10‐5258‐cv
Mastafa v. Chevron Corp.
In the
United States Courts of Appeals
For the Second Circuit
________
AUGUST TERM 2013
No. 10‐5258‐cv
SAADYA MASTAFA, KAFIA ISMAIL, BATUL NUR,
AFAF RASOOL, ZAHRA RASOOL,
Plaintiffs‐Appellants,
v.
CHEVRON CORPORAION, BANQUE NATIONALE DE PARIS PARIBAS,
Defendants‐Appellees,
________
Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Southern District of New York.
No. 10‐cv‐5646―Jed S. Rakoff, Judge.
________
SUBMITTED: MAY 28, 2014
DECIDED: OCTOBER 23 , 2014
________
Before: CABRANES, STRAUB, and LIVINGSTON, Circuit Judges.
________
2 No. 10‐5258‐cv
The question presented is whether the United States District
Court for the Southern District of New York (Jed. S. Rakoff, Judge)
properly dismissed the complaint of five Iraqi nationals who claim
that they or their family members were tortured, imprisoned, and in
some cases executed by the regime of Saddam Hussein. Plaintiffs
filed suit in July 2010 against defendants Chevron Corp. and Banque
Nationale de Paris Paribas (jointly, “defendants”), alleging that
defendants illicitly diverted money to the Saddam Hussein regime—
then subject to economic sanctions—in violation of customary
international law. Plaintiffs contend on appeal that such harms are
cognizable under the Alien Tort Statute of 1789 (“ATS”), 28 U.S.C. §
1350, which establishes district court jurisdiction “of any civil action
by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the law of
nations or a treaty of the United States,” as well as the Torture
Victim Protection Act of 1991 (“TVPA”), 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note, and
New York common law.
The parties agree, and we hold, that the Supreme Court’s
decision in Mohamad v. Palestinian Authority, 132 S. Ct. 1702 (2012),
indisputably forecloses plaintiffs’ claims brought under the TVPA.
We also conclude, in a question of first impression for this Court,
that we do not have jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ ATS claims pursuant
to the Supreme Court’s decision in Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum
Co., 133 S. Ct. 1659 (2013), and our holding in Presbyterian Church of
Sudan v. Talisman Energy, Inc., 582 F.3d 244 (2d Cir. 2009).
Accordingly, we AFFIRM the judgment of the District Court.
________
3 No. 10‐5258‐cv
John T. Murray, Murray & Murray Co., L.P.A.,
Sandusky, Ohio, for Plaintiffs‐Appellants.
Meir Feder, Thomas E. Lynch, Jones Day, New
York, NY; Gregory G. Katsas, Michael A. Carvin,
Jones Day, Washington, D.C., for Defendant‐
Appellee Chevron Corp.
Robert S. Bennett, Ellen Kennedy, Hogan Lovells
US LLP, Washington, D.C.; Jennifer L. Spaziano,
Skadden, Arps, Slate, Meagher & Flom LLP,
Washington, D.C., for Defendant‐Appellee Banque
Nationale de Paris Paribas.
Terrence Patrick Collingsworth, Conrad &
Scherer, LLP, Washington, D.C., for amicus curiae
Human Rights Watch and Labor Organizations.
________
JOSÉ A. CABRANES, Circuit Judge:
The question presented is whether the United States District
Court for the Southern District of New York (Jed S. Rakoff, Judge)
properly dismissed the complaint of five Iraqi nationals who claim
that they and their family members were tortured, imprisoned, and
in some cases executed, by the Saddam Hussein regime. Plaintiffs
filed suit in July 2010 against defendants Chevron Corp. and Banque
Nationale de Paris Paribas (“BNP”) (jointly, “defendants”), alleging
that defendants illicitly diverted money to the Saddam Hussein
regime—then subject to economic sanctions—in violation of
customary international law. Plaintiffs contend on appeal that such
4 No. 10‐5258‐cv
harms are cognizable under the Alien Tort Statute of 1789 (“ATS”),
28 U.S.C. § 1350, which establishes district court jurisdiction “of any
civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the
law of nations or a treaty of the United States,” as well as the Torture
Victim Protection Act of 1991 (“TVPA”), 28 U.S.C. § 1350 note, and
New York common law. The District Court entered judgment on
November 30, 2010, dismissing plaintiffs’ complaint with prejudice
under Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1) and (6).
The parties agree, and we hold, that the Supreme Court’s
decision in Mohamad v. Palestinian Authority, 132 S. Ct. 1702 (2012),
indisputably forecloses plaintiffs’ claims brought under the TVPA.
We also conclude, in a question of first impression for this Court,
that we do not have jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ ATS claims pursuant
to the Supreme Court’s decision in Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum
Co., 133 S. Ct. 1659 (2013), and our holding in Presbyterian Church of
Sudan v. Talisman Energy, Inc., 582 F.3d 244 (2d Cir. 2009).
Accordingly, we AFFIRM the judgment of the District Court.
BACKGROUND
I. The Complaint
Plaintiffs in this action are Iraqi women who were the victims
of torture by agents of the Saddam Hussein regime or whose
husbands were the victims of such torture. Two plaintiffs are
Kurdish women currently living in Iraq, and the remaining three
5 No. 10‐5258‐cv
plaintiffs were citizens of Iraq at the time of the alleged torture but
are now either citizens or permanent residents of the United States.1
Plaintiffs filed the instant case on July 26, 2010, seeking, inter alia,
compensatory and punitive damages on their own behalf and as a
putative class action on behalf of those similarly situated. They claim
that the defendant corporations aided and abetted the abuses of the
Saddam Hussein regime by paying the regime kickbacks and other
unlawful payments, which enabled the regime to survive and
perpetrate the abuses suffered by plaintiffs or their husbands.
The allegations against defendants stem from the United
Nations’ Oil for Food Programme (“OFP”). The OFP “permitted the
export of oil from Iraq in exchange for food, medicine, and other
basic civilian necessities” by allowing the purchase of Iraqi oil to
proceed through an escrow account, into which purchasers
submitted payments and from which providers of civilian
necessities received payment. Mastafa v. Chevron Corp., 759 F. Supp.
2d 297, 298‐99 (S.D.N.Y. 2010). Plaintiffs allege that the Saddam
Hussein regime—then subject to United Nations economic
sanctions—misused the OFP in order to “[e]licit income outside the
United Nation[s’] oversight and fund its regime . . . . [and] to fund
its campaign of human rights abuses against its people.” Compl.
The ATS is unusual in that it confers upon “aliens” a cause of action in U.S.
1
courts. The fact that two of the plaintiffs are now U.S. citizens raises the question whether
they have statutory standing to assert a cause of action under the ATS. Because neither
party has addressed this question, we assume without deciding for purposes of this
opinion that these particular U.S. citizen plaintiffs, who were “aliens” at the time of the
alleged violations at issue, may bring an action under the ATS.
6 No. 10‐5258‐cv
¶¶ 33‐34.
The misuse occurred when the Iraqi regime began imposing
illegal “surcharges” of 10 to 30 cents per barrel on oil being lawfully
sold by Iraq pursuant to the OFP. The complaint alleges that this
surcharge was known to all “contracting customers” of the Saddam
Hussein regime, including Chevron—which is alleged to have
knowingly paid the illegal surcharge on 9,533,690 barrels of oil. Id.
¶¶ 37‐41. The complaint alleges that Chevron “acted as a financer to
many . . . oil contracts,” id. ¶ 58, and that, in doing so, Chevron
“made surcharge payments, facilitated surcharge payments and
participated in surcharge payments in order to purchase oil from
Iraq through the [OFP],” id. ¶ 72. Chevron allegedly “paid $20
million in [illicit] surcharge payments . . . through third parties,” and
“knew that the premiums it paid to the third party were passed
through to the Saddam Hussein regime as a requirement to
purchase oil.” Id. ¶¶ 83‐84.
With respect to BNP, the complaint alleges that, pursuant to a
Banking Agreement between BNP and the United Nations, BNP was
the sole escrow bank for the OFP and was responsible for policing
financial transactions associated with it. Under the Banking
Agreement, one of BNP’s roles as escrow agent for the United
Nations was to ensure that financial transactions were in compliance
with the United Nations Security Council resolutions that had
created the program. Plaintiffs assert that, notwithstanding this
obligation under the Banking Agreement, “BNP knew that the true
nature of the financial transactions included illicit payments to the
7 No. 10‐5258‐cv
[Saddam Hussein] Regime and failed to disclose or interrupt the
payments.” Id. ¶ 107. Plaintiffs further allege that “[s]ome of the
surcharges were paid by BNP through customer accounts,” id. ¶ 70,
and that in at least one transaction, BNP “hid the identity of oil
financiers as participants in an oil transaction” in violation of the
Banking Agreement, id. ¶ 125.
