Robert Yates v. Municipal Mortgage & Equity

PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

No. 12-2496

ROBERT YATES, MJG−08−269; ALAN S. BARRY, MJG−08−269; DAVID
YOUNG, MJG−08−269; CARLO HORNSBY; ED FRIEDLANDER,
MJG−08−269; PAUL ENGEL, individually and on behalf of all
others similarly situated MJG−08−292; WILLIAM D. FELIX;
DAVID KREMSER, on behalf of himself and on behalf of Elk
Meadow Investments, LLC; CHARLES W. DAMMEYER, on behalf of
himself and others similarly situated,

Plaintiffs – Appellants,

and

F. RICHARD MANSON, individually and on behalf of, all
others similarly situated MJG−08−269; GEETA SHAILAM,
individually and on behalf of all others similarly situated
MJG−08−386; MICHAEL J. CIRRITO, individually and on behalf
of all others similarly situated MJG−08−476; JOHN J.
HUFNAGLE, individually and on behalf of all others
similarly situated MJG−08−579; WILLIAM JOHNSTON,
derivatively on behalf of Municipal Mortgage & Equity, LLC
MJG−08−670; ROBERT STAUB, derivatively on behalf of
Municipal Mortgage & Equity, LLC MJG−08−802; THE MARY L.
KIESER TRUST, by Mary L. Kieser and Ralph F. Kieser,
Trustees, derivatively and on behalf of Nominal Defendant,
Municipal Mortgage & Equity LLC MJG−08−805; JUDITH
GREENBERG; JOSEPH S. GELMIS, individually and on behalf of
all others similarly situated MJG−08−2133; ARNOLD J. ROSS,
MJG−08−2133; TROY BROY; JULES ROTHAS, individually and on
behalf of all others similarly situated MJG−08−2134; NAOMI
RAPHAEL; FAFN/SLATER GROUP; KREMSER GROUP, MJG−08−269,

Plaintiffs,

v.

MUNICIPAL MORTGAGE & EQUITY, LLC; MELANIE M. LUNDQUIST;
MICHAEL L. FALCONE; MERRILL LYNCH PIERCE FENNER AND SMITH
INCORPORATED; RBC CAPITAL MARKETS, LLC.; MARK K. JOSEPH;
CHARLES C. BAUM; EDDIE C. BROWN; ROBERT S. HILLMAN; DOUGLAS
A. MCGREGOR; ARTHUR S. MEHLMAN; FRED N. PRATT, JR.; RICHARD
O. BERNDT; WILLIAM S. HARRISON; DAVID KAY; CHARLES M.
PINCKNEY,

Defendants – Appellees,

and

GARY A. MENTESANA; BARBARA B. LUCAS; EARL W. COLE, III;
ANGELA B. BARONE,

Defendants.

Appeal from the United States District Court for the District of
Maryland, at Baltimore. Marvin J. Garbis, Senior District
Judge. (1:08-md-01961-MJG)

Argued: October 30, 2013 Decided: March 7, 2014

Before DIAZ and FLOYD, Circuit Judges, and Joseph F. ANDERSON,
Jr., United States District Judge for the District of South
Carolina, sitting by designation.

Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Diaz wrote the opinion, in
which Judge Floyd and Judge Anderson joined.

ARGUED: David A.P. Brower, BROWER PIVEN, New York, New York, for
Appellants. Mark Holland, New York, New York, William M. Jay,
GOODWIN PROCTER LLP, Washington, D.C.; Jason J. Mendro, GIBSON,
DUNN & CRUTCHER LLP, Washington, D.C., for Appellees. ON BRIEF:
Charles J. Piven, Yelena Trepetin, BROWER PRIVEN, Stevenson,
Maryland; Sherrie R. Savett, Barbara A. Podell, Eric Lechtzin,
BERGER & MONTAGUE, P.C., Philadelphia, Pennsylvania; Kim E.
Miller, KAHN SWICK & FOTI, LLC, New York, New York; Susan K.
Alexander, Andrew S. Love, ROBBINS GELLER RUDMAN & DOWD LLP, San
Francisco, California, for Appellants. Jonathan C. Dickey,
GIBSON, DUNN & CRUTCHER LLP, New York, New York, for Appellees
Merrill Lynch Pierce Fenner and Smith Incorporated, and RBC
Capital Markets, LLC. Mary K. Dulka, GOODWIN PROCTER LLP, New
York, New York; Anthony Candido, CLIFFORD CHANCE LLP, New York,

2
New York; Stephen A. Goldberg, Ward B. Coe III, GALLAGHER
EVELIUS & JONES LLP, Baltimore, Maryland, for Appellees
Municipal Mortgage & Equity, LLC, Mark K. Joseph, William S.
Harrison, Charles M. Pinckney, and David Kay. William M.
Krulak, Jr., MILES & STOCKBRIDGE P.C., Baltimore, Maryland, for
Appellees Charles C. Baum, Richard O. Berndt, Eddie C. Brown,
Robert S. Hillman, Douglas A. McGregor, Arthur S. Mehlman, and
Fred N. Pratt, Jr. Charles O. Monk, II, Geoffrey M. Gamble,
SAUL EWING LLP, Baltimore, Maryland, for Appellee Michael L.
Falcone. David W.T. Daniels, RICHARDS KIBBE & ORBE LLP,
Washington, D.C., for Appellee Melanie Lundquist.

3
DIAZ, Circuit Judge:

This case involves claims that Municipal Mortgage & Equity

(“MuniMae” or the “Company”), and certain of its officers and

directors (collectively, the “MuniMae defendants”), violated

federal securities laws. 1 Plaintiffs, both individually and as

class representatives, contend that the MuniMae defendants

committed securities fraud by (1) falsely representing that the

Company was in full compliance with a new accounting standard

enacted in 2003; and (2) concealing the substantial cost of

correcting the accounting error. Plaintiffs allege that they

relied on the integrity of the market price of the Company’s

stock, and that, as a result of the MuniMae defendants’

fraudulent conduct, investors paid an artificially inflated

price for MuniMae shares during the class period.

The district court dismissed plaintiffs’ claims under

§§ 10(b) and 20(a) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934,

finding that the amended complaint failed to adequately plead

scienter, or wrongful intent. The court also dismissed claims

under §§ 11, 12(a)(2), and 15 of the Securities Act of 1933

relating to a secondary public offering (“SPO”). The court

1
Plaintiffs also sued Merrill Lynch, Pierce, Fenner &
Smith, Inc. and RBC Capital Markets Corp., who served as lead
underwriters in a secondary public offering conducted by MuniMae
in 2005.

4
found the § 11 claim time-barred by the applicable statute of

repose, and that plaintiffs lacked standing to bring the

§ 12(a)(2) claim. It dismissed the § 15 claim because

plaintiffs failed to adequately plead a primary violation of the

Securities Act. 2

For the reasons that follow, we affirm.

I.

In reviewing the district court's dismissal under Federal

Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), “we ‘accept all factual

allegations in the complaint as true.’” Matrix Capital Mgmt.

Fund, LP v. BearingPoint, Inc., 576 F.3d 172, 176 (4th Cir.

2009) (quoting Tellabs, Inc. v. Makor Issues & Rights, Ltd., 551

U.S. 308, 322, (2007)). And as did the district court, we take

judicial notice of the content of relevant SEC filings and other

publicly available documents included in the record. See In re

PEC Solutions, Inc. Sec. Litig., 418 F.3d 379, 390 & n.10 (4th

Cir. 2005).

2
The district court refused to dismiss three other claims
alleging violations of the Securities Act. After some
procedural skirmishing not relevant to this appeal, the parties
filed a joint motion requesting that the district court certify
the dismissed claims as final pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil
Procedure 54(b). Finding no just reason for delay, the court
granted the motion. We are satisfied that the district court
acted appropriately in certifying its order under Rule 54(b).
See Culosi v. Bullock, 596 F.3d 195, 203 (4th Cir. 2010).

5
 A.

The putative class period for this case spans from May 3,

2004, to January 29, 2008. During that period, MuniMae was one

of the nation’s largest syndicators of low-income housing tax

credits (“LIHTCs”). Federal tax law provides LIHTCs to

developers of low-income rental housing. Because most

developers cannot take advantage of these credits, financial

services companies, like MuniMae, organize LIHTC investment

partnerships (“LIHTC Funds”) to pool and sell the credits to

investors.

MuniMae usually acted as the general partner of its LIHTC

Funds during the class period, and it received syndication and

asset management fees for organizing and maintaining them.

Although its ownership share was generally low, ranging from

0.1% to 1.0%, it was typically larger than that of any single

investor. Prior to 2003, MuniMae primarily treated these LIHTC

Funds as off balance sheet entities.

In 2003, the Financial Accounting Standards Board adopted

Financial Accounting Standards Board Interpretation No. 46R

(“FIN 46R”), which addressed the financial reporting

requirements of businesses with respect to off balance sheet

6
activity. 3 FIN 46R defined a new category of entities called

Variable Interest Entities (“VIEs”). Under FIN 46R, a company

must consolidate onto its financial statements the assets and

liabilities of a VIE if the company is its “primary

beneficiary,” that is, if the company absorbs the majority of

the risks and rewards associated with the VIE. Before the

adoption of this revised standard, a company was generally only

required to consolidate financial statements if it had a

majority voting interest in the entity.

The first quarter of 2004 was the first period for which

MuniMae reported compliance with FIN 46R. The Company then

concluded that FIN 46R required it to consolidate some but not

all of its LIHTC Funds, which added a net $1.3 billion in assets

and liabilities to the Company’s financial statements. The

remaining unconsolidated LIHTC Funds had net assets of

approximately $970.3 million and liabilities of approximately

$90.8 million.

Through mid-2006, MuniMae continued to represent its

compliance with FIN 46R in financial reports filed with the SEC.

PricewaterhouseCoopers LLP (“PwC”), MuniMae’s independent public

accountant, certified that those reports had been prepared in

3
The Board initially adopted FIN 46 in January 2003. In
December 2003, it approved various amendments to FIN 46 and
released FIN 46R.

7
accordance with generally accepted accounting principles

(“GAAP”) for fiscal years 2004 and 2005. Between 2004 and 2006,

the Company also made a number of acquisitions and conducted

several offerings, including an SPO in February 2005. At the

end of 2005, Melanie Lundquist replaced William Harrison as the

Company’s CFO.

On March 10, 2006, MuniMae announced that it was restating

its financial statements for the nine-month period ending on

September 30, 2005, as well as fiscal years 2002 through 2004.

The restatement corrected certain financial reporting errors

that were unrelated to FIN 46R. MuniMae issued the restated

financial statements in June 2006.

In August, the Company disclosed that it had identified

“material weaknesses in internal controls over financial

reporting,” and that, as a result, it would be unable to “file

timely its second quarter 2006 Form 10-Q.” J.A. 65. A few

months later, on September 13, 2006, MuniMae announced that it

was again restating its financial statements for fiscal years

2003 through 2005, and for the first quarter of 2006. The

Company initially informed investors that the second restatement

would address three areas: (1) accounting for equity

commitments related to affordable housing projects; (2) the

classification of cash flow from tax credit equity funds; and

(3) accounting for syndication fees. About a month later,

8
however, MuniMae disclosed that it had “not yet reached a

conclusion regarding the extent of the [second] restatement.”

J.A. 1120.

On October 26, 2006, MuniMae announced that it was

replacing PwC as the Company’s independent public accountant.

The Company stated--and PwC agreed--that for fiscal years 2004

and 2005, and through October 2006, “there were no disagreements

with PwC on any matter of accounting principles or practices,

financial statement disclosure or audit scope or procedure which

disagreements if not resolved to the satisfaction of PwC would

have caused them to make reference thereto in their reports on

[MuniMae’s] financial statements.” J.A. 1120.

Three months later, the Company reported its 40th

consecutive increase in its quarterly dividend. In the same

announcement, the Company revealed that the second restatement

would address accounting errors with respect to FIN 46R, and

that the Company would “be required to consolidate substantially

all of the low income housing tax credit equity funds it has

interests in.” J.A. 1373.

On May 4, 2007, MuniMae disclosed that it would not be able

to timely file its 10-K for 2006 “[a]s a result of the

dedication of significant management resources to . . .

restatement efforts.” J.A. 1129. The Company noted that since

September 2006, it had identified additional material weaknesses

9
in its internal controls over financial reporting, including

with respect to its accounting of LIHTC Funds.

On July 10, 2007, MuniMae announced that it had hired

Navigant Consulting to assist its internal auditors in the

restatement. A month later, it disclosed more details about the

scope of the effort, noting that “there are approximately 92

people currently working on the restatement,” including “20

company employees and 72 consultants.” J.A. 1145. Around the

same time, Lundquist resigned and Charles Pinckney replaced her

as CFO.

MuniMae held a teleconference on November 8, 2007 to

further update investors. The Company stated that management

planned to ask the Board to continue the Company’s longstanding

policy of increasing the dividend distribution every quarter,

although it warned that “it is possible that the dividend payout

ratio for the full fiscal year 2007 may exceed 100% of the

Company’s net cash from operations due to the costs being

incurred by the Company from the restatement.” J.A. 1155. The

Company’s officers declined at that point to estimate the cost

of the second restatement, though they acknowledged the costs

were substantial.

On January 28, 2008, MuniMae announced that it was cutting

its quarterly dividend by 37%, from $0.525 to $0.33 per share.

The Company attributed the cut to “the cost of the Company’s

10
ongoing restatement of its financial statements, the decision

. . . to conserve capital . . . given the current volatility in

the credit and capital markets, and the desire to dedicate

additional capital to the high-growth Renewable Energy Finance

business.” J.A. 1171. At the same time, the Company stated

that it did “not believe the results of the restatement w[ould]

materially change the previously recorded cash balances of the

Company and its subsidiaries.” Id. Because the restatement

efforts were still ongoing, the Company also announced that it

anticipated being delisted from the New York Stock Exchange

because it could not meet a NYSE deadline for filing its 2006

Form 10-K. The price of MuniMae shares dropped 46.57%, from

$17.20 per share on January 28, to $9.19 per share on January

29, on unusually heavy trading volume.

MuniMae provided further details to investors regarding the

second restatement during a January 29 conference call. With

respect to FIN 46R, the Company disclosed that it had to

consolidate 230 LIHTC Funds, which required it to review 6,000

separate financial statements. Because the Company had no

automated process in place to review the accounting, this work

had to be done manually. Acknowledging that these developments

were a result of the Company’s “mistakes in the first

instance[,]” CEO Michael Falcone expressed his disappointment

and embarrassment over the “the amount of time and energy and

11
effort[] it’s taking us to fix them.” J.A. 1196. The price of

MuniMae shares dropped an additional 22.416%, to $7.13 per

share, on January 30, again on unusually heavy trading volume.

On April 9, 2008, MuniMae disclosed that it spent $54.1 million

to complete the second restatement.

B.

Shareholders filed multiple lawsuits against MuniMae,

certain of its officers and directors, and the lead underwriters

in the 2005 SPO, alleging violations of federal securities laws.

The actions were consolidated in the District of Maryland for

pretrial proceedings. See In re Mun. Mortg. & Equity, LLC, Sec.

& Derivative Litig., 571 F. Supp. 2d 1373 (J.P.M.L. 2008).

Plaintiffs filed the operative Consolidated Amended Class Action

Complaint on December 5, 2008.

Applying the heightened pleading standards of the Private

Securities Litigation Reform Act (“PSLRA”), 15 U.S.C. § 78u-4,

the district court held that plaintiffs’ Exchange Act claims

failed because the amended complaint did not adequately plead

scienter. See In re Mun. Mortg. & Equity, LLC, Sec. &

Derivative Litig., 876 F. Supp. 2d 616, 647 (D. Md. 2012). The

court also dismissed plaintiffs’ Securities Act claims with

respect to the SPO. It found the § 11 claim time-barred by the

statute of repose in § 13 of the Securities Act. See id. at

657. It also concluded that Charles Dammeyer, the only named

12
plaintiff asserting Securities Act claims with respect to the

SPO, lacked standing to bring a § 12(a)(2) claim, see id. at

661, and that the amended complaint failed to adequately plead

that the underwriter defendants were immediate sellers, see id.

at 662.

This appeal followed.

II.

A.

We first consider the district court’s dismissal of

plaintiffs’ claims under § 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act

of 1934 and SEC Rule 10b-5 for failing to adequately plead

scienter.

The purpose of the Exchange Act and its accompanying

regulations is to ensure that companies disclose the information

necessary for investors to make informed investment decisions.

See Taylor v. First Union Corp. of S.C., 857 F.2d 240, 246 (4th

Cir. 1988). Section 10(b) of the Act prohibits the use of “any

manipulative or deceptive device or contrivance” in connection

with the sale of a security in violation of SEC rules. See 15

U.S.C. § 78j(b). Rule 10b-5 implements § 10(b) by making it

unlawful, in connection with the sale of a security:

(a) To employ any device, scheme, or artifice to
defraud,

13
 (b) To make any untrue statement of a material fact or
to omit to state a material fact necessary in order to
make the statements made, in the light of the
circumstances under which they were made, not
misleading, or

(c) To engage in any act, practice, or course of
business which operates or would operate as a fraud or
deceit upon any person.

17 C.F.R. § 240.10b-5. The Supreme Court has recognized that

§ 10(b) provides an implied right of action for purchasers or

sellers of securities who have been injured by violations of the

statute. See Stoneridge Inv. Partners v. Scientific-Atlanta,

Inc., 552 U.S. 148, 157 (2008).

In a typical § 10(b) action, a private plaintiff must prove

six elements: “(1) a material misrepresentation or omission by

the defendant; (2) scienter; (3) a connection between the

misrepresentation or omission and the purchase or sale of a

security; (4) reliance upon the misrepresentation or omission;

(5) economic loss; and (6) loss causation.” Id.

To establish scienter, a plaintiff must prove that the

defendant acted with “a mental state embracing intent to

deceive, manipulate, or defraud.” Tellabs, 551 U.S. at 319

(internal quotation marks omitted). At the pleading stage,

alleging either intentional or severely reckless conduct is

sufficient. See Matrix Capital, 576 F.3d at 181. In the

§ 10(b) context, a reckless act is one that is “so highly

unreasonable and such an extreme departure from the standard of

14
ordinary care as to present a danger of misleading the plaintiff

to the extent that the danger was either known to the defendant

or so obvious that the defendant must have been aware of it.”

Id. (internal quotation marks omitted).

The PSLRA imposes a heightened pleading standard on fraud

allegations in private securities complaints. See Teachers’

Ret. Sys. of La. v. Hunter, 477 F.3d 162, 171-72 (4th Cir.

2007). The complaint must “state with particularity facts

giving rise to a strong inference that the defendant acted with

the required state of mind” with respect to each act that

allegedly violated the statute. 15 U.S.C. § 78u-4(b)(2). “[T]o

the extent a plaintiff alleges corporate fraud, the plaintiff

must allege facts that support a strong inference of scienter

with respect to at least one authorized agent of the

corporation.” Matrix Capital, 576 F.3d at 182 (internal

quotation marks omitted). To allege fraud against an individual

defendant, the plaintiff must allege facts supporting a strong

inference of scienter as to that person. See id.

Evaluating the strength of an inference is necessarily a

comparative inquiry. See Tellabs, 551 U.S. at 326-27. “[A]n

inference of scienter can only be strong . . . when it is

weighed against the opposing inferences that may be drawn from

the facts in their entirety.” Cozzarelli v. Inspire Pharm.

Inc., 549 F.3d 618, 624 (4th Cir. 2008). “A court must compare

15
the malicious and innocent inferences cognizable from the facts

pled in the complaint, and only allow the complaint to survive a

motion to dismiss if the malicious inference is at least as

compelling as any opposing innocent inference.” Zucco Partners,

LLC v. Digimarc Corp., 552 F.3d 981, 991 (9th Cir. 2009).

As applied here, “the question is whether the allegations

in the complaint, viewed in their totality and in light of all

the evidence in the record, allow us to draw a strong inference,

at least as compelling as any opposing inference,” that the

MuniMae defendants either knowingly or recklessly defrauded

investors by (1) issuing false financial statements as to the

Company’s compliance with FIN 46R, and (2) concealing the cost

of correctly consolidating LIHTC Funds in accordance with that

standard. See Pub. Emps.’ Ret. Ass’n of Co. v. Deloitte &

Touche LLP, 551 F.3d 305, 313 (4th Cir. 2009). “If we find the

inference that defendants acted innocently, or even negligently,

more compelling than the inference that they acted with the

requisite scienter, we must affirm.” Id.

B.

1.

We begin by considering whether the facts alleged in the

amended complaint give rise to an inference of scienter and, if

so, the strength of that inference. Although “we ultimately

evaluate plaintiffs’ allegations of scienter holistically, we

16
only afford their allegations the inferential weight warranted

by context and common sense.” Matrix Capital, 576 F.3d at 183.

Plaintiffs rely on four categories of allegations as to

scienter, to which we now turn.

a. Confidential Witness Statements

The amended complaint incorporates information obtained

from three confidential witness (“CW”) statements. “When the

complaint chooses to rely on facts provided by confidential

sources, it must describe the sources with sufficient

particularity to support the probability that a person in the

position occupied by the source would possess the information

alleged or in the alternative provide some other evidence to

support their allegations.” Teachers’ Ret., 477 F.3d at 174

(internal quotation marks omitted). “[O]missions and

ambiguities count against” an inference of scienter because a

complaint’s factual allegations must be stated with

particularity. Tellabs, 551 U.S. at 326; see also Institutional

Investors Grp. v. Avaya, Inc., 564 F.3d 242, 263 (3d Cir. 2009)

(noting that courts should steeply discount allegations from

confidential sources that lack sufficient indicia of

reliability). We present the allegations of each of the

confidential witnesses before assessing the strength of the

scienter inferences they support.

17
 i. Confidential Witness 3

CW3 served as a staff accountant and later a project

manager in MuniMae’s Internal Accounting Department. CW3

attended accounting meetings with several of the individual

defendants. According to CW3, MuniMae executives considered

restating the Company’s financial statements for months prior to

the announcement of the first restatement, in March 2006. CW3

also asserts that, at some point prior to the first restatement,

a PwC partner advised MuniMae to consolidate the remaining LIHTC

Funds, but certain MuniMae executives disagreed with that

recommendation. Specifically, “CW3’s bosses . . . argued with

PwC about how to classify the tax credit equity funds and how to

determine the percentage of ownership MuniMae held on each one.”

J.A. 84. 4

CW3 also states that the Company was “‘always’” in a state

of “‘some confusion and chaos’” as a result of MuniMae’s rapid

expansion. J.A. 68. As CW3 describes, the Company’s accounting

and legal staff was “bombarded with documentation” as the

Company expanded but lacked sufficient personnel to handle the

paper flow. J.A. 68-69. According to CW3, “the staff was

4
According to CW3, the PwC partner assigned to the MuniMae
account considered the Company’s audits to be “exceedingly
challenging” because MuniMae was a “‘high level, complex
company’ that required a sophisticated external auditing process
in order to comply with FIN 46.” J.A. 84.

18
unprepared professionally for the complex nature of the

accounting needed, particularly compliance with FIN 46R.” J.A.

69.

ii. Confidential Witness 2

CW2 served as an in-house certified public accountant from

late 2005 to April 2007. CW2 reported directly to then-CFO

Lundquist and MuniMae’s Chief Accounting Officer, Greg Thor.

CW2 asserts that by early 2006, Lundquist and Thor had concluded

that there were widespread problems with the accounting done

under former CFO Harrison. The problems led Thor to review,

among other things, the Company’s LIHTC Fund accounting.

According to CW2, by mid-2006 (at the time of the first

restatement), Lundquist knew that the primary beneficiary

determinations for most LIHTC Funds were incorrect and that the

Funds should have been consolidated under FIN 46R. CW2 also

asserts that Lundquist and Falcone were heavily involved in the

restatement effort, with Falcone receiving “updates regarding

the restatement at least on a weekly basis and sometimes on a

daily basis.” J.A. 82.

iii. Confidential Witness 1

Finally, CW1 was the administrative assistant to MuniMae’s

head of Internal Audit, Angela Barone, from June 2004 to June

2007. In that capacity, CW1 attended regular meetings to

discuss progress on ongoing audit work. According to CW1, at

19
some point, frustration with the progress of FIN 46R accounting

became a regular subject of discussion at the meetings, and

Barone communicated that frustration to Lundquist and Falcone. 5

CW1 recounts that Falcone sent a memo to all MuniMae employees

in Fall 2006 emphasizing that the auditing staff would be

focusing all of its energies on the second restatement. The

memo made clear that the related audit work “should be made a

priority and excuses regarding delays providing the Audit

Department with information would not be tolerated.” J.A. 81.

iv. Inferences from the CW Evidence

We conclude that the confidential witness statements permit

an inference that the MuniMae defendants knew, perhaps as early

as mid-2006, that the Company was not in compliance with FIN

46R, despite their representations to the contrary. The

allegations are also consistent with the inference that these

defendants knew--or at least suspected--by Fall 2006 that

consolidating the LIHTC Funds in accordance with FIN 46R would

be a difficult and costly undertaking.

Nonetheless, we agree with the district court that these

allegations do not support a strong inference of wrongful

intent. To begin with, the confidential witnesses do not

5
However, CW1 does not describe the nature of the
accountants’ frustration, nor is it clear precisely when these
discussions took place.

20
expressly assert that the MuniMae defendants intentionally or

recklessly failed to comply with GAAP or their own internal

accounting policies during the class period. The statements are

also generally vague and conclusory as to the MuniMae

defendants’ state of mind.

As even the amended complaint concedes, MuniMae struggled

throughout the class period with what its own former accountant

described as difficult and complex accounting. This complexity

was not helped by an accounting system that was in a constant

state of “‘confusion and chaos,’” J.A. 85, in no small part due

to the Company’s rapid expansion and inadequate staffing. The

MuniMae defendants may well have been negligent in failing to

properly apply FIN 46R to their business in the first instance,

and then by allowing the Company to be overwhelmed by the

resulting accounting tsunami. But plaintiffs’ allegations do

not support a powerful and compelling inference that these

defendants acted with wrongful intent or severe recklessness.

Cf. Zucco Partners, 552 F.3d at 1007 (“Although the allegations

in this case are legion . . . the facts alleged . . . point

towards the conclusion that [the defendant] was simply

overwhelmed with integrating a large new division into its

existing business.”).

That MuniMae’s officers and outside auditor debated how to

account for the LIHTC Funds in light of FIN 46R does not compel

21
an inference of wrongful intent. The more plausible inference

is that there was an honest disagreement over the proper

application of a challenging new accounting standard. That the

MuniMae defendants were ultimately wrong is not enough to

support an inference of scienter. Cf. DSAM Global Value Fund v.

Altris Software, Inc., 288 F.3d 385, 390 (9th Cir. 2002) (“[T]he

mere publication of inaccurate accounting figures, or a failure

to follow GAAP, without more, does not establish scienter.”

(quoting In re Software Toolworks, Inc., 50 F.3d 615, 627 (9th

Cir. 1994))).

As for CW2’s allegations regarding Lundquist’s knowledge of

the FIN 46R issues, they too fail to support a strong inference

that she--or anyone else--acted with fraudulent purpose. Even

if, as plaintiffs allege, Lundquist began to suspect a problem

with the FIN 46R accounting at the time the first restatement

began in March 2006, we are not persuaded that she then hatched

a plot to defraud the investing public.

To the contrary, we are skeptical that Lundquist would sign

off on the first restatement in June 2006 without addressing FIN

46R issues, thus subjecting herself to SEC sanctions, if she

firmly believed then that the accounting was wrong. A more

logical and compelling inference is that Lundquist and the other

MuniMae defendants were continuing to assess the scope of the

problem before deciding on an appropriate course of action. We

22
also find it significant that it was MuniMae’s management--and

not some outside entity--that ultimately disclosed that the

Company would have to consolidate the remaining LIHTC Funds in

January 2007 (thus conceding the Company’s earlier error). In

our view, this disclosure supports a strong “inference that

defendants were not acting with scienter but rather were

endeavoring in good faith to inform [the investing public].”

Matrix Capital, 576 F.3d at 189.

Finally, we recognize that the Fall 2006 Falcone

memorandum, which noted that that the auditing staff intended to

focus all of its energies on the second restatement, supports an

inference that the MuniMae defendants could have more promptly

anticipated the substantial costs of addressing the Company’s

myriad accounting issues. But that is a far cry from concluding

that Falcone and his fellow defendants resolved then to defraud

plaintiffs by hiding the true costs.

In our view, management’s subsequent disclosures tend to

negate an inference of fraudulent purpose. In July and August

2007, the Company (1) announced the hiring of an independent

consultant to assist with the work of the second restatement,

(2) identified the large number of personnel working on the

accounting issues, and (3) expressed uncertainty as to the costs

of the effort going forward. Although these disclosures were

perhaps not as timely or as fulsome as plaintiffs would have

23
liked, they give rise to a more compelling inference that the

MuniMae defendants were attempting--even if imperfectly--to keep

the investing public informed, while working strenuously to

correct the accounting errors they had discovered.

b. Red Flags

Plaintiffs contend that there were numerous red flags that

should have alerted the MuniMae defendants to the FIN 46R

accounting problems, and that their failure to timely identify

the problems demonstrates a reckless disregard for the accuracy

of the Company’s financial statements. Specifically, they point

to: (1) the need for and magnitude of multiple restatements,

which involved revising several years’ financial statements and

multiple accounting problems; (2) the frequency of accounting

meetings involving FIN 46R issues; (3) the high turnover of CFOs

during the class period; and (4) the firing of PwC.

Additionally, plaintiffs emphasize that the individual

defendants were the Company’s most senior executives, and that

the LIHTC Funds represented a core operation of the Company.

Because these defendants were directly responsible for the

Company’s financial statements--and many were heavily involved

in the second restatement--they must have known, or recklessly

failed to realize, that the Company was not in compliance with

FIN 46R.

24
 The presence of “red flags,” coupled with the “breadth and

gravity” of a company’s problems, may provide “substantial

weight” to an inference that high level corporate agents “must

have been aware of the problems.” See Matrix Capital, 576 F.3d

at 183-85. The more significant the error the stronger the

inference it supports. See id. at 184-85; see also In re Atlas

Worldwide Holdings, Inc. Sec. Litig., 324 F. Supp. 2d 474, 488-

89 (S.D.N.Y. 2004) (“When a company is forced to restate its

previously issued financial statements, the mere fact that the

company had to make a large correction is some evidence of

scienter.”).

While the red flags alleged in the complaint are not

insubstantial, they do not give rise to a strong inference of

scienter. Fundamentally, the FIN 46R accounting error itself

was not especially obvious, at least with respect to the

Company’s financial bottom-line. In that regard, we note, as

did the district court, that MuniMae’s ownership interest in the

unconsolidated LIHTC Funds was one percent or less. The

cumulative economic impact of all of the restatement

adjustments--including but not limited to the LIHTC Fund

consolidation--was a loss of approximately $44.9 million in

25
shareholders’ equity for fiscal year 2005. 6 For the same year,

MuniMae’s adjusted shareholders’ equity was approximately $723

million. Thus, while the effort to complete the restatement

proved costly, the practical effect of proper consolidation on

the Company’s financial statements was relatively small.

The other potential warning signs also lend themselves to

benign interpretations. We view the frequency of accounting

meetings as a sign of diligence rather than evidence of a

nefarious purpose. Cf. Zucco Partners, 552 F.3d at 1000 (noting

that an allegation that top executives attended several meetings

to discuss the company’s financial affairs was not the kind of

particular evidence required to support a strong inference of

scienter).

A high turnover in CFOs can certainly raise suspicion, but

the facts alleged here mitigate any concern. Harrison left the

Company in late 2005, well before any officer is alleged to have

known about the FIN 46R issues. Lundquist resigned in July

2007, after the Company was required to perform two restatements

under her watch, the second of which entailed numerous delays

and snowballing costs. While Lundquist’s resignation is

6
The loss in shareholders’ equity specifically attributable
to consolidating the LIHTC Funds was $78.3 million, but gains in
other areas as a result of the restatement reduced the overall
impact of consolidation on the Company’s financial bottom-line.

26
evidence of the substantial accounting challenges the Company

then faced, it does not compel an inference that she and the

other individual defendants were bent on committing fraud. See

id. at 1002 (“Where a resignation occurs slightly before or

after the defendant corporation issues a restatement, a

plaintiff must plead facts refuting the reasonable assumption

that the resignation occurred as a result of [the] restatement’s

issuance itself in order for a resignation to be strongly

indicative of scienter.”).

Nor is PwC’s October 2006 departure particularly telling.

The dismissal of an accounting firm around the time of a

restatement is not surprising. Cf. id. (concluding that the

resignation of the defendant’s independent public accountant did

not support a strong inference of scienter because the firm “had

just been partially responsible for the corporation’s failure to

adequately control its accounting procedures”). This is

especially true on these facts, as MuniMae was required to

execute two restatements while PwC was serving as its auditor.

The fact that PwC alerted the Company to one of the many issues

the restatements ultimately addressed does not mean that the

MuniMae defendants were not justifiably dissatisfied with PwC’s

services generally. Any inference of wrongful intent is further

weakened by the fact that PwC made clear in a letter to the SEC

that it had no disagreements with the Company on any matter of

27
accounting principle or practice that it felt obligated to

report. 7

Finally, and in accordance with several of our sister

circuits, we reject plaintiffs’ contention that the individual

defendants must have acted intentionally or recklessly with

respect to the FIN 46R accounting merely because (1) they were

senior executives, and (2) the LIHTC Funds represented a core

business of the Company. See, e.g., In re Suprema Specialties,

Inc. Sec. Litig., 438 F.3d 256, 282 (3d Cir. 2006) (“A pleading

of scienter . . . may not rest on a bare inference that a

defendant must have had knowledge of the facts or must have

known of the fraud given his or her position in the company.”

(internal quotation marks omitted)), abrogated on other grounds

by Tellabs, 551 U.S. at 322-23; Zucco Partners, 552 F.3d at 1000

(finding that “bare allegations” that officers must have have

had knowledge of key facts relating to the business’s “core

operations” are rarely enough to support a strong inference of

scienter). To be sure, such allegations are relevant to the

court’s holistic analysis of scienter. But without additional

7
SEC regulations required MuniMae to file a statement
disclosing information about its dismissal of PwC as its
independent public accountant. See 17 C.F.R. § 229.304(a)(1)-
(2). The regulations also required PwC to file a letter stating
whether MuniMae’s disclosures regarding the circumstances of its
dismissal were true. See id. § 229.304(a)(3).

28
detailed allegations establishing the defendants’ actual

exposure to the accounting problem, the complaint falls short of

of the PSLRA’s particularity requirements.

c. Insider Trading

Plaintiffs also say that Company insiders were motivated to

conceal MuniMae’s accounting problems to improperly benefit from

insider trading. Allegations of “personal financial gain may

weigh heavily in favor of a scienter inference.” Tellabs, 551

U.S. at 325. However, the inferential weight that may be

attributed to any claim of motive must be evaluated in context.

See id. at 324. Insider trading allegations will only support

an inference of scienter “if the timing and amount of a

defendant’s trading were unusual or suspicious.” Teachers’

Ret., 477 F.3d at 184 (internal quotation marks omitted). To

determine whether an insider’s sales were “unusual in scope” we

consider factors such as “the amount of profit made, the amount

of stock traded, the portion of stockholdings sold, or the

number of insiders involved.” In re Suprema Specialties, 438

F.3d at 277 (internal quotation marks omitted).

In this case, the overall value of MuniMae shares sold

during the class period was higher than in previous years. Six

Company insiders sold 470,210 shares for a total of $12,004,901

in gross proceeds during the class period, as compared to the

sale of 298,002 shares and $7,139,835 in gross proceeds between

29
June 1998 and the beginning of the class period. These numbers

are certainly consistent with an inference that the insiders who

traded during the class period had a motive to commit fraud.

Nonetheless, the inference that the trades were innocent is

stronger. The number of insiders who traded during the class

period is relatively small, and plaintiffs do not allege that

the insiders timed the sales to take advantage of any particular

disclosure. Cf. Teachers’ Ret., 477 F.3d at 184 (finding

deficient a complaint that, among other things, failed to

“allege that defendants timed their sales to profit from any

particular disclosures”).

Nor is the extent of any insiders’ divestiture particularly

alarming. Former CFO Harrison sold 78% of his shares in early

December 2004, but that was well before plaintiffs say that any

officer of the Company knew that the FIN 46R accounting was

flawed. Board Chairman Mark Joseph sold approximately 37% of

his shares between late April 2005 and early June 2006. Some of

these sales coincided with the lead-up to the Company’s

announcement of the first restatement. However, the sales

occurred at fairly regular intervals and amounts compared to

earlier periods. CEO Falcone sold just over 28% of his holdings

during the class period, with the bulk of the sales occurring in

2004 and mid-2005. Falcone sold shares twice in early 2006, but

the volume of the trades was not unusual. In short, none of the

30
defendants’ trading strikes us as suspicious. Cf. id. at 185

(finding insider sales of 92%, 100%, and 82% of defendants’

holdings “unremarkable” in context).

The fact that Falcone and Joseph traded MuniMae shares

under non-discretionary Rule 10b5-1 plans further weakens any

inference of fraudulent purpose. Under Rule 10b5-1, corporate

insiders can set up trading plans to sell company shares at

predetermined times and amounts to avoid accusations of illegal

insider trading. See 17 C.F.R. § 240.10b5-1(c) (stating that it

is an affirmative defense in insider trading cases that the

defendant’s purchases or sales were made pursuant to a “written

plan for trading securities”); see also Cent. Laborers’ Pension

Fund v. Integrated Elec. Servs. Inc., 497 F.3d 546, 554 n.4 (5th

Cir. 2007) (explaining that a 10b5-1 trading plan can give rise

to an inference that the sales were not suspicious); In re

Worlds of Wonder Sec. Litig., 35 F.3d 1407, 1427-28 (9th Cir.

1994) (same).

Joseph’s Rule 10b5-1 plan does less to shield him from

suspicion because he instituted the plan in March 2005, after

the start of the class period. By contrast, Falcone created his

plan in 2003. Nonetheless, Joseph entered the plan a year

before the complaint alleges that any officer at MuniMae knew

the FIN 46R accounting was wrong, and the amended complaint does

not allege that Joseph traded outside of the plan. Thus,

31
although the Rule 10b5-1 plan does not completely immunize

Joseph from suspicion, it does mitigate any inference of

improper motive surrounding his sales.

An additional problem with the allegations of insider

trading relates to the length of the putative class period. The

plaintiffs have chosen an inordinately long period of 44 months.

See Teachers’ Ret., 477 F.3d at 185 (describing a 46-month class

period as “exceedingly long”); see also In re Vantive Corp. Sec.

Litig., 283 F.3d 1079, 1092 (9th Cir. 2002) (characterizing a

class period of 15 months as “unusually long”), abrogation on

other grounds recognized by South Ferry LP, No. 2 v. Killinger,

542 F.3d 776, 784 (9th Cir. 2008). In our view, alleging such a

lengthy class period makes it difficult to infer intent from the

mere fact of a stock sale, as it is not unusual for insiders to

trade at some point during their tenure with a company. See

Teachers’ Ret., 477 F.3d at 185.

d. Other Allegations of Motive

Plaintiffs proffer a number of general business motivations

from which they would have us infer fraud. They contend that

MuniMae wanted to artificially inflate the price of its shares

to attract investors, fund corporate acquisitions, avoid a

default on loan covenants, and obtain favorable loan terms. We

decline, however, to infer fraud from financial motivations

common to every company. See Ottmann v. Hanger Orthopedic Grp.,

32
Inc., 353 F.3d 338, 352 (4th Cir. 2003) (“[C]ourts have

repeatedly rejected these types of generalized motives--which

are shared by all companies--as insufficient to plead scienter

under the PSLRA.”).

Although MuniMae conducted numerous offerings and

acquisitions during the class period, very little of this

activity occurred after any officer is alleged to have known

that the FIN 46R accounting was flawed. It is true that the

Company was aware that consolidating LIHTC Funds could affect

its debt covenants, as the initial consolidation in 2004 would

have caused it to default on at least two debt covenants. But

MuniMae disclosed that fact, and it was also able to negotiate

waivers on each covenant to avoid default. In short, nothing

about the specific facts alleged render MuniMae’s general

business motivations particularly suspicious.

e. Class Period Disclosures

For their part, the MuniMae defendants assert that their

class period disclosures rebut any inference of scienter. “It

is appropriate to consider such disclosures, which in some

contexts will indicate that the defendants were acting in good

faith, but in other contexts will indicate that the defendants

had knowledge of operational risks (suggesting a lack of good

faith).” Matrix Capital, 576 F.3d at 185.

33
 We believe MuniMae made several relevant disclosures during

the class period. In announcing its first restatement on March

10, 2006, MuniMae also alerted investors to the fact that the

Company suffered from “material weaknesses related to the

financial reporting process.” J.A. 821. Although only a few

material weaknesses were then identified, the Company warned

that management might “identify additional material weaknesses”

as part of the restatement. Id.

Over the next two years, the Company repeatedly disclosed

newly discovered material weaknesses, and reiterated that it

might identify additional problems that would render its

remedial efforts ineffective. The fact that MuniMae continued

to update investors about newly discovered weaknesses tends to

negate an inference that the defendants acted with an intent to

defraud. Cf. Matrix Capital, 187 F.3d at 187 (“A disclosure

that meaningfully alerts investors to the risk that financial

information is not accurate may suggest that the individuals

responsible for the disclosure did not knowingly (or perhaps not

even recklessly) misstate the underlying financial

information.”).

MuniMae also attempted to update investors regarding the

escalating cost of the second restatement. Although the initial

announcement in September 2006 identified only a few areas for

restatement, the Company announced in October that it had not

34
yet determined its full scope. In May 2007, the Company

disclosed that it was unable to timely file its annual Form 10-K

for fiscal year 2006 because of the “dedication of significant

management resources to these restatement efforts.” J.A. 1129.

On July 10, 2007, the Company announced that it had retained

Navigant Consulting to assist in the restatement efforts. In a

telephone conference with investors the following month, the

Company noted that, given the scope of the restatement, it had

to “bring new and unbudgeted resources online quickly.” J.A.

1145. Finally, at a November 8 teleconference, the Company

informed investors that both the magnitude and cost of the

restatement would be “very significant.” J.A. 1157.

To be sure, the import of some of MuniMae’s disclosures was

moderated by the fact that it occasionally buried the

information in press releases headlined with favorable news.

Nonetheless, MuniMae repeatedly noted the need to restate its

financials, the deficiency in its internal controls, and the

fact that the restatement would require the Company to commit

resources far greater than initially anticipated.

Not only do these disclosures bolster the inference that

the MuniMae defendants acted in good faith, but they also

strengthen the inference that these defendants only realized the

FIN 46R accounting problems--and the cost of fixing them--over

time.

35
 2.

After evaluating the inferential weight owed to plaintiffs’

allegations of corporate fraud in light of context and common

sense, we must consider “whether a reasonable person would

regard the inference that defendants knowingly or recklessly

misstated or omitted material information at least as strong as

the inference that [the MuniMae defendants] were merely

negligent with respect to those statements.” Matrix Capital,

576 F.3d at 187. To that end, we must evaluate the complaint

holistically, recognizing that “allegations of scienter that

would not independently create a strong inference of scienter

might compliment [sic] each other to create an inference of

sufficient strength to satisfy the PSLRA.” Id. at 187-88.

Considered holistically, we conclude that plaintiffs have

not satisfied their burden under the PSLRA. We accept as fact

that management regularly discussed FIN 46R compliance issues,

even before the first restatement, and that by mid-2006, at

least Lundquist had determined that the Company’s LIHTC Fund

accounting was flawed. We know that PwC recommended that the

Company reconsider its LIHTC Fund accounting prior to the first

restatement, but that at least some MuniMae officers disagreed.

We acknowledge that in the fall of 2006, the Company recognized

that correcting various accounting errors would be a management

focus for some time. We accept that the MuniMae defendants had

36
financial motivations--albeit universal ones--to avoid

disclosing the need to consolidate the LIHTC Funds. And we know

that MuniMae suffered from material weaknesses in its internal

controls that, among other things, could have alerted management

to problems with the FIN 46R accounting.

While this mosaic supports an inference of scienter, we

find more compelling the inference that the MuniMae defendants

were, at most, negligent. In 2004, MuniMae was faced with

applying a challenging new accounting standard to its rapidly

expanding business, requiring the Company to determine whether

and how to consolidate a number of LIHTC Funds that previously

were not on the Company’s financial statements. MuniMae's

management mistakenly--and perhaps negligently--failed to have

sufficient accounting controls and processes in place to meet

this challenge, which, together with other accounting errors

over the course of 2004 and 2005, required the Company to twice

restate its financial accounting statements at a substantial

cost. In our view, the facts alleged point more convincingly to

an inference that MuniMae was simply in over its head.

Although some officers may have believed that MuniMae’s

accounting was flawed by mid-2006, the evidence suggests that

others, at least initially, disagreed. This makes it difficult

to infer that the MuniMae defendants intentionally, or even

recklessly, misrepresented the state of the Company’s financial

37
affairs. See Metzler Inv. GMBH v. Corinthian Colls., Inc., 540

F.3d 1049, 1069 (9th Cir. 2008) (finding insufficient

allegations that “point only to disagreement and questioning”

within the Company about a particular accounting practice). And

even if some senior officers had concluded by mid-2006 that the

FIN 46R accounting was wrong, that does not establish that they

acted with fraudulent purpose to conceal the problems until

January 2007.

The strength of the inference with respect to MuniMae’s

knowledge of the costs of the second restatement is even weaker

on the facts alleged. We think it more plausible that the

Company simply had not reached a conclusion with respect to FIN

46R until after it began the second restatement, and that the

MuniMae defendants only gradually became aware of the expense as

it was incurred.

The Company’s successive disclosures suggest that its

officers attempted to keep investors updated about MuniMae’s

internal weaknesses. The pattern of disclosures also suggests

that management only gradually awakened to the magnitude of the

Company’s accounting problems and the cost of fixing them. That

the Company’s accounting department during the early part of the

class period was chronically understaffed and, at least

initially, professionally unprepared for the accounting

challenge before it, strengthens the inference that final

38
decisions regarding the FIN 46R accounting remained unresolved

until late 2006.

On the facts alleged, the inference that the MuniMae

defendants were negligent in discharging their duties may well

be compelling. But that is not enough to survive a motion to

dismiss in this context. See Pub. Emps.’ Ret., 551 F.3d at 313.

We hold that the district court correctly dismissed plaintiffs

claims under the PSLRA for failing to adequately plead scienter. 8

III.

We turn next to plaintiffs’ Securities Act claims. The

“basic purpose” of the Securities Act of 1933 is “to provide

greater protection to purchasers of registered securities.”

Herman & MacLean v. Huddleston, 459 U.S. 375, 383 (1983).

Sections 11 and 12(a)(2) prohibit the use of materially false or

misleading statements or omissions in registration statements

and prospectuses, respectively. See 15 U.S.C. § 77k(a);

77l(a)(2). In contrast to Exchange Act requirements, “scienter

8
The district court also dismissed the plaintiffs’ claims
against the MuniMae officers under § 20(a) of the Exchange Act.
That provision imposes liability on each person who “controls
any person liable under any provision of this chapter or of any
rule or regulation thereunder.” 15 U.S.C. § 78t(a). Section
20(a) liability is derivative of § 10(b). Because the complaint
is legally insufficient with respect to the § 10(b) claim, the
§ 20(a) claim must also fail. See, e.g., Matrix Capital, 576
F.3d at 192.

39
is not an element of a violation” of either section. Newcome v.

Esrey, 862 F.2d 1099, 1106 (4th Cir. 1988) (en banc).

The amended complaint alleges that certain defendants 9

violated §§ 11 and 12(a)(2) because the registration statement

and prospectus for the 2005 SPO incorporated by reference

materially misleading statements and omissions. For example,

the registration statement incorporated by reference the

Company’s quarterly reports from the second and third quarters

of 2004, which represented that MuniMae was in compliance with

FIN 46R. See J.A. 1461. The February 2, 2005, prospectus

supplement expressly represented that MuniMae was in compliance

with FIN 46R. However, it also noted that “[d]ue to the

complexity of FIN 46R . . . we cannot assure you that further

changes in our financial statements will not be required with

respect to the application of FIN 46R.” J.A. 1578.

The district court found the § 11 claim time-barred by the

Securities Act’s statute of repose and dismissed the § 12(a)(2)

claim for lack of standing. We address each issue in turn.

9
The § 11 SPO claim is brought against the MuniMae
defendants and the underwriter defendants. The § 12(a)(2)
claims is alleged against the Company and the underwriter
defendants.

40
 A.

1.

Section 13 of the Securities Act contains a three-year

statute of repose. See 15 U.S.C. § 77m. It provides:

In no event shall any such action be brought to
enforce a liability created under [§ 11 or § 12(a)(1)]
of this title more than three years after the security
was bona fide offered to the public . . . .

15 U.S.C. § 77m.

The statute does not define the term “bona fide offered to

the public,” and neither the Supreme Court nor this circuit has

determined the meaning of the phrase. The district court

applied the rule accepted by the majority of courts and found

that the statute of repose began to run on the date the SEC

declared MuniMae’s registration statement effective, i.e.,

January 14, 2005. Because the original complaint in this action

was not filed until February 1, 2008, the court concluded that

the § 11 claim was two-weeks late. See In re Mun. Mortg. &

Equity, 576 F.2d at 655-57.

On appeal, plaintiffs’ arguments are threefold. First,

applying a combination of dictionary and statutory definitions,

they say that a bona fide offering occurs only when securities

are offered “for value” in a manner capable of acceptance, and

in a way that is open and visible. Under this interpretation,

the repose period began to run, at the earliest, on February 2,

41
2005, that is, when MuniMae issued a prospectus supplement

pricing the securities, or on February 3, when the SPO

commenced. Alternatively, plaintiffs suggest the securities

were not bona fide offered until February 8, the last date of

the SPO. Finally, plaintiffs argue that, even if the general

rule is that the statute of repose begins to run on the

effective date of the registration statement, we should not

apply that rule in this case because there was a significant

delay between the effective date and the commencement of the

offering.

Both the MuniMae and underwriter defendants respond that

the effective date of the SPO registration statement constituted

the bona fide offering date because it is the date on which all

barriers to sale were removed. They also emphasize that most

case law defines the effective date of the registration

statement as the bona fide offering.

2.

The meaning of “bona fide offered to the public” in § 13’s

statute of repose is a question of statutory interpretation that

we review de novo. See P. Stolz Family P’ship L.P. v. Daum, 355

F.3d 92, 98 (2d Cir. 2004).

We begin by considering whether the language at issue has a

plain and unambiguous meaning. See United States v. Ashford,

718 F.3d 377, 382 (4th Cir. 2013). At first blush, the

42
plaintiffs’ principal position is appealing. In ordinary usage,

“bona fide” often means (as plaintiffs urge) “genuine.” See

Random House Webster’s Unabridged Dictionary 237 (2d ed. 2001);

see also Black’s Law Dictionary 199 (9th ed. 2009) (“Sincere;

genuine”). But it can also mean “made . . . in good faith” and

“without deception or fraud.” Random House Webster’s Unabridged

Dictionary 237; see also Black’s Law Dictionary 199 (“Made in

good faith; without fraud or deceit”). To the extent other

courts and authorities have considered the meaning of “bona

fide” in context, they have concluded that Congress simply

intended to distinguish a true offering from a “simulated

offering.” See P. Stolz, 355 F.3d at 99; see also 1 Louis Loss,

Joel Seligman & Troy Paredes, Securities Regulation § 2-B-

6(g)(i), at 773 & n.355 (4th ed. 2006) (discussing the dealer

exemption under § 4(3)(A) of the Securities Act, which also uses

the term “bona fide offered to the public”).

The meaning of the word “offer” is no more certain. As

commonly used, “offer” can mean both “to present for acceptance

or rejection” and also to “propose or put forward for

consideration.” See Random House Webster’s Unabridged

Dictionary 1344. Section 2(a)(3) of the Securities Act defines

“offer” to “include every attempt or offer to dispose of, or

solicitation of an offer to buy, a security or interest in a

security, for value.” 15 U.S.C. § 77b(a)(3). But we think it

43
unlikely that Congress intended the meaning of “bona fide

offered” in § 13 to be coterminous with the definition of

“offer” in § 2(a)(3). See Morse v. Peat, Marwick, Mitchell &

Co., 445 F. Supp. 619, 622 (S.D.N.Y 1977) (“The term ‘bona fide

offered to the public’ is a term of art and one not necessarily

synonymous with the full breadth of the statutory term

‘offer.’”).

Because we believe the statutory language is susceptible to

more than one meaning, we look beyond the statute for guidance.

The Second Circuit’s opinion in P. Stolz is the leading

authority on the term “bona fide offered to the public” in § 13.

The question in that case was the meaning of that phrase in the

context of unregistered securities. But the court examined a

number of cases involving registered securities and determined

that “the date of registration has been treated as the date that

starts the running of the repose period.” P. Stolz, 355 F.3d at

99.

A majority of courts have followed the P. Stolz guidance,

see, e.g., Armstrong v. Am. Pallet Leasing Inc., 678 F. Supp. 2d

827, 868 (N.D. Iowa 2009); In re Metro. Sec. Litig., 2010 WL

537740, at *1 (E.D. Wash. Feb. 8, 2010); In re Countrywide Fin.

Corp. Sec. Litig., 2009 WL 943271, at *6 (C.D. Cal. Apr. 6,

2009), and we agree that this approach best reflects

congressional purpose. Section 11 is violated when a

44
registration statement containing misleading information becomes

effective. See 15 U.S.C. § 77k(a); 17 J. William Hicks, Civil

Liabilities: Enforcement & Litigation Under the 1933 Act § 4:57

(2013). Using the effective date of the registration statement

as the bona fide offering date logically links a putative

defendant’s liability to the statutory violation. See Fed.

Hous. Fin. Agency v. UBS Ams., Inc., 2012 WL 2400263, at *2

(S.D.N.Y. June 26, 2012) (recognizing that courts have accepted

the effective date as the repose trigger on the ground that “the

registration statement includes the information upon which the

Section 11 claim is predicated--the alleged falsehood”).

Using the effective date is also consistent with the

purpose of statutes of repose generally. Such statutes provide

“a fixed date readily determinable by the defendant . . . rather

than a date determined by the personal circumstances of the

plaintiff.” Caviness v. Derand Res. Corp., 983 F.2d 1295, 1300

n.7 (4th Cir. 1993); see also City of Pontiac Gen. Emps.’ Ret.

Sys. v. MBIA, Inc., 637 F.3d 169, 176 (2d Cir. 2011)

(contrasting a statute of repose, which “begins to run from the

defendant’s violation,” with a statute of limitations, which

“cannot begin to run until the plaintiff’s claim has accrued”). 10

10
Although we do not rely on the legislative history, we
note that it is not inconsistent with our conclusion. In 1954,
Congress amended numerous provisions of the federal securities
(Continued)
45
 Plaintiffs object to this view of the statute, pointing to

§ 4(3) of the Securities Act, which also uses the term “bona

fide offered to the public.” See 15 U.S.C. § 77d(a)(3)(B).

That provision exempts certain dealer transactions from the

prospectus delivery requirement, and it applies “prior to the

expiration of forty days after the effective date of such

registration statement or prior to the expiration of forty days

after the first date upon which the security was bona fide

offered to the public.” See id. (emphasis added). Plaintiffs

say that this language demonstrates that “the date on which a

security is ‘bona fide offered to the public’ can be entirely

distinct from the date on which a registration statement is

declared effective.” Appellants’ Br. at 24.

laws, including the Investment Company Act of 1940. See Act of
August 10, 1954, ch. 667, tit. IV, § 402, 68 Stat. 683, 689
(codified as amended at 15 U.S.C. § 80a-24). Congress amended
the Investment Company Act, 15 U.S.C. § 80a-1 et seq., among
other things, to permit investment companies engaged in
continuous offerings to file amendments to existing registration
statements instead of filing a new one. See S. Rep. No. 83-
1037, at 21 (1954).

Both the House and Senate Reports accompanying the
amendments equate the effective date of the registration
statement with the bona fide offering. See H.R. Rep. No. 83-
1542, at 30 (1954) (“[A] dealer . . . need not use a prospectus
in connection with a transaction in a security after the
expiration of 1 year from the first date on which the security
was bona fide offered to the public, which, in most cases, means
approximately 1 year after the effective date of the
registration statement.”); S. Rep. No. 83-1037, at 20 (same).

46
 But the fact that a different section of the statute

provides that the bona fide offer and registration can be

distinct events does not inexorably mean that they always will

be. Cf. In re Lehman Bros. Sec. & ERISA Litig., 903 F. Supp. 2d

152, 171 (S.D.N.Y. 2012) (“To be sure, the phrase bona fide

offered to the public, recognizes that there will be

circumstances in which stock covered by an effective

registration statement has not genuinely been offered to the

public, in which case the commencement of the repose period may

begin later than the effective date of the registration

statement.” (internal quotation marks omitted)).

In “the vast majority of offerings” the bona fide offering

to the public “will be the effective date of the registration

statement.” 17 Hicks, Civil Liabilities § 4:77. The only

exceptions would arise in the context of delayed or continuous

offerings in which information that is fundamental to assessing

the value of a particular offering is not disclosed until after

the registration statement becomes effective. See id.; see also

UBS Ams., Inc., 2012 WL 2400263, at *2. 11

11
At the time of the 2005 SPO, the SEC did not consider the
pricing information MuniMae filed in its prospectus supplement
the kind of fundamental information that would merit exceptional
treatment. See 17 C.F.R. § 229.512(a)(1)(2004); In re Lehman
Bros. Sec. & ERISA Litig., 903 F. Supp. 2d at 171.

47
 Plaintiffs argue nonetheless that we should not accept

registration as the triggering event here, even if, as a general

rule, the two coincide. They say that using the effective date

of the registration statement is only appropriate in cases where

there is virtually no delay between registration and the

commencement of the public offering. By contrast, the 2005 SPO

was a shelf offering, and there was a two-week delay between the

effective date and the commencement of the offering. MuniMae

did not file a prospectus supplement announcing that the

registration statement was effective until February 1, and it

only priced the securities on February 2. On these facts,

plaintiffs argue, the securities were not genuinely offered to

the public on January 14.

We disagree. The general rule that the statute of repose

begins to run on the effective date has been repeatedly applied

in the context of delayed offerings. See, e.g., In re Adelphia

Commc'ns Corp. Sec. & Derivative Litig., 2005 WL 1679540, at *6

(S.D.N.Y. July 18, 2005) (“Even where registered securities are

offered pursuant to a less typical delayed offering, the

limitations period runs from the date of either the registration

statement or the [post-effective] amendment . . . .”), adhered

to on reconsideration, 2005 WL 1882281 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 9, 2005);

see also UBS Ams., Inc., 2012 WL 2400263, at *2-3 (recognizing

that that the general rule will apply in shelf offerings when

48
the registration statement contains the misleading information

on which the § 11 claim is predicated).

This is not the unusual case in which a post-effective

disclosure--rather than the registration statement--contained

the allegedly false or misleading information. The amended

complaint directly avers that the registration statement

declared effective on January 14 contained or incorporated by

reference the misleading statements to which plaintiffs object. 12

Under these circumstances, we are comfortable concluding that

MuniMae’s exposure began on the effective date.

The two-week gap between the effective date and the

commencement of the SPO does not alter our analysis. The fact

that plaintiffs did not know that the registration statement was

effective as of January 14 is of no consequence for statute of

repose purposes. See Caviness, 983 F.2d at 1300 (“[Section] 13

allows for no qualification emanating from the claimant’s

circumstances.”); see also P. Stolz, 355 F.3d at 102-03

(explaining that a statute of repose begins to run “even if the

plaintiff has not yet, or could not yet have, discovered that

she has a cause of action”). Moreover, the SEC has sanctioned a

12
By contrast, the prospectus supplement filed on February
2, which priced the securities, contained a rather unambiguous
warning that MuniMae’s FIN 46R accounting might be incorrect.
See J.A. 1578.

49
delay of up to fifteen business days between registration and

the commencement of sale in the context of non-delayed

offerings. See 17 C.F.R. §§ 230.430A(a)(3), 229.512(a). Thus,

the thirteen-day gap here hardly strikes us as abusive.

In sum, we hold that securities will generally be bona fide

offered to the public on the date the SEC declares the

registration statement effective. Applying this holding, we

conclude that MuniMae bona fide offered securities to the public

on January 14, 2005. Plaintiffs’ amended complaint, which

relates back to the original complaint filed on February 1,

2008, is thus time-barred under § 13’s statute of repose.

B.

1.

We turn finally to the amended complaint’s § 12(a)(2) claim

against MuniMae and the underwriter defendants with respect to

the 2005 SPO. Section 12(a)(2) provides that any person who

“offers or sells a security . . . by means of a prospectus or

oral communication” containing a materially false statement or

material omission “shall be liable . . . to the person

purchasing such security from him.” 15 U.S.C. § 77l(a)(2).

The amended complaint alleges that named plaintiff Dammeyer

“purchased MuniMae’s common stock pursuant and/or traceable to

the SPO Registration Statement and Prospectus dated February 2,

2005.” J.A. 89. It incorporates by reference Dammeyer’s

50
confirmation slip for the shares. The slip shows that Dammeyer

purchased 600 shares of MuniMae stock at $26.32 per share on

February 3, 2005, and that he received those shares on February

8, 2005. The slip also bears the logo of RBC Dain Rauscher and

includes the phrase “PROS UNDER SEP COVER.” J.A. 1606.

The district court found the amended complaint and

confirmation slip insufficient to establish Dammeyer’s

standing. It found Dammeyer’s claim that he purchased stock

“pursuant and/or traceable to” the SPO documents conclusory, and

the confirmation slip lacking in “supporting details to make a

plausible claim that Dammeyer purchased directly in the SPO.”

In re Mun. Mortg. & Equity, LLC, 876 F. Supp. 2d at 660.

On appeal, plaintiffs contend that the district court

improperly failed to consider the confirmation slip referenced

in the complaint, and that the slip, when properly considered,

supplies the necessary details to support a plausible allegation

of standing. Defendants respond that Dammeyer would have said

that he purchased his shares directly in the SPO if he actually

did. Moreover, they claim that the details of the confirmation

slip show that Dammeyer purchased his securities on the

secondary market and not in the SPO.

2.

We review the plausibility of the amended complaint’s

standing allegations de novo under the pleading requirements of

51
Rule 8(a). See In re Century Aluminum Co. Sec. Litig., 729 F.3d

1104, 1107-09 (9th Cir. 2013) (reviewing the plausibility of a

complaint’s standing allegations with respect to a § 11 claim).

It is not enough for the amended complaint to allege facts,

which, accepted as true, are merely consistent with the

possibility that Dammeyer purchased shares in the SPO; the

allegations must also render such a conclusion plausible.

Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009).

To establish standing under § 12(a)(2), a plaintiff must

allege that he purchased shares from “[a]ny person” who

“offer[ed] or s[old] a security . . . by means of a prospectus.”

15 U.S.C. § 77l(a)(2). In Gustafson v. Alloyd Co., 513 U.S. 561

(1995), the Supreme Court interpreted the prospectus requirement

of § 12(a)(2), and concluded that, because “prospectus” is a

term of art referring to a specific document in a public

offering, sales made pursuant to private contracts are not made

by means of a prospectus. See id. at 580-84. Thus, § 12(a)(2)

liability is “limited to public offerings,” and purchasers in

the secondary market may not sue. Id. at 578; see also In re

CitiGroup Inc. Bond Litig., 723 F. Supp. 2d 568, 585 (S.D.N.Y.

2010) (“[A] plaintiff seeking redress pursuant to Section

12(a)(2) must establish that it purchased the security directly

from defendants through the public offering at issue.”).

52
 A number of district courts have concluded that the

“pursuant and/or traceable to” language employed in the amended

complaint is insufficient to establish standing for § 12(a)(2)

purposes. See, e.g., Pub. Emps.’ Ret. Sys. of Miss. v. Merrill

Lynch & Co., 714 F. Supp. 2d 475, 484 (S.D.N.Y. 2010); In re

Wells Fargo Mortg.-Backed Certificate Litig., 712 F. Supp. 2d

958, 966 (N.D. Cal. 2010); In re Sterling Foster & Co., Inc.,

Sec. Litig., 222 F. Supp. 2d 216, 245-46 (E.D.N.Y. 2002). The

general tenor of these opinions is that plaintiffs should plead

that they directly purchased securities in the relevant

offering, and that a failure to do so implies that the

securities were in fact purchased on the secondary market. See,

e.g., In re Sterling Foster, 222 F. Supp. 2d at 245.

The First Circuit has held that alleging that a plaintiff

purchased securities “pursuant and/or traceable to” a public

offering can be sufficient if coupled with additional supportive

facts. See Plumbers’ Union Local No. 12 Pension Fund v. Nomura

Asset Acceptance Corp., 632 F.3d 762, 776 (1st Cir. 2011)

(finding the terminology sufficient when coupled with

allegations that plaintiffs “‘acquired’” securities “‘from’” the

defendants and that the defendants “‘promoted and sold’” the

securities to the plaintiffs).

We agree that using the “pursuant and/or traceable to”

language--coupled with sufficient supporting facts--can give

53
rise to a plausible inference of standing in certain

circumstances. Here, however, we find the amended complaint and

confirmation slip insufficient to make plaintiffs’ allegations

of standing plausible. Though not dispositive, the plaintiffs’

coy choice of words gives us some pause. And we do not find the

additional supporting facts sufficient to push the claim into

the realm of plausibility.

To be sure, the amended complaint alleges a number of facts

consistent with the possibility that Dammeyer purchased his

shares directly in the SPO. For example, the complaint alleges

that Dammeyer purchased 600 common shares of MuniMae stock on

February 3, 2005, and, according to the amended complaint, the

SPO occurred “[o]n or about February 2, 2005,” J.A. 233.

Although these dates of purchase are close, they do not directly

coincide.

More helpful to plaintiffs, the confirmation slip shows

that the settlement date for Dammeyer’s securities was February

8, see J.A. 1606, which coincides with the date the prospectus

supplement states that SPO shares would be available for

delivery, see J.A. 1557. These supporting facts are not

irrelevant, but they are also not sufficient. Cf. In re Century

Aluminum, 729 F.3d at 1107-08 (finding similar evidence about

pricing and sale dates insufficient in the context of § 11,

where standing requirements are more relaxed).

54
 Plaintiffs emphasize the fact that the confirmation slip

bears the notation “PROS UNDER SEP COVER,” which means

prospectus under separate cover. See J.A. 1606; see also

Gustafson, 513 U.S. at 571 (“[T]he liability imposed by

[§ 12(a)(2)] cannot attach unless there is an obligation to

distribute the prospectus . . . .”). However, as defendants

note, RBC is both a registered broker-dealer and an underwriter,

and under SEC regulations, it may have had to deliver a

prospectus to Dammeyer in either capacity. See 15 U.S.C.

§§ 77d(a)(3), 77e(b) (prospectus delivery requirement); 17

C.F.R. § 230.174 (obligations of broker-dealers to comply with

prospectus delivery requirements). Without more, that notation

is merely consistent with the claim that Dammeyer purchased his

shares directly in the SPO. 13

The plausibility of the claim against the underwriter

defendants is even weaker. The confirmation slip provides no

support for the contention that Dammeyer purchased his shares

from Merrill Lynch. With respect to RBC, the allegations are

not much better. The attached confirmation slip bears the logo

13
We also note that the complaint alleges that the SPO
offered shares “priced at $26.51.” J.A. 111. But Dammeyer’s
purchase price was $26.32 per share. J.A. 1606. And, in
contrast to Plumbers’ Union, there are no allegations that
defendants specifically promoted the securities or solicited
Dammeyer’s purchase.

55
of “RBC Dain Rauscher.” However, RBC Capital Markets Corp. was

the designated underwriter for the SPO. See J.A. 1590.

Dammeyer does not allege that these were the same entity as of

2005, or that they should be treated as such for liability

purposes.

At best, the allegations are merely consistent with the

possibility that Dammeyer purchased his securities in the SPO.

The “pursuant and/or traceable to” language of the complaint is

conclusory, and the confirmation slip does not provide

sufficient “factual enhancement” to support a “reasonable

inference that the defendant[s are] liable for the misconduct

alleged.” See Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678 (internal quotation marks

omitted). In this circumstance, the complaint “stops short of

the line between possibility and plausibility.” See Bell Atl.

Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 556 (2007). Accordingly, we

agree with the district court that Dammeyer did not adequately

allege standing to bring a § 12(a)(2) claim. 14

14
Dammeyer also brings an SPO-based claim under § 15 of the
Securities Act, which imposes derivative liability on certain
“control persons” for primary violations of the Act. See 15
U.S.C. § 77o. We dismiss the § 15 claim because the complaint
fails to state a claim under the predicate Securities Act
provisions. See Greenhouse v. MCG Capital Corp., 392 F.3d 650,
656 n.7 (4th Cir. 2004).

56
 IV.

For the foregoing reasons, we affirm the judgment of the

district court.

AFFIRMED

57