyes-Hernandez, and Ramos-Cartagena say
that they should not have been sentenced to the mandatory ten
years imprisonment on Count 5 of the indictment for use of a
semiautomatic assault weapon. See 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1)(A),
(B). Use of an ordinary firearm results in a sentence of not
less than 5 years imprisonment. See id. § 924(c)(1)(A).
Subsection (B) of the statute provides, in relevant part:
If the firearm possessed by a person convicted of a
violation of this subsection -- (i) is a short-
barreled rifle, short-barreled shotgun, or
semiautomatic assault weapon, the person shall be
sentenced to a term of imprisonment of not less than
10 years . . . .
Id. § 924(c)(1)(B). A violation of § 924(c)(1) was charged in
the indictment without reference to subsection (B) and without
any reference to the type of weapon used. Reyes-Hernandez made
an objection at sentencing that there was inadequate evidence to
support the conclusion that a semiautomatic assault weapon was
used.
a. Effect of Castillo
After this appeal was briefed, the Supreme Court
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decided that the distinctions in 18 U.S.C. § 924(c)(1) between
types of firearms (which result in different sentences), were
elements of separate crimes and not just sentencing factors.
See Castillo v. United States, 120 S. Ct. 2090, 2091 (2000).
This means that the question of whether a firearm is a
semiautomatic assault weapon must (1) go to the jury, not the
judge, and (2) be proven beyond a reasonable doubt, not by a
preponderance of the evidence, as is true with sentencing
factors. See Apprendi v. New Jersey, 120 S. Ct. 2348, 2362-63
(2000) ("Other than the fact of a prior conviction, any fact
that increases the penalty for a crime beyond the prescribed
statutory maximum must be submitted to a jury, and proved beyond
a reasonable doubt."); Sustache-Rivera v. United States, No. 99-
2128, 2000 WL 1015879, at *1 (1st Cir. July 25, 2000). At our
request, counsel filed supplemental briefs on the effect of
Castillo on this case.
The only objections at sentencing regarding the
§ 924(c)(1) conviction did not encompass Castillo's distinction
between sentencing factors and elements.8 Nor were the arguments
8 Although Reyes-Hernandez argues that his objection at
sentencing -- that there was insufficient evidence with regard to the
type of the weapons used -- encompassed Castillo's distinction between
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in the initial briefs on appeal addressed to this point. As a
result, our review of this type of trial error is for plain
error. Plain error review requires four showings: that there
was error; that it was plain; that the error affected
substantial rights; and that the error seriously affected the
fairness, integrity or public reputation of judicial
proceedings. See Johnson v. United States, 520 U.S. 461, 467
(1997); United States v. Olano, 507 U.S. 725, 732 (1993). The
first two criteria are met here; there was error, and it was
plain, at least by the time of argument on the direct appeal.
See Johnson, 520 U.S. at 468.
The "affecting substantial rights test" for trial error
means that the error must have caused prejudice. See Olano, 507
U.S. at 734. However, unlike the harmless error test, in which
the government bears the burden of showing that an error did not
result in any prejudice, the defendant bears the burden of
showing prejudice under the plain error test. See id. Thus,
the "affecting substantial rights" prong of the test is not
satisfied simply by showing that an element of an offense was
a sentencing factor and an element of the crime, that objection clearly
did not address the point.
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not submitted to the jury. See United States v. Pérez-Montañez,
202 F.3d 434, 442 (1st Cir. 2000), petition for cert. filed on
July 5, 2000 (U.S. No. 00-5096); see also Neder v. United
States, 527 U.S. 1, 15 (1999) (holding that failure to submit an
element to the jury is trial error, subject to harmless error
review). Instead, to show prejudice, the defendants must
demonstrate that the error "affected the outcome of the district
court proceedings." United States v. Colón-Muñoz, 192 F.3d 210,
222 (1st Cir. 1999) (internal quotation marks and citation
omitted), cert. denied, 120 S. Ct. 1559 (2000).
The trial error alleged under Castillo is the failure
to have submitted the question of whether the robbers used a
semiautomatic assault weapon to the jury. We ask, then, what
prospects there were that submission of the question to the jury
would have resulted in a different outcome, keeping in mind the
higher standard of proof required before a jury. None of the
defendants' briefs address the key question: whether, given the
evidence actually introduced as to the weapons used, there was
any prejudice from the failure to have submitted the question to
the jury. Rather than treat the issue as waived, we address it.
One of the Loomis Fargo guards testified at trial that one of
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the robbers was carrying an AK-47. The robbers twice told the
guards they had AK-47 rifles, and AK-47 rounds were found at
some of the defendants' homes. One of the robbers claimed that
his weapon could shoot through cement, and an FBI firearms
instructor testified that an AK-47 round is capable of
penetrating cement. The FBI firearms instructor also testified
that the weapon in the photograph of Ramos-Cartagena was an AK-
47. He further testified that an AK-47 can operate either as a
semiautomatic or as a fully automatic weapon. In light of this
evidence, the defendants have not met their burden of showing
prejudice, nor would we, applying the fourth Olano factor, find
any miscarriage of justice.
The defendants' main argument, though, is based upon
the fact that the indictment only charged them with a violation
of § 924(c)(1) for use of a firearm during the robbery, but did
not specifically charge them with a violation under subsection
(B) of the statute or state that a semiautomatic assault weapon
was used in the robbery. They urge, therefore, that this is not
an instance merely of trial error. This requires, they say,
that their convictions for the § 924(c)(1) violation be
-38-
reversed,9 because such indictment errors are not subject to
harmless or plain error analysis. In other words, they claim
that the indictment was fatally deficient, and that this, per
se, requires reversal. They do not argue that the indictment
failed to provide them with fair notice of the charge against
them.
Mojica-Baez cites to some recent cases for the
proposition that omission of an element from an indictment is
never harmless error. He relies on United States v. Du Bo, 186
F.3d 1177 (9th Cir. 1999) (reversing conviction and dismissing
indictment for failure to include element of the charged
offense), but that case involved a timely pre-trial challenge to
9 Defendants' choice of remedy is overreaching. There is no
question that the indictment fairly and adequately charged them with
the basic "use of a firearm" offense under § 924(c)(1)(A). And there
is no question that the government proved the elements of that offense
beyond a reasonable doubt and that the elements were found by the jury.
In fact, there were no objections to the sentencing for the firearm
offense until the government requested that the court sentence the
defendants to the longer term pursuant to the semiautomatic assault
weapon subsection of the statute, and the objections went only to the
sufficiency of the evidence.
As a result, the only possible relief for the defendants
would be a remand for reindictment, see United States v. Spinner, 180
F.3d 514, 517 (3rd Cir. 1999), or resentencing, see United States v.
Rudisill, No. 99-4588, 2000 WL 620314, at *1 (4th Cir. May 15, 2000)
(per curiam) (unpublished); United States v. Matthews, 178 F.3d 295,
301 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 120 S. Ct. 359 (1999). We do not decide
whether the proper remedy would be remanding for reindictment or for
resentencing.
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a deficient indictment. See id. at 1179. The case expressly
limits its analysis to timely challenges. See id. at 1180 n.3.
In a later unpublished opinion, that court declined to abandon
harmless error analysis where the claim was not timely made at
or before trial. See United States v. Woodruff, No. 98-10358,
1999 WL 776213, at **1 n.5 (9th Cir. Sept. 29, 1999)
(unpublished), cert. denied, 120 S. Ct. 2202 (2000). Closer to
defendants' mark is the Tenth Circuit's recent decision in
United States v. Prentiss, 206 F.3d 960 (10th Cir. 2000),
vacating a conviction based on a post-conviction challenge to an
indictment that had failed to include an element of the crime
charged.10 See id. at 966. The court described the indictment's
failure to include all of the essential elements of the offense
and the indictment's lack of other language that would have
remedied the omission as a "fundamental jurisdictional defect
that is not subject to harmless error analysis." Id. at 975.
Prentiss was decided over an argument in dissent that the
decision was inconsistent with Neder. See Prentiss, 206 F.3d at
10 It is not clear from the Prentiss opinion whether the court
vacated the conviction or reversed the conviction. The court simply
stated that it was vacating the conviction and remanding for further
proceedings, but in the following sentence it stated that it was
reversing the conviction. See Prentiss, 206 F.3d at 977.
-40-
978-79 (Baldock, J., dissenting). The majority thought Neder
was inapplicable, primarily because Neder involved a failure to
submit an element of an offense to a petit jury rather than to
a grand jury. See Prentiss, 206 F.3d at 977 n.14. Furthermore,
the Third Circuit vacated a guilty plea in United States v.
Spinner, 180 F.3d 514 (3rd Cir. 1999), remanding so that the
defendant could be reindicted where the original indictment had
failed to allege the interstate commerce element of the crime.
See id. at 517. Spinner did not mention Neder and was concerned
with an element that went to the constitutionally required basis
for federal jurisdiction. In addition, in United States v.
Rudisill, No. 99-4588, 2000 WL 620314 (4th Cir. May 15, 2000)
(unpublished), the court vacated a sentence where the indictment
had not referenced the statutory section. See id. at *1.
Rudisill also did not discuss Neder.11
We accept as true two general propositions. Those
11 These cases may be part of a renewed interest in the role of
the grand jury as a bulwark against prosecutorial abuse. See generally
National Ass'n of Criminal Defense Lawyers, Federal Grand Jury Reform
Report & 'Bill of Rights' (2000). As the Du Bo court noted, "[a]t
common law, 'the most valuable function of the grand jury was . . . to
stand between the prosecutor and the accused, and to determine whether
the charge was founded upon credible testimony . . . ." Du Bo, 186
F.3d at 1179 (quoting Hale v. Henkel, 201 U.S. 43, 59 (1906)).
-41-
propositions do not mean, though, that the defendants' argument
is sound. The first proposition is that an objection that an
indictment fails to state an essential element of an offense
"shall be noticed by the court at any time during the pendency
of the proceedings." Fed. R. Crim. P. 12(b)(2). This means
that the defendant may raise the objection for the first time on
appeal or that this court may raise the issue sua sponte. See
United States v. Forbes, 16 F.3d 1294, 1297 (1st Cir. 1994);
United States v. Seuss, 474 F.2d 385, 387 n.2 (1st Cir. 1973).
The second proposition is that a statutory citation standing
alone in an indictment does not excuse the government's failure
to set forth each of the elements of an offense. See Forbes, 16
F.3d at 1297; United States v. McLennan, 672 F.2d 239, 243 (1st
Cir. 1982). An indictment may incorporate the words of a
statute to set forth the offense, but the statutory language
"must be accompanied with such a statement of the facts and
circumstances as will inform the accused of the specific
offence, coming under the general description, with which he is
charged." Hamling v. United States, 418 U.S. 87, 117-18 (1974)
(quoting United States v. Hess, 124 U.S. 483, 487 (1888))
(internal quotation marks omitted). We do not decide here
-42-
whether the indictment was defective or inadequate for its
failure to do more than refer to the "use of a firearm" statute
in the context of accusing defendants of using a firearm in the
robbery, see id. (stating that, to be adequate, indictment must
fairly inform a defendant of the charges against him and enable
him to assert a double jeopardy defense to future prosecution),
but we take it that there is an argument that it was inadequate.
The government's brief seems to assume, without analysis, that
the indictment was inadequate.
The argument that the sentences should be vacated is
premised upon the distinction between "trial error," which is
reviewed for prejudice (discussed above), and the more
fundamental "structural error," which is per se prejudicial.
Certain categories of error interfere with such basic and
fundamental constitutional protections that they go to the
structure of our criminal law system. These "structural errors"
require that convictions, or sentences, be set aside without any
examination of prejudice because, among other things, it would
be well-nigh impossible to determine the amount of harm. The
harm caused by these types of error is surely great, though, as
when a defendant is deprived of counsel, see Gideon v.
-43-
Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335 (1963), or when the trial judge is
biased, see Tumey v. Ohio, 273 U.S. 510 (1927). Other errors
have been designated as structural in order to vindicate
compelling constitutional policies, such as freeing the trial
and grand jury processes from state-sponsored discrimination in
the selection of jurors, see Vasquez v. Hillery, 474 U.S. 254
(1986); preserving open and public trials, see Waller v.
Georgia, 467 U.S. 39 (1984); and reinforcing the core of the
principle of proof beyond a reasonable doubt in criminal cases,
see Sullivan v. Louisiana, 508 U.S. 275 (1993).
The error in this case is not of that dimension. No
interest in safeguarding fair trials or vindicating compelling
constitutional policies would be served by classifying the error
here as structural. Nor do we think the integrity of the
judicial system is implicated. See Johnson, 520 U.S. at 469-70.
The reason the indictment in this case did not specify that a
semiautomatic assault weapon or AK-47 had been used in the
robbery was that circuit precedent at the time did not require
it. After the defendants in this case were convicted, but prior
to their sentencing, we decided that § 924(c)(1)'s subsections
defined sentencing factors and not elements of separate
-44-
offenses. See United States v. Shea, 150 F.3d 44, 51 (1st
Cir.), cert. denied, 525 U.S. 1030 (1998). It is one thing to
vacate a conviction or sentence where the prosecutor failed to
indict in accordance with the current state of the law. It is
quite another thing to vacate a conviction or sentence based on
an indictment that was entirely proper at the time. Neither
the prosecution nor defense counsel in this case anticipated
that the Supreme Court would rule as it did in Castillo.
There are some serious harms, to be sure, that can
emerge from flawed indictments. The most serious may be when a
defendant is without fair notice of the charges against him.
See United States v. Murphy, 762 F.2d 1151, 1155 (1st Cir.
1985). The defendants have not argued on appeal that they
lacked fair notice. Moreover, when the government requested
that the defendants be sentenced pursuant to the semiautomatic
assault weapon subsection, the defendants made no claim of lack
of fair notice. The § 924(c)(1) charge against the defendants
put them on notice that they could be sentenced for using a
semiautomatic assault weapon (pursuant to § 924(c)(1)(B)) if the
judge found, by a preponderance of the evidence, that such a
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weapon had been used.12 We see no unfairness to the defendants
in terms of notice.
We think we are compelled by the Supreme Court's
decision in Neder to subject the indictment error in this case
to plain error review. In Neder the court held that a jury
instruction "that omits an element of the offense does not
necessarily render a criminal trial fundamentally unfair or an
unreliable vehicle for determining guilt or innocence" and is,
therefore, subject to harmless error review. Neder, 527 U.S. at
9. This is so even though the Fifth Amendment requires the
government to prove every element of a criminal offense beyond
12 Whether the use of a semiautomatic assault weapon pursuant
to subsection (B) of § 924(c)(1) was an element of a separate offense
or a sentencing factor had not been decided in this circuit at the time
of the defendants' trial. Defendants had a great incentive to raise
the issue because of the less rigorous standard of proof upon which a
judge could make the finding at sentencing. However, we had already
decided, in an analogous context, that the subsections to the federal
carjacking statute that provide for longer sentences where a victim
suffers bodily injury were sentencing factors, not elements of an
independent offense. See United States v. Rivera-Gomez, 67 F.3d 993,
1000 (1st Cir. 1995). Other circuits agreed. See, e.g., United States
v. Oliver, 60 F.3d 547, 552 (9th Cir. 1995); United States v. Williams,
51 F.3d 1004, 1009 (11th Cir. 1995). These decisions were later
overturned in Jones v. United States, 526 U.S. 227, 251-52 (1999).
With regard to § 924(c)(1)'s subsections, at the time of defendants'
trial, there was a split among the circuits on the "sentencing factor
vs. element" issue. Compare United States v. Branch, 91 F.3d 699, 737-
41 (5th Cir. 1996) (sentencing factor), with United States v. Alerta,
96 F.3d 1230, 1235 (9th Cir. 1996) (element).
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a reasonable doubt, see In re Winship, 397 U.S. 358, 364 (1970),
and the Sixth Amendment requires that a jury, and not a judge,
find that the elements of the offense have been proven, see
Sullivan v. Louisiana, 508 U.S. 275, 277 (1993). It is true, as
the majority in Prentiss says, that Neder was explicitly
concerned with the failure to submit an element of an offense to
the petit jury at trial and not with the failure to present an
element to the grand jury to secure an indictment. See
Prentiss, 206 F.3d at 977 n.14. But we do not think that
distinction is significant where the indictment provided the
defendant with fair notice of the charges against him. The
Neder court explained that "most constitutional errors can be
harmless." Neder, 527 U.S. at 8 (internal quotation marks and
citation omitted).
Prior to Neder, the Court had recognized other
constitutional errors that can be harmless. See, e.g., Arizona
v. Fulminante, 499 U.S. 279, 310 (1991) (erroneous admission of
evidence in violation of Fifth Amendment guarantee against self-
incrimination may be harmless); Delaware v. Van Arsdall, 475
U.S. 673, 684 (1986) (erroneous exclusion of evidence in
violation of defendant's Sixth Amendment right to confront
-47-
witnesses may be harmless). Against this background, we see no
reason why harmless error review should not apply to the failure
to include an element in an indictment that otherwise provided
the defendants with fair notice of the charges against them.
Cf. United States v. Jackson, 214 F.3d 687, 690 (6th Cir. 2000)
(suggesting that harmless error analysis might be appropriate
where an element of an offense was not specifically included in
the indictment or submitted to the jury).
This approach is consistent with circuit law concerning
other defects in indictments. See, e.g., United States v.
Yefsky, 994 F.2d 885, 894 (1st Cir. 1993) (applying harmless
error review where indictment did not give the defendant
adequate notice of the charges against him, but where adequate
notice had been given prior to trial). Even where a defendant
alleges that there was misconduct before the grand jury, the
harmless error test applies. See United States v. Mechanik, 475
U.S. 66, 71-72 (1986); see also United States v. Lamela, 942
F.2d 100, 104 n.7 (1st Cir. 1991).
The evidence as to use of semiautomatic assault weapons
was, at it happens, presented to the petit jury (we are doubtful
that much rests on it being presented to the jury as opposed to
-48-
the judge). That evidence may well have also been presented to
the grand jury; we do not know. There is no question that the
petit jury in this case would have found that the defendants
used at least one AK-47. To paraphrase Neder, the indictment's
failure to charge the defendants under the semiautomatic assault
weapon subsection of the statute did not necessarily render the
indictment unfair or make it an unreliable vehicle with which to
commence the proceedings in this case. See Neder, 527 U.S. at
9. We reject the argument that Castillo requires the sentences
be vacated based on an error in the indictment.
b. Sufficiency of the Evidence
Viewing the issue not as a Castillo issue but simply
as an issue of whether the trial judge's determination was
sufficiently supported by the record, we find there was no
error. The 10-year sentences under § 924(c)(1)(B) for Ramos-
Cartagena, Cartagena-Merced, Reyes-Hernandez, and Mojica-Baez
are affirmed.
2. Landa-Rivera's Sentencing
Landa-Rivera was convicted of being an accessory after
the fact to the robbery, in violation of 18 U.S.C. §§ 3,
2113(a). He makes two arguments on appeal. First he says, and
-49-
the government agrees, that while he was charged and convicted
for being an accessory to a simple robbery, see 18 U.S.C.
§ 2113(a), he was erroneously sentenced as though he were an
accessory to an armed robbery, see 18 U.S.C. § 2113(d). The
government asks that this aspect of the sentence be remanded for
resentencing, and we do so.
Second, Landa-Rivera argues that the district court
erred in calculating his total offense level. We review the
applicability and interpretation of a sentencing guideline de
novo, but we review the district court's factual findings at
sentencing only for clear error. See United States v. Cali, 87
F.3d 571, 575 (1st Cir. 1996). Landa-Rivera makes two separate
claims relating to the calculation of his offense level. First,
he claims the court incorrectly increased his offense level for
"specific offense characteristics that were known, or reasonably
should have been known, by the defendant."13 U.S.S.G. § 2X3.1,
application note 1. According to Landa-Rivera, since being an
13 Specifically, he asserts error for the following increases:
five levels because of the use of firearms, under U.S.S.G.
§ 2B3.1(b)(2)(C); three levels because the guards were restrained and
firearms were taken from them, under U.S.S.G. § 2B3.1(b)(4)(B), (b)(6);
and two levels because the guards sustained bodily injuries, under
U.S.S.G. § 2B3.1(b)(3)(A).
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accessory after the fact is not itself a crime of violence,
sentencing enhancements related to the violent nature of the
robbery in this case should not apply to him. He is incorrect.
The relevant Guidelines sections make clear that the specific
characteristics of the underlying offense constitute relevant
conduct for the purpose of calculating an accessory sentence.
Application note 1 of § 2X3.1 (the accessory after the fact
guideline) references § 1B1.3, application note 10, for purposes
of computing the total offense level. That note, in turn,
states, "In the case of . . . accessory after the fact, the
conduct for which the defendant is accountable includes all
conduct relevant to determining the offense level for the
underlying offense that was known, or reasonably should have
been known, by the defendant." U.S.S.G. § 1B1.3, application
note 10 (emphasis added). As a factual matter, there was no
clear error in finding that Landa-Rivera knew or should have
known of these characteristics of the robbery. In fact, the
record shows that Landa-Rivera recounted the details of the
robbery to Nevarez-Marrero and Diaz-Nevarro.
Landa-Rivera's second argument is that there was
insufficient evidence to support a finding that he knew or
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should have known that the property of a financial institution
was taken, see U.S.S.G. § 2B3.1(b)(1), and that the total losses
were over $5 million, see U.S.S.G. § 2B3.1(b)(7)(H). There was
no error. Landa-Rivera told Nevarez-Marrero that over $5
million had been stolen; there was ample evidence that much of
the money came from banks -- Banco Popular and Banco Santander
in particular; and it was reasonable for the trial judge to
conclude that Landa-Rivera knew or should have known this
information.
III.
The convictions and sentences of defendants Mojica-
Baez, Reyes-Hernandez, Cartagena-Merced, and Ramos-Cartagena are
affirmed. Defendant Landa-Rivera's conviction is affirmed, but
his sentence is vacated and remanded for resentencing in
accordance with this opinion.
So ordered.
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