There is no allegation by plaintiffs that Chevron or BNP, or
their employees, directly engaged in the human rights abuses
allegedly committed by the Saddam Hussein regime. Rather,
plaintiffs allege that “[t]hese surcharge payments financed the
torture” and other atrocities inflicted on them or their husbands,
which required considerable funding. Id. ¶ 45. Plaintiffs contend
that, through these alleged exploitations of the OFP, Chevron and
BNP aided and abetted the Saddam Hussein regime’s abuses, and
that their claims are therefore actionable under the ATS and the
TVPA.
II. Procedural History
On November 30, 2010, the District Court entered judgment
dismissing plaintiffs’ complaint with prejudice. The dismissal was
based on the District Court’s conclusions that (1) the ATS claims
were barred by the Second Circuit’s opinion in Kiobel v. Royal Dutch
Petroleum Co., 621 F.3d 111 (2d Cir. 2010), which held that the ATS
does not confer jurisdiction for claims alleging violations of the “law
8 No. 10‐5258‐cv
of nations” (that is, customary international law2) against corporate
defendants; (2) plaintiffs had failed adequately to plead negligence
under state law, and other state law claims were time‐barred; and (3)
there were various pleading deficiencies in their TVPA claim.
Plaintiffs timely appealed, and filed their initial briefs in this
appeal between April and July 2011. Plaintiffs initially asserted a
number of arguments, including that the ATS and TVPA allowed for
corporate liability, that claims could be brought against alleged
“aiders and abettors” under the TVPA, and that they had met other
pleading requirements necessary to state a claim under the TVPA.
After the Supreme Court granted certiorari in Kiobel, 132 S. Ct.
472 (2011), plaintiffs here moved on October 21, 2011, to stay the
appeal pending the Supreme Court’s adjudication of the case. We
granted the motion on October 25, 2011.
See, e.g., Kiobel, 621 F.3d at 116 (describing ATS jurisdiction over “violations of
2
the law of nations (also called ‘customary international law’)”); Vietnam Ass’n for Victims
of Agent Orange v. Dow Chem. Co., 517 F.3d 104, 116 (2d Cir. 2008) (noting that “[i]n the
broader context” beyond ATS litigation, “the law of nations has become synonymous
with the term ‘customary international law’”); Flores v. Southern Peru Copper Corp., 414
F.3d 233, 237 n.2 (2d Cir. 2003) (“In the context of the [ATS], we have consistently used
the term ‘customary international law’ as a synonym for the term the ‘law of nations.’”);
Filartiga v. Pena‐Irala, 630 F.2d 876, 884 (2d Cir. 1980) (considering sources of “customary
international law” in determining that “official torture is now prohibited by the law of
nations”); see also Hartford Fire Ins. Co. v. California, 509 U.S. 764, 815 (1993) (Scalia, J.,
dissenting in part) (using the terms interchangeably when noting that “‘the law of
nations’ or customary international law, includes limitations on a nation’s exercise of its
jurisdiction to prescribe”).
9 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Following oral argument in Kiobel, the Supreme Court, on
March 5, 2012, ordered supplemental briefing and reargument on
“[w]hether and under what circumstances the Alien Tort Statute . . .
allows courts to recognize a cause of action for violations of the law
of nations occurring within the territory of a sovereign other than
the United States.” 132 S. Ct. 1738 (2012) (internal quotation marks
omitted). In April 2013, the Supreme Court issued its decision in
Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. 1659 (2013), holding that “the presumption against
extraterritoriality applies to claims under the ATS . . . and case[s]
seeking relief for violations of the law of nations occurring outside
the United States [are] barred.” Id. at 1669. It did not address, much
less question or modify, the holding on corporate liability under the
ATS that had formed the central conclusion in the Second Circuit’s
Kiobel opinion.
Additionally, during the pendency of the stay here, the
Supreme Court decided another case with direct relevance to this
action. In Mohamad v. Palestinian Authority, 132 S. Ct. 1702 (2012), the
Court held that the TVPA “authorizes liability solely against natural
persons,” id. at 1708, and “does not impose liability against
organizations,” including corporations, id. at 1705.
On March 28, 2014, we vacated the stay of this appeal, and
ordered supplemental letter briefs from the parties on the effect, if
any, of the Supreme Court’s decisions in Kiobel and Mohamad.
10 No. 10‐5258‐cv
The supplemental briefing having been completed, we now
conclude that the District Court properly dismissed the claims
brought pursuant to the TVPA and ATS.3
DISCUSSION
In reviewing a district court’s determination of subject matter
jurisdiction pursuant to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1), we
review legal conclusions de novo and factual findings for clear error.
Tandon v. Captain’s Cove Marina of Bridgeport, Inc., 752 F.3d 239, 243
(2d Cir. 2014). A case is properly dismissed for lack of subject matter
jurisdiction under Rule 12(b)(1) when the district court “lacks the
statutory or constitutional power to adjudicate it.” Makarova v.
United States, 201 F.3d 110, 113 (2d Cir. 2000). “A plaintiff asserting
subject matter jurisdiction has the burden of proving by a
preponderance of the evidence that it exists.” Id.
We review de novo a district court’s dismissal pursuant
to Federal Rule of Civil Procedure 12(b)(6), accepting all factual
allegations in the complaint as true. City of Pontiac Policemen’s &
Firemen’s Ret. Sys. v. UBS AG, 752 F.3d 173, 179 (2d Cir. 2014). ”To
survive a motion to dismiss, a complaint must contain sufficient
factual matter, accepted as true, to ‘state a claim to relief that is
Plaintiffs did not challenge the District Court’s dismissal of claims brought
3
pursuant to New York law in their initial appellate briefs, nor in their supplemental letter
brief. Accordingly, the dismissal of those claims is not addressed here or disturbed in any
way by this decision.
11 No. 10‐5258‐cv
plausible on its face.’” Ashcroft v. Iqbal, 556 U.S. 662, 678 (2009)
(quoting Bell Atl. Corp. v. Twombly, 550 U.S. 544, 570 (2007)).
“[A]lthough a court must accept as true all of the allegations
contained in a complaint, that tenet is inapplicable to legal
conclusions, and threadbare recitals of the elements of a cause of
action, supported by mere conclusory statements, do not suffice.”
Harris v. Mills, 572 F.3d 66, 72 (2d Cir. 2009) (internal quotation
marks omitted). “Determining whether a complaint states a
plausible claim for relief will be a context‐specific task that requires
the reviewing court to draw on its judicial experience and common
sense.” Id. (alterations omitted).
I. The TVPA Claims
The TVPA imposes liability on “[a]n individual who, under
actual or apparent authority, or color of law, of any foreign nation”
subjects another individual to torture or extrajudicial killing. 28
U.S.C. § 1350 note § (2)(a) (emphasis supplied). Plaintiffs in Mohamad
argued that the word “individual” in the statute encompassed both
natural persons and “nonsovereign organizations,” including the
political organization that was the defendant in that action.
Mohamad, 132 S. Ct. at 1706. The Supreme Court disagreed, holding
that the term “individual” in the TVPA “authorizes suit against
natural persons alone.” Id. The Court also expressly stated that the
statute does not provide for suits against corporate entities, noting
that “it is the rare statute . . . in which Congress expressly defines
‘individual’ to include corporate entities,” and that “[t]here are no
such indications in the TVPA.” Id. at 1707.
12 No. 10‐5258‐cv
There is no dispute that the defendants in this action are
corporations, and therefore we are required to hold that they are not
subject to liability under the TVPA. Plaintiffs acknowledge this
point, conceding in their supplemental brief that “Chevron and BNP
cannot be liable pursuant to the TVPA under the current state of the
law.” Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 2. Accordingly, we affirm the Rule 12(b)(6)
dismissal of the claims brought pursuant to the TVPA.
II. The ATS Claims
The ATS states, in full: “The district courts shall have original
jurisdiction of any civil action by an alien for a tort only, committed
in violation of the law of nations or a treaty of the United States.” 28
U.S.C. § 1350. It is a “jurisdictional” statute in the sense that it
“address[es] the power of the courts to entertain cases concerned
with a certain subject.” Sosa v. Alvarez‐Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 714
(2004). Although it reads as a “jurisdictional grant” only, the
Supreme Court has held that the ATS was “enacted on the
understanding that the common law would provide a cause of
action for the modest number of international law violations with a
potential for personal liability at the time.” Id. at 724. As Judge
Friendly has explained, the ATS’s “reference to the law of nations
must be narrowly read if the section is to be kept within the confines
of Article III.” IIT v. Vencap, Ltd., 519 F.2d 1001, 1015 (2d Cir. 1975)
(Friendly, J.), abrogated on other grounds, Morrison v. Nat’l Austl. Bank
Ltd., 561 U.S. 247 (2010). Thus, although there are billions of people
in the world residing under various forms of state‐sponsored
oppression, claims are only actionable under the ATS if they are
13 No. 10‐5258‐cv
“accepted by the civilized world and defined with a specificity
comparable to the features of the 18th‐century paradigms” upon
which the ATS was written in 1789. Sosa, 542 U.S. at 725.4
Defendants assert numerous grounds upon which we might
affirm the dismissal of plaintiffs’ ATS claims, including that
(1) defendants are corporations, and therefore not subject to ATS
liability pursuant to the Second Circuit’s holding in Kiobel;
(2) plaintiffs have failed to state a claim for aiding and abetting
violations of the law of nations; and (3) the Supreme Court’s
decision in Kiobel forecloses our jurisdiction over cases such as this
one, where the claims do not sufficiently “touch and concern” the
United States. See Chevron’s Ltr. Br.; BNP’s Ltr. Br.
It is natural for us to begin with the question of our subject‐
matter jurisdiction, which “functions as a restriction on federal
power.” Ins. Corp. of Ireland, Ltd. v. Compagnie des Bauxites de Guinee,
456 U.S. 694, 702 (1982). “’Without jurisdiction the court cannot
proceed at all in any cause’; it may not assume jurisdiction for the
purpose of deciding the merits of the case.” Sinochem Int’l Co. v.
See generally Freedom in the World Country Ratings (2014), Freedom House,
4
available at http://www.freedomhouse.org/sites/default/files/Country%20Status%20%
26%20Ratings%20Overview%2C%201973‐2014.pdf (asserting that in 2014, only 45% of
countries in the world were characterized as “free,” while 30% were “partly free” and
24% were “not free”). Those living in countries characterized as “not free” generally have
very restricted or no civil liberties, including very limited or no freedom of expression or
association, and very restricted or no political rights, and thus likely suffer numerous
depredations, not all of which are actionable under customary international law (or “the
law of nations”). See Freedom House, Ratings and Status Characteristics,
http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom‐world2014/methodology#.U_4Oq8VdWR
(last visited Aug. 27, 2014).
14 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Malaysia Int’l Shipping Corp., 549 U.S. 422, 431 (2007) (quoting Steel
Co. v. Citizens for a Better Env’t, 523 U.S. 83, 94 (1998)). Indeed,
“[b]ecause of the primacy of jurisdiction, ‘jurisdictional questions
ordinarily must precede merits determinations in dispositional
order.’” Frontera Res. Azerbaijan Corp. v. State Oil Co. of Azerbaijan
Republic, 582 F.3d 393, 397 (2d Cir. 2009) (quoting Sinochem, 549 U.S.
at 431); see also Cardona v. Chiquita Brands Int’l, Inc., 760 F.3d 1185,
1188 (11th Cir. 2014) (addressing the question of jurisdiction under
the ATS, rather than the substantive question that had been certified,
because, “no matter how a case comes before us, the court has the
authority and the duty to determine its own jurisdiction”).
Here, then, we begin by assessing whether the ATS grants us
jurisdiction over plaintiffs’ action. In light of the singular character
of the ATS as a jurisdictional statute that derives its substantive
meaning from customary international law, there are numerous
jurisdictional predicates, all of which must be met before a court
may properly assume jurisdiction over an ATS claim. For a district
court, these jurisdictional inquiries include, but may not be limited
to, a determination that: (1) the complaint pleads a violation of the
law of nations, see Sosa, 542 U.S. at 732; Kadic v. Karadzic, 70 F.3d 232,
238 (2d Cir. 1995); (2) the presumption against the extraterritorial
application of the ATS, announced by the Supreme Court in Kiobel,
133 S. Ct. 1659, does not bar the claim; (3) customary international
law recognizes liability for the defendant, see Kiobel, 621 F.3d at 145;
and (4) the theory of liability alleged by plaintiffs (i.e., aiding and
abetting, conspiracy) is recognized by customary international law,
see Khulumani v. Barclay National Bank Ltd., 504 F.3d 254, 264 (2d Cir.
2007) (Katzmann, J., concurring). Although each of these requires an
15 No. 10‐5258‐cv
affirmative determination before a court properly has jurisdiction
over an ATS claim, the order and manner in which a court
undertakes these inquiries is a matter of discretion based upon the
particular circumstances presented. Here, in the circumstances
before us, we begin with an inquiry into whether plaintiffs pleaded a
violation of the law of nations, we then examine the theory of
liability asserted, and we finally address extraterritoriality. Because
we conclude that the complaint is barred by the presumption against
extraterritoriality, we need not conclusively address other
jurisdictional predicates.5
A. Pleading a Violation of the Law of Nations
The first jurisdictional inquiry that we undertake is
determining whether plaintiffs have adequately pleaded a cause of
action. The ATS only confers jurisdiction over torts based upon
violations of United States treaties or of the law of nations. 28 U.S.C.
§ 1350. As Judge Jon O. Newman has explained, “[b]ecause the
[ATS] requires that plaintiffs plead a violation of the law of nations
We note that the District Court dismissed all of plaintiffs’ ATS claims from the
5
bench “because of the decision of the Second Circuit in Kiobel,” App’x 58, referring to our
Kiobel opinion, in which we held that “[b]ecause corporate liability is not recognized as a
specific, universal, and obligatory norm . . . it is not a rule of customary international law
that we may apply under the ATS.” 621 F.3d at 145 (internal quotation marks and citation
omitted). Although the holding of our Kiobel opinion has not been modified or disturbed,
see Chowdhury v. Worldtel Bangladesh Holding, Ltd., 746 F.3d 42, 49 n.6 (2d Cir. 2014);
Balintulo v. Daimler AG, 727 F.3d 174, 191 n.26 (2d Cir. 2013), plaintiffs argue in their
supplemental brief that we should reevaluate the holding of our Kiobel opinion. See
Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 2‐3. As it happens, we have no need to address that argument
because we dispose of plaintiffs’ claims on other jurisdictional grounds.
16 No. 10‐5258‐cv
at the jurisdictional threshold, this statute requires a more searching
review of the merits to establish jurisdiction than is required under
the more flexible ‘arising under’ formula of [28 U.S.C.] section 1331.”
Kadic, 70 F.3d at 238 (internal quotation marks omitted). “Thus, it is
not a sufficient basis for jurisdiction to plead merely a colorable
violation of the law of nations. There is no federal subject‐matter
jurisdiction under the [ATS] unless the complaint adequately pleads
a violation of the law of nations (or treaty of the United States).” Id.
Plaintiffs’ complaint asserts seven causes of action predicated
upon the following alleged violations by the Saddam Hussein
regime: (1) crimes against humanity; (2) war crimes; (3) genocide;
(4) torture; (5) extrajudicial killings; (6) forced disappearances of
persons; and (7) cruel, inhuman, and/or degrading treatment and/or
punishment. See App’x 34‐43. All of these claims, plaintiffs argue,
are cognizable under the ATS as torts committed in violation of the
law of nations or of United States treaties. See id. at 28‐29 ¶ 158.
Violations of the law of nations, also known as customary
international law, 6 are those “violations of . . . international law
norm[s] with [as] definite content and acceptance among civilized
nations [as] the historical paradigms familiar when [the ATS] was
enacted [in 1789],” Sosa, 542 U.S. at 732, or, in other words, are
violations of “specific and universally accepted rules that the nations
of the world treat as binding in their dealings with one another,”
Kiobel, 621 F.3d at 118. We do well to recall that customary
international law, as Judge Friendly explained, addresses only those
6 See note 2, ante.
17 No. 10‐5258‐cv
wrongs proscribed by “standards, rules or customs (a) affecting the
relationship between states or between an individual and a foreign
state, and (b) used by those states for their common good and/or in
dealings inter se.” IIT v. Vencap, Ltd., 519 F.2d at 1015; see also Flores,
414 F.3d at 249; n.23, post, and accompanying text. By way of
example, Judge Friendly rejected the notion that “the Eighth
Commandment ‘Thou shalt not steal’ is part of the law of nations,”
because, “[w]hile every civilized nation doubtless has this as a part
of its legal system,” that is insufficient to establish it as a norm of the
law of nations; rather, it must affect the relationship between states
or between an individual and a foreign state, and must relate to the
practice of states in their relationships inter se. Vencap, 519 F.2d at
1015; see also Flores, 414 F.3d at 249 (“[F]or example, murder of one
private party by another, universally proscribed by the domestic law
of all countries (subject to varying definitions), is not actionable
under the AT[S] as a violation of customary international law
because the nations of the world have not demonstrated that this
wrong is of mutual, and not merely several, concern.” (internal
quotation marks omitted)).
We conclude that plaintiffs have satisfied their burden of
asserting some causes of action grounded in actions recognized as
violations of customary international law. See, e.g., Presbyterian
Church, 582 F.3d at 256 (acknowledging that genocide, war crimes,
18 No. 10‐5258‐cv
and crimes against humanity may be asserted as causes of action
under the ATS).7
B. The Theory of Liability Asserted
Plaintiffs here bring claims under both an aiding and abetting
and a conspiracy theory of liability. We have held that “in this
Circuit, a plaintiff may plead a theory of aiding and abetting liability
under the AT[S],” Khulumani, 504 F.3d at 260, and accordingly,
plaintiffs have pleaded a theory of liability over which we have
subject matter jurisdiction.
Plaintiffs also allege causes of action for torture; extrajudicial killing; forced
7
disappearances of persons; and cruel, inhuman, and/or degrading treatment and/or
punishment. Were these the only causes of action alleged, we would remand to the
District Court for a determination in the first instance of whether they constitute
violations of customary international law. However, because plaintiffs have pleaded
three causes of action that unquestionably allege violations of customary international
law—war crimes, genocide, and other crimes against humanity—they have satisfied this
jurisdictional predicate. As we ultimately conclude that the claim is barred as a
jurisdictional matter by the presumption against extraterritoriality, see Section II.C.5, post,
we need not remand this question to the District Court.
Accordingly, we intimate no view on whether these in fact are violations of the
law of nations, nor on other corollary questions that would need be answered in order to
make such a determination, including whether the TVPA, enacted in 1991, now provides
the sole means by which plaintiffs can bring claims based upon torture and extrajudicial
killing. See Enahoro v. Abubakar, 408 F.3d 877, 884‐85 (7th Cir. 2005) (concluding that in
enacting the TVPA, Congress established it as the sole means through which a plaintiff
could allege claims for extrajudicial killing and torture, because “[i]f it did not, it would
be meaningless. No one would plead a cause of action under the TVPA and subject
himself to its requirements if he could simply plead under” the ATS); cf. Filartiga, 630
F.2d at 880 (holding, well before the TVPA was passed, that “an act of torture committed
by a state official against one held in detention violates established norms of the
international law of human rights, and hence the law of nations”).
19 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Whether there is conspiracy liability under customary
international law and hence under the ATS remains an open
question in this Circuit. See Presbyterian Church, 582 F.3d at 260
(assuming without deciding that a conspiracy theory in the form of a
“joint criminal enterprise” is cognizable under the ATS). Because we
ultimately dispose of these claims on jurisdictional grounds other
than whether conspiracy liability is available under the ATS, see
Section II.C.5, post, we need not address that question here.
C. Displacing the Presumption Against Extraterritoriality
Having held that the complaint alleges violations of the law of
nations, we now turn to the question of whether the presumption
against the extraterritorial application of statutes bars plaintiffs’
action.
1. The Supreme Court’s Opinion in Kiobel
The Supreme Court’s opinion in Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. 1659,
significantly clarified the jurisdictional grant of the ATS with respect
to extraterritoriality, and we therefore begin our jurisdictional
analysis with an examination of that case.
The Supreme Court concluded in Kiobel that “[t]he principles
underlying the presumption against extraterritoriality . . . constrain
courts exercising their power under the ATS.” 133 S. Ct. at 1665. The
Court reached this conclusion after examining the statutory text and
historical setting of the ATS’s passage, seeking evidence of
congressional intent that it apply extraterritorially, id. at 1665‐69, but
determining that “there is no clear indication of extraterritoriality
20 No. 10‐5258‐cv
here,” id. (internal quotation marks and alteration omitted).
Accordingly, the Court held that the ATS could not form the basis
for jurisdiction of U.S. courts over acts occurring entirely beyond the
territory of the United States. Id.
At the end of its opinion, the Supreme Court held that, in the
specific case before it, the ATS could not confer federal jurisdiction
over plaintiff’s claims because “all the relevant conduct took place
outside the United States.” Id. at 1669. Then, in language that has
become the subject of interest by scholars and lower courts, the
Court appeared to leave open a window for ATS actions that are
based in part on extraterritorial conduct. The Court added:
And even where the claims touch and concern the
territory of the United States, they must do so with
sufficient force to displace the presumption against
extraterritorial application. See Morrison, 561 U.S. [247],
130 S. Ct. [2869,] 2883–2888. Corporations are often present
in many countries, and it would reach too far to say that
mere corporate presence suffices.
Id. at 1669.
An evaluation of the presumption’s application to a particular
case is essentially an inquiry into whether the domestic contacts are
sufficient to avoid triggering the presumption at all. The
presumption was not “displaced” in Kiobel because all of the
relevant conduct alleged in that suit took place outside of U.S.
territory. Yet, as the Supreme Court had previously recognized, it
will often be the case that “th[e] presumption . . . is not self‐
21 No. 10‐5258‐cv
evidently dispositive, but its application requires further analysis.”
Morrison, 561 U.S. at 266. As the Court noted in Morrison, “it is a rare
case of prohibited extraterritorial application that lacks all contact
with the territory of the United States.” Id.
Indeed, in the instant action, the complaint includes some
“contact” between the injuries alleged and the territory of the United
States. Although the depredations of the Saddam Hussein regime
undeniably occurred outside of the United States, plaintiffs argue
that the abuses they allegedly suffered at the hands of the Saddam
Hussein regime “flow from financial transactions within the
territory of the United States.” Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 4. In particular,
plaintiffs point to the following allegations: (1) the OFP was created,
administered, and its contracts approved by the United Nations in
New York City, where the United Nations headquarters is located;
(2) Chevron is headquartered in the United States, which means that
many decisions related to the alleged violations of the OFP were
“necessarily made by the top stake holders at Chevron in the United
States”; (3) Chevron engaged in transactions with other U.S.
companies involving the OFP oil and illicit surcharges, and its
“profits reaped from the transactions were recouped in the United
States”; and (4) BNP entered into a Banking Agreement with the
United Nations in New York pursuant to which it maintained an
22 No. 10‐5258‐cv
escrow account in New York City through which all OFP funds
moved, including the illicit surcharge payments. Id. at 4‐5.8
In light of the “connections” to U.S. territory asserted in the
complaint, the presumption against extraterritorial application is not
“self‐evidently dispositive” here, as it was in Kiobel, and our
jurisdictional inquiry requires the “further analysis” envisaged in
Morrison. What type of further analysis is required, and what facts
are relevant to determining whether a claim sufficiently “touches
and concerns” the United States so as to displace the presumption
against extraterritorial application in the context of the ATS is a
question of first impression for our Court. However, we draw
considerable guidance from the teachings of the Supreme Court in
several cases, in particular, from Morrison.9
Whether conduct occurring within the United Nations Headquarters in New
8
York City constitutes domestic or extraterritorial conduct for purposes of our
jurisdictional inquiry is a novel question. Pursuant to the relevant agreement between the
United States and United Nations, the United Nations “headquarters district,” including
the Headquarters building, has been afforded a unique status. See Agreement Between
the United Nations and the United States of America Regarding the Headquarters of the
United Nations, reprinted at 22 U.S.C. § 287 historical note (“U.N. Headquarters
Agreement”). Nonetheless, conduct occurring within the headquarters district is subject
to the same jurisdictional analysis as if such conduct occurred anywhere else in New
York City. We so conclude based upon the agreement’s provision that “the federal, state
and local courts of the United States shall have jurisdiction over acts done and
transactions taking place in the headquarters district as provided in applicable federal,
state and local laws.” U.N. Headquarters Agreement § 7(c). Therefore, conduct that
occurred within the United Nations Headquarters will be treated as domestic conduct for
purposes of the jurisdictional analysis under the ATS.
At the outset of our analysis, we acknowledge (as did the Supreme Court in
9
Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. at 1664) that the presumption against the extraterritoriality of statutes
has typically been applied to substantive statutes that regulate conduct, rather than
23 No. 10‐5258‐cv
2. Morrison’s “Focus” Analysis
To determine how to undertake the extraterritoriality analysis
where plaintiffs allege some “connections” to the United States, we
first look to the Court’s opinion in Morrison, in which the Court
actually engaged in the required “further analysis” with respect to
§ 10(b) of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (the “Exchange Act”).
After determining that the presumption against extraterritorial effect
of statutes applied to the Exchange Act, the Court then sought to
determine which “territorial event[s]” or “relationship[s]” were the
“focus” of the Exchange Act. Morrison, 561 U.S. at 266. The Court
determined that the “focus” of the statute was on “purchases and
sales of securities in the United States,” rather than “the place where
the deception originated.” Id. Analyzing transactions of securities
not registered on domestic exchanges, the Court again noted that “it
is the foreign location of the transaction that establishes (or reflects
the presumption of) the Act’s inapplicability.” Id. at 268. In light of
Congress’s focus on domestic transactions, the Court categorically
limited the territorial reach of the statute by establishing that § 10(b)
purely jurisdictional statutes, such as the ATS. See, e.g., Morrison, 561 U.S. at 273 (holding
that the presumption against extraterritoriality applied to section 10(b) of the Securities
Exchange Act, precluding claims for misconduct in connection with securities traded on
foreign exchanges); Sale v. Haitian Ctrs. Council, Inc., 509 U.S. 155, 159 (1991) (holding that
section 243(h) of the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952 did not apply
extraterritorially); Equal Opportunity Emp’t Comm’n v. Arabian Am. Oil Co., 499 U.S. 244,
259 (1991) (holding that Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not apply
extraterritorially). While mindful of the distinction between substantive and
jurisdictional statutes, we think the Court’s analysis in the above cases, applying the
presumption against extraterritoriality to substantive statutes, is instructive and relevant
to the question presented here.
24 No. 10‐5258‐cv
applies “only [to] transactions in securities listed on domestic
exchanges, and domestic transactions in other securities.” Id. at 267;
see id. at 285 (Stevens, J., concurring in the judgment) (characterizing
Court’s test as a “bright‐line rule[]”); City of Pontiac, 752 F.3d at 180
(same).
Adopting the Supreme Court’s methodology in Morrison, the
first step of our inquiry here involves an evaluation of the
“territorial event[s]” or “relationship[s]” that were the “focus” of the
ATS. Morrison, 561 U.S. at 266. This inquiry again begins with the
Supreme Court’s most comprehensive and recent examination of the
ATS in Kiobel. There, plaintiffs were Nigerian nationals who accused
Dutch, British, and Nigerian corporations of aiding and abetting
violations of customary international law by Nigerian military and
police forces. Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. at 1662. Plaintiffs claimed that the
defendant multi‐national corporations aided and abetted the abuses
by “providing the Nigerian forces with food, transportation, and
compensation, as well as by allowing the Nigerian military to use
respondents’ property as a staging ground for attacks.” Id. at 1662‐
63. The United States ties alleged were that defendants’ shares were
traded on the New York Stock Exchange, and that they had a New
York City office (owned by an affiliate) that “helps to explain their
business to potential investors.” Id. at 1677 (Breyer, J., concurring in
the judgment).
Focusing on the fact that “all the relevant conduct took place
outside the United States,” the Supreme Court held that the ATS did
not extend to plaintiffs’ claims. Id. at 1669. In Balintulo, we explained
25 No. 10‐5258‐cv
that the phrase “relevant conduct” in Kiobel referred, at all times and
“[i]n all cases,” to the conduct constituting the alleged offenses
under the law of nations. Balintulo, 727 F.3d at 189‐90, 192. 10 Indeed,
we undertook a careful examination of the Supreme Court’s choice
of language in Kiobel, and underscored that, on at least eleven
occasions, the Court “framed” its analysis as one “focusing solely on
the location of the relevant ‘conduct’ or ‘violation.’” Id. at 189
(quoting Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. at 1665‐69). Accordingly, in conducting
our extraterritoriality analysis, we looked solely to the site of the
alleged violations of customary international law. Id. at 189‐90.11
We have recently had another occasion to apply the Supreme Court’s Kiobel
10
holding in Chowdhury, 746 F.3d 42, where we determined that, because all of the conduct
set forth in plaintiff’s complaint occurred in Bangladesh, his claims brought under the
ATS were not cognizable. Id. at 49‐50.
After determining that the ATS does not apply extraterritorially, the Supreme
11
Court in Kiobel had no need to decide what allegations would be sufficient to displace the
presumption, because the Kiobel plaintiffs did not allege any conduct that took place in
the United States.
However, in his concurring opinion in Kiobel, Justice Alito did explicitly apply
the Morrison “focus” analysis to the ATS. In doing so, he noted that, pursuant to the
Supreme Court’s opinion in Sosa, 542 U.S. 692, “when the ATS was enacted,
congressional concern was focus[ed] on the three principal offenses against the law of
nations that had been identified by Blackstone: violation of safe conducts, infringement
of the rights of ambassadors, and piracy.” 133 S. Ct. at 1670 (Alito, J., concurring)
(internal quotation marks and citation omitted). He thus concluded that “a putative ATS
cause of action will fall within the scope of the presumption against extraterritoriality—
and will therefore be barred—unless the domestic conduct is sufficient to violate an
international law norm that satisfies Sosa’s requirements of definiteness and acceptance
among civilized nations.” Id.
We agree that a defendant’s domestic conduct must be the focal point of our
inquiry. This reflects the perspective of the majority opinion of the Chief Justice in Kiobel
26 No. 10‐5258‐cv
We then applied this ATS “focus” analysis—examining the
conduct alleged to constitute violations of the law of nations, and the
location of that conduct—to the facts of Balintulo itself. There, the
conduct at issue was the sale, by subsidiaries of the defendant
corporations, of cars and computers to the apartheid government of
South Africa, which allegedly aided and abetted that regime’s
violations of customary international law. Id. at 182‐83. Of
particular relevance to the instant case, the Balintulo plaintiffs
predicated their claim on an assertion that defendants “took
affirmative steps in this country to circumvent the sanctions
regime” against South Africa. Id. at 192.
We rejected the Balintulo plaintiffs’ arguments, holding that
their allegations were insufficient to displace the presumption. We
reasoned that defendants’ alleged domestic conduct lacked a clear
link to the human rights abuses occurring in South Africa that were
at the heart of plaintiffs’ action. Id. (stating that none of plaintiffs’
allegations “ties the relevant human rights violations to actions
taken within the United States”). We thus concluded that the alleged
violations were “based solely on conduct occurring abroad,” and
and its repeated emphasis on “the location of the relevant ‘conduct’ or ‘violation.’”
Balintulo, 727 F.3d at 189. Accordingly, the site of the alleged violation should be the
central inquiry for lower courts asked to apply the Kiobel presumption to facts allegedly
sufficient to overcome it.
27 No. 10‐5258‐cv
hence were not cognizable in U.S. courts under the teachings of the
Supreme Court in Kiobel. Id. at 182.12
3. Displacing the Presumption Against
Extraterritoriality Under the ATS
Drawing upon the guidance provided by the Supreme Court
in Morrison and Kiobel, and by this Court in Balintulo, a clear
principle emerges for conducting the extraterritoriality‐related
jurisdictional analysis required by the ATS: that the “focus” of the
ATS is on conduct and on the location of that conduct. Thus, in
determining whether the ATS confers on a federal court jurisdiction
over a particular case, a district court must isolate the “relevant
conduct” in a complaint. That conduct is the conduct of the
defendant which is alleged by plaintiff to be either a direct violation
of the law of nations or, as we recognized in Presbyterian Church, 582
F.3d at 259, conduct that constitutes aiding and abetting another’s
violation of the law of nations. In determining whether this conduct
displaces the presumption, the district court must engage in a two‐
step jurisdictional analysis of this conduct.
In Balintulo, we denied defendants’ request that we issue a writ of mandamus
12
ordering the District Court to dismiss all claims against them. We denied that request
because we held that, in light of the Kiobel presumption, recognized by the Supreme
Court while the Balintulo appeal was pending, “the defendants w[ould] be able to obtain
their desired relief (dismissal of all claims) in the District Court through a motion for
judgment on the pleadings, without resort to a writ of mandamus.” Balintulo, 727 F.3d at
182. As described above, our decision to deny the extraordinary writ of mandamus was
based on the holding that the plaintiffs’ alleged “violations of customary international
law based solely on conduct occurring abroad” were not cognizable in U.S. courts under
the ATS. Id.
28 No. 10‐5258‐cv
The first step is to determine whether the “relevant”
conduct—conduct which constitutes a violation of the law of nations
or aiding and abetting such a violation—sufficiently “touches and
concerns” the territory of the United States so as to displace the
presumption against extraterritoriality. Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. at 1669.
The second step is to make a preliminary determination that
the relevant conduct—which the court has determined sufficiently
“touches and concerns” the United States so as to displace the
presumption—may in fact be relied upon in establishing
jurisdiction. This is done through a preliminary determination that
the complaint adequately states a claim that the defendant violated
the law of nations or aided and abetted another’s violation of the
law of nations. As with all allegations contained in a complaint, the
pleaded conduct must be “plausibl[e],” and allow the court “to infer
more than the mere possibility of misconduct,” Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 679,
and must—at least upon an initial examination by the district
judge—appear to satisfy the standard for alleging a violation of the
law of nations or aiding and abetting such a violation. This initial
“glimpse” at what is ordinarily a merits determination is necessary
due to the unique character of the ATS as a jurisdictional statute that
derives substantive meaning from customary international law.
Thus, jurisdiction can only properly be asserted over conduct that is
in fact a violation of customary international law or aiding and
abetting a violation. By “glimpsing” at the merits at the
jurisdictional stage, the district court ensures that the conduct
29 No. 10‐5258‐cv
alleged in a complaint may properly be relied upon by the court in
conducting its extraterritoriality analysis.
Where a complaint alleges domestic conduct of the defendant
(that, the court determines, displaces the presumption against
extraterritoriality), but such conduct does not satisfy even a
preliminary assessment of the merits, the court may not rely on that
conduct for its extraterritoriality analysis. In such a circumstance,
the complaint does not only fail on the merits, but must also fail as a
jurisdictional matter, because where the conduct alleged does not
state a claim under customary international law, it cannot form the
basis of a court’s jurisdiction. See Kadic, 70 F.3d at 238 (“Because the
Alien Tort Act requires that plaintiffs plead ‘a violation of the law of
nations’ at the jurisdictional threshold, this statute requires a more
searching review of the merits to establish jurisdiction . . . . There is
no federal subject‐matter jurisdiction under the Alien Tort Act
unless the complaint adequately pleads a violation of the law of
nations.”) (citing Filartiga, 630 F.2d at 887‐88). This second step of the
extraterritoriality analysis ensures, as Justice Breyer stated in his
Kiobel concurring opinion, that “the statuteʹs jurisdictional reach
[will] match the statuteʹs underlying substantive grasp.” Kiobel, 133
S. Ct. at 1673 (Breyer, J., concurring in the judgment).13
We observe that Justice Breyer’s opinion explicitly regarded the extraterritoriality
13
analysis required by the majority opinion in Kiobel to be jurisdictional in nature, a
conclusion that triggered no protest from the majority. Id. at 1673 (Breyer, J., concurring
in the judgment). This approach is consistent with our understanding of the ATS as a
“strictly jurisdictional” creature. Sosa, 542 U.S. at 713. Accordingly, the general
presumption that a limitation on a statute’s coverage will be treated as nonjurisdictional
30 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Finally, we note that although a district court might deny a
motion to dismiss brought pursuant to Rule 12(b)(1) if it concludes
that the complaint passes jurisdictional muster, that does not obviate
the district court’s continuing obligation to ensure its own
jurisdiction as the case proceeds to discovery. If subsequent
materials in the record cast sufficient doubt upon the allegations in
the complaint that formed the basis for the court’s subject‐matter
jurisdiction, the court must revisit the question of its jurisdiction sua
sponte, or upon a party’s motion. See, e.g., Grupo Dataflux v. Atlas
Global Grp., L.P., 541 U.S. 567, 593 (2004) (“[I]t is the obligation of
both district court and counsel to be alert to jurisdictional
requirements.”); Transatlantic Marine Claims Agency, Inc. v. Ace
Shipping Corp., Div. of Ace Young Inc., 109 F.3d 105, 107 (2d Cir. 1997)
(“The failure of the parties to contest the district court’s authority to
hear a case does not act to confer federal jurisdiction since a
challenge to subject matter jurisdiction cannot be waived and may
be raised either by motion or sua sponte at any time.”) (internal
quotation marks, ellipses, and brackets omitted).
4. Relevant and Irrelevant Considerations
As we have explained above, in order to displace the
presumption against extraterritoriality and establish federal
subject matter jurisdiction over an ATS claim, the complaint
must plead: (1) conduct of the defendant that “touch[ed] and
unless Congress clearly states otherwise, see Arbaugh v. Y&H Corp., 546 U.S. 500, 515‐16
(2006), is not applicable in the context of the ATS.
31 No. 10‐5258‐cv
concern[ed]” the United States with sufficient force to displace the
presumption against extraterritoriality, and (2) that the same conduct,
upon preliminary examination, states a claim for a violation of the
law of nations or aiding and abetting another’s violation of the law
of nations.
In evaluating the “relevant” conduct, we are mindful of
the Supreme Court’s emphasis on the potential foreign policy
implications of the ATS. See Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. at 1664‐65. In all
cases applying the presumption against extraterritoriality to
statutes, courts must be careful to recall the relevance of this
canon—namely, “to protect against unintended clashes between
our laws and those of other nations which could result in
international discord.” Equal Opportunity Emp’t Comm’n v. Arabian
Am. Oil Co. (“ARAMCO”), 499 U.S. 244, 248 (1991); see also
Parkcentral Global Hub Ltd. v. Porsche Auto. Holdings SE, 763 F.3d 198,
216 (2d Cir. 2014) (holding a claim brought under § 10(b) of the
Securities Exchange Act barred as extraterritorial because “the
application of § 10(b) to the defendants would so obviously
implicate the incompatibility of U.S. and foreign laws that Congress
could not have intended it sub silentio”). This core purpose of the
presumption is even more pronounced here: “[T]he danger of
unwarranted judicial interference in the conduct of foreign policy is
magnified in the context of the ATS, because the question is not
what Congress has done but instead what courts may do.” Kiobel,
133 S. Ct. at 1664. Describing the dangers inherent when courts
impinge on the role of the executive and legislative branches in
32 No. 10‐5258‐cv
managing foreign policy, the Court explained, “[t]hese concerns,
which are implicated in any case arising under the ATS, are all the
more pressing when the question is whether a cause of action under
the ATS reaches conduct within the territory of another sovereign.”
Id. at 1665. Thus, as instructed by the Supreme Court, the lower
federal courts must proceed with caution when determining
whether a particular case alleges conduct that is sufficiently
“domestic,” such that the presumption is “displaced” (i.e., does
not apply).
Furthermore, in identifying the conduct which must form the
basis of the violation and the jurisdictional analysis under the ATS,
precedents make clear that neither the U.S. citizenship of
defendants, nor their presence in the United States, is of relevance
for jurisdictional purposes. First, in Kiobel the Court explicitly stated
that “mere corporate presence” in the United States would be
insufficient to displace the presumption against extraterritoriality.
133 S. Ct. at 1669. And in Balintulo, we described a defendant’s
citizenship as “an irrelevant factual distinction,” and expressly
rejected plaintiff’s contention that “corporate citizenship [of a
defendant] in the United States is enough” to displace the
presumption. 727 F.3d at 189‐90. And indeed, in another case in
which the Supreme Court assessed the extraterritorial effect of
a statute, the fact that the defendant corporations were
American did not render defendant’s overseas activities
sufficiently domestic. See ARAMCO, 499 U.S. at 247 (holding that
Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not apply
33 No. 10‐5258‐cv
extraterritorially to a Delaware corporation’s treatment of its U.S.
citizen employee in Saudi Arabia).
Recently, the Eleventh Circuit reached the same conclusion. In
Cardona v. Chiquita Brands Int’l, Inc., the Court of Appeals rejected
plaintiffs’ “attempt to anchor ATS jurisdiction in the nature of the
defendants as United States corporations.” 760 F.3d at 1189. In
discarding this argument, the Court of Appeals quoted the Supreme
Court’s directive in Kiobel that “mere corporate presence” does not
suffice to displace the presumption, and it identified no significant
distinction between corporate presence and citizenship for purposes
of analyzing domestic connections. Id. (quoting Kiobel, 133 S. Ct. at
1669).
Other courts have considered a defendant’s U.S. citizenship as
one germane factor among numerous factors that, when viewed
together, sufficiently “touch and concern” the United States so as to
confer jurisdiction on the federal courts over a case. In Al Shimari v.
CACI Premier Technology Inc., 758 F.3d 516 (4th Cir. 2014), the Fourth
Circuit held that ATS claims related to alleged torture of plaintiffs
that took place at the Abu Ghraib prison in Iraq, at the hands of
interrogators employed by the defendant corporation, sufficiently
“touched and concerned” the United States. Id. at 530. The Court of
Appeals reached this conclusion based upon the combination of
numerous domestic contacts, including: defendant’s status as a U.S.
corporation; the U.S. citizenship of defendant’s employees, “upon
whose conduct the ATS claims are based”; defendant’s status as a
contractor of the U.S. government; and allegations of domestic
34 No. 10‐5258‐cv
conduct by defendants in approving, encouraging, and covering up
the alleged torture.14 Id. at 530‐31.
We disagree with the contention that a defendant’s U.S.
citizenship has any relevance to the jurisdictional analysis. The
Supreme Court made clear in Kiobel that the full “focus” of the ATS
was on conduct. See Balintulo, 727 F.3d at 190‐91 & n.24. Whether a
complaint passes jurisdictional muster accordingly depends upon
alleged conduct by anyone—U.S. citizen or not—that took place in
the United States and aided and abetted a violation of the law of
nations. A complaint cannot be “saved” for jurisdictional purposes
simply because a U.S. citizen happened to commit the alleged
violation; similarly, our jurisdiction over actions taken within the
United States is not less clear where they are actions of a foreign
Some district courts have similarly considered a defendant’s U.S. citizenship as
14
one pertinent factor among others, including the defendant’s conduct. In Sexual Minorities
Uganda v. Lively, 960 F. Supp. 2d 304 (D. Mass. 2013), the court held that the presumption
against extraterritoriality was displaced by distinguishing the case from Kiobel in two
ways: (1) because “[d]efendant is an American citizen residing within . . . Massachusetts”
and (2) because “the tortious acts committed by [d]efendant took place to a substantial
degree within the United States,” including “planning and managing a campaign of
repression in Uganda from the United States.” Id. at 321‐22. The court likened
defendant’s U.S.‐based conduct to “a terrorist designing and manufacturing a bomb in
this country,” which he then detonates overseas. Id. at 322. As explained above, we
would look only to defendant’s conduct in the United States, but not to his citizenship in
determining our jurisdiction. See also Du Daobin v. Cisco Sys., Inc., 2 F. Supp. 3d 717, 728
(D. Md. 2014) (assuming, without deciding, that the presumption against
extraterritoriality was displaced in an ATS case because: (1) defendant was an American,
rather than foreign, corporation, and (2) “developmental actions relevant to the [alleged
law of nations violation] took place predominantly, if not entirely, within the United
States,” and “defendant . . . has taken certain actions within the United States with
respect to products that might be primarily used for violations of the laws of nations”).
35 No. 10‐5258‐cv
national rather than a U.S. citizen.15 Cf. Absolute Activist Value Master
Fund Ltd. v. Ficeto, 677 F.3d 60, 69 (2d Cir. 2012) (noting, in a case
applying the Supreme Court’s Morrison opinion, that in identifying
domestic as opposed to extraterritorial transactions, “[a] purchaser’s
citizenship or residency does not affect where a transaction occurs; a
foreign resident can make a purchase within the United States, and a
United States resident can make a purchase outside the United
States”) (internal quotation marks omitted).
5. Application
We now turn to the complaint at hand, looking to see whether
the complaint has pleaded: (1) conduct by defendants that
“touch[ed] and concern[ed]” the United States with sufficient force
to displace the presumption against extraterritoriality, and (2) that
the same conduct, upon preliminary examination, states a claim for a
In conducting the “touch and concern” jurisdictional analysis, one district
15
court, faced with an ATS claim against Osama bin Laden and al‐Qaeda stemming from
the bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Nairobi, looked to both defendants’ U.S.‐based
conduct, as well as the intended effect of the conduct in the United States. See Mwani v.
Laden, 947 F. Supp. 2d 1, 5 (D.D.C. 2013). There, the court held that the claims at issue
sufficiently “touched and concerned” the United States so as to confer the court with ATS
jurisdiction, because “[s]urely, if any circumstances were to fit the Court’s framework of
‘touching and concerning the United States with sufficient force,’ it would be a terrorist
attack that 1) was plotted in part within the United States, and 2) was directed at a
United States Embassy and its employees,” and certified that disposition for immediate
review by the D.C. Circuit. Id. Because, in the case before us, plaintiffs do not assert that
the Saddam Hussein regime’s alleged violations of the law of nations were directed at, or
felt in, the United States, we leave for another day the question of whether and how that
fact might affect the jurisdictional analysis.
36 No. 10‐5258‐cv
violation of the law of nations or aiding and abetting another’s
violation of the law of nations.
The conduct alleged in the complaint that plaintiffs contend is
sufficient to displace the presumption against extraterritoriality is
that: (1) the OFP was created, administered, and its contracts were
approved by the United Nations in New York City, where the
United Nations headquarters is located; (2) Chevron is
headquartered in the United States, which means that many
decisions related to the alleged violations of the OFP were
“necessarily made by the top stake holders at Chevron in the United
States”; (3) Chevron engaged in transactions with other U.S.
companies involving the OFP oil and illicit surcharges, and its
“profits reaped from the transactions were recouped in the United
States”; and (4) BNP entered into a Banking Agreement with the
United Nations in New York pursuant to which it maintained an
escrow account in New York City through which all OFP funds
moved, including the illicit surcharge payments.
First, the fact that the United Nations is located in New York,
and that the OFP’s inception and administration occurred in New
York, is irrelevant. Such allegations, by themselves, are not facts
related to defendants at all, let alone alleged conduct taken by
defendants to aid and abet violations of the law of nations.
Second, where Chevron is headquartered is also immaterial,
because, as just discussed, the relevant inquiry is on conduct
constituting a violation of customary international law or of aiding
37 No. 10‐5258‐cv
and abetting such violations, not on where defendants are present. A
defendant’s nationality or citizenship is pertinent only insofar as it
relates to its alleged U.S. conduct.
Third, our jurisdictional analysis need not take into account
allegations that, on their face, do not satisfy basic pleading
requirements. Allegations must be more than “[t]hreadbare recitals
of the elements of a cause of action, supported by mere conclusory
statements.” Iqbal, 556 U.S. at 678. Plaintiffs’ assertion that, because
Chevron was headquartered in the United States, “much of the
decisionmaking to participate in the [OFP] scheme” was necessarily
made in the United States, is just such a conclusory assumption.
Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 4.16
Yet plaintiffs do make additional allegations of Chevron and
BNP’s U.S.‐based attempts to skirt the sanctions regime, the
combination of which appear to “touch and concern” the United
States with sufficient force to displace the presumption. For
example, plaintiffs allege that Iraqi oil under contract with Russian
companies “was in fact purchased and financed . . . in the United
States” by Chevron, Compl. ¶ 57, and that “Chevron financed the
sale of two million barrels of oil to Bulf Oil through Midway Oil of
Reston, Virginia” for which Chevron “facilitated” “a surcharge
We also note that the only place plaintiffs allege that “decisionmaking to
16
participate in the scheme” took place in the United States was in their supplemental letter
brief, rather than in their complaint. Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 4. Nevertheless, we include it in
our analysis as a corollary of the clearly‐pleaded facts of Chevron’s United States
activities related to the alleged OFP violations. See App’x 12.
38 No. 10‐5258‐cv
payment of nearly half a million dollars be paid to the [Saddam
Hussein] regime,” id. ¶¶ 73‐75. They further allege, as a general
matter, that “profits rendered from the transactions w[ere] recouped
in the United States.” Id. ¶ 17.
Regarding BNP, plaintiffs allege that BNP “maintained the
escrow account in New York City” through which all payments
were transmitted pursuant to the OFP. Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 4. They
further allege that “BNP allowed payments through the New York
escrow account that included kickbacks to the [Saddam Hussein]
Regime,” that “BNP’s financing arrangements in New York allowed
the oil purchasers to conceal the true nature of the oil purchase.” Id.
at 5. Allegedly, “BNP enabled the oil purchasers and humanitarian
goods suppliers to include funds [diverted to the Saddam Hussein
regime] which were not captured in the escrow account,” and the
illicit “oil surcharge scheme relied on the financing arrangements
made by BNP Paribas in three‐fourths of the transactions.” Compl.
¶¶ 113‐14, 121.
This particular combination of conduct in the United States—
on the part of Chevron, multiple domestic purchases and financing
transactions; on the part of BNP, numerous New York‐based
payments and “financing arrangements” conducted exclusively
through a New York bank account—is both specific and domestic.
These allegations assert non‐conclusory conduct that appears to
“touch[ ] and concern[ ]” the United States with sufficient force to
displace the presumption against extraterritoriality and establish our
39 No. 10‐5258‐cv
jurisdiction under the ATS, 17 if such conduct also meets the second
prong of our extraterritoriality analysis—i.e., if it satisfies a
preliminary determination that such conduct aided and abetted a
violation of the law of nations. To do this, we provide a brief
overview of the elements necessary to state a claim for aiding and
abetting a violation of the law of nations under the ATS.
Our decision in Presbyterian Church resolved earlier
uncertainty about the elements of a claim of aiding and abetting
liability under the ATS. There, plaintiffs were Sudanese citizens who
brought suit under the ATS against a Canadian oil company,
alleging that security arrangements for the company carried out by
the Sudanese government led to persecution of citizens living near
oil concession areas. 582 F.3d at 249‐52. Evaluating whether it was
sufficient to state a claim that the defendant company knew of the
alleged abuses, we held that “the mens rea standard for aiding and
abetting liability in ATS actions is purpose rather than knowledge
In concluding that these allegations of domestic conduct “touch[ ] and
17
concern[ ]” the United States with sufficient force to displace the presumption against
extraterritoriality, we note the analytical similarity between the allegations in this
complaint, and those in another case in which the district court conducted the ATS
extraterritoriality analysis according to the framework we have articulated here. In
Krishanti v. Rajaratnam, the district court found that it had subject matter jurisdiction over
the ATS claims because, although the alleged effects of defendant’s violations of the law
of nations were felt exclusively in Sri Lanka, the claim was based entirely on “alleged
actions that occurred within the United States” including defendant’s hosting of
meetings and fundraisers for a foreign terrorist organization in New Jersey, donating
money to a U.S.‐based group which was purposefully funneled to the terrorist
organization, and creating corporations in the United States to further facilitate donations
to the terrorist organization. No. 2.09 Civ. 05395, 2014 WL 1669873, at *10 (D.N.J. Apr. 28,
2014).
40 No. 10‐5258‐cv
alone.” Id. 259 (emphasis supplied). 18 We noted the lack of a
sufficient international consensus “for imposing liability on
individuals who knowingly (but not purposefully) aid and abet a
violation of international law.” Id. Assuming, without deciding, that
conspiracy liability for completed offenses was a valid theory in an
ATS action,19 we also concluded that any such claims would require
the same mens rea element as claims for aiding and abetting. Id. at
260.
In establishing this standard as the law of the Circuit, the
unanimous Presbyterian Church panel relied substantially and
expressly on Judge Katzmann’s concurring opinion in an earlier
It is not disputed that this mens rea standard—requiring defendants to act with
18
the purpose of aiding and abetting violations of the law of nations—has become the law
of the Circuit. See, e.g., In re Terrorist Attacks on September 11, 2001, 718 F. Supp. 2d 456,
493‐94 (S.D.N.Y. 2010), aff’d on other grounds, 714 F.3d 118, 125 (2d Cir. 2013); Ahmad v.
Christian Friends of Israeli Cmtys., No. 13 Civ. 3376, 2014 WL 1796322, at *5 (S.D.N.Y. May
5, 2014). In his opinion concurring in the judgment in this Circuit’s Kiobel opinion, Judge
Leval would have rested the decision to dismiss the complaint in that case on a
conclusion that the complaint did “not contain allegations supporting a reasonable
inference that Appellants acted with a purpose of bringing about the alleged abuses.”
Kiobel, 621 F.3d at 188 (Leval, J., concurring in the judgment); see also id. at 158 (“In this
circuit, supplying financing or military equipment to a local government will not support
the imposition of aiding and abetting liability on the corporation for that government’s
abuses unless the corporation acted with a purpose to promote or advance those
violations. . . . A true question of tort liability for corporate aiding and abetting in
government atrocities would be raised where such a defendant purposely procures the
commission of genocide by local government forces.”); Kiobel v. Royal Dutch Petroleum
Co., 642 F.3d 379, 380 (Katzmann, J., dissenting in the denial of reh’g en banc)
(“In Presbyterian Church . . . the unanimous panel—Chief Judge Jacobs, Judge Leval,
and Judge Cabranes—adopted [Judge Katzmann’s Khulumani] analysis as the ‘law of this
Circuit,’ and held that we must look ‘to international law to find the standard for
accessorial liability’ under the AT[S].”) (quoting Presbyterian Church, 582 F.3d at 258‐59)).
19 See Section II.B, ante.
41 No. 10‐5258‐cv
case, Khulumani, 504 F.3d at 264. There, Judge Katzmann conducted
a lengthy analysis of relevant sources of international law and
concluded that “a defendant may be held liable under international
law for aiding and abetting the violation of that law by another
when the defendant (1) provides practical assistance to the principal
which has a substantial effect on the perpetration of the crime, and
(2) does so with the purpose of facilitating the commission of that
crime.” Id. at 277 (emphasis supplied). 20 Accordingly, the
defendant’s “complicity” in the government’s abuses in Presbyterian
Church, without more, was insufficient to establish a claim of aiding
and abetting or conspiracy under the ATS. 582 F.3d at 263.
Upon a preliminary analysis of the conduct alleged in the
complaint—conducted merely to confirm that this conduct, upon
which we would otherwise rely in holding that the presumption
against extraterritoriality is displaced, may in fact form the basis of
our jurisdiction—we conclude that plaintiffs clearly do not meet the
mens rea requirement established in Presbyterian Church. 21 In their
Judge Katzmann reminded those relying on his reasoning that “[i]nternational
20
law, like our domestic law, can change.” Khulumani, 504 F.3d at 277. On that score, he
noted in passing that “there is some support . . . for a definition of aiding and abetting
that would lead to liability where an individual provides substantial assistance with the
knowledge that the acts performed by the aider and abettor assist the commission of the
specific crime of the principal.” Id. at 278 (emphasis supplied) (internal quotation marks
omitted). However, this arguable opening offers no assistance to plaintiffs in this action,
because they do not suggest, much less show, that international law norms have shifted
to recognize a different or broader rule of aiding and abetting liability since the
Khulumani and Presbyterian Church decisions.
This analysis applies with equal force to plaintiffs’ claim predicated upon a
21
theory of conspiracy. Although we do not decide whether conspiracy is in fact available
42 No. 10‐5258‐cv
supplemental brief, plaintiffs summarize their mens rea allegations as
follows: “the complaint alleges that Chevron and BNP acted both
with the express purpose of violating the rules governing the Oil for
Food Programme” and “knew full well that doing so promoted
serious human rights abuses in Iraq.” Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 6
(emphasis added).22 In other words, plaintiffs assert that defendants
acted purposefully in violating the OFP, but merely knowingly in
aiding and abetting the underlying violations of the law of nations.23
under customary international law, we have already held that “under a theory of relief
based on a joint criminal enterprise, plaintiffs’ conspiracy claims would require the same
proof of mens rea as their claims for aiding and abetting.” Presbyterian Church, 582 F.3d at
260.
See, e.g., Compl. ¶ 14 (“The Defendants . . . supported, assisted, bolstered, and
22
aided the Saddam Hussein regime . . . with full knowledge of the [abuses].”); id. ¶ 46
(“The payments that Chevron knowingly made to the Saddam Regime were a substantial
factor in causing the [abuses].”); id. ¶ 76 (“Chevron knew the surcharge was illegal.”); id.
¶ 90 (“Chevron knew that the surcharge payments were substantially aiding the Saddam
Regime in its campaign of torture and abuse of the Plaintiffs and the members of their
class.”); id. ¶ 143 (“BNP had first hand knowledge of the true nature of the financial
transactions to purchase oil and failed to disclose the information or prevent payments
from being made directly to the Saddam Regime.”).
Plaintiffs also argue, without further explanation or support in the case law,
23
that the instant case is distinct from Presbyterian Church because “abuses of the Oil for
Food Programme . . . are themselves violations of international law.” Appellants’ Ltr. Br. 7.
This assertion reflects a misunderstanding of basic principles of our ATS jurisprudence,
and an explanatory note is thus in order lest others seek to advance a similarly misplaced
argument.
As we explained earlier, see Part II.A, ante, The ATS does not confer the federal
courts with jurisdiction over any and all arguable violations of international law. Rather,
ATS jurisdiction is much narrower, recognizing a “modest number” of claims, each of
which must “rest on a norm of international character accepted by the civilized world
and defined with a specificity comparable to the features of the 18th‐century paradigms
we have recognized.” Sosa, 542 U.S. at 724‐25. As we have previously explained, it
43 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Plaintiffs thus miss the mark and misconstrue our clear
holding in Presbyterian Church. The relevant inquiry at all times is
whether plaintiffs’ complaint “supports an inference that
[defendants] acted with the ‘purpose’ to advance the Government’s
human rights abuses,” Presbyterian Church, 582 F.3d at 260, not
whether defendants merely knew that those abuses were occurring
and that defendants’ business was enabling such acts. Plaintiffs’
allegations that defendants intentionally flouted the sanctions regime
for profit, or that they knew their actions were in violation of United
Nations Security Council resolutions, or “international law,” or U.S.
policy are irrelevant to the mens rea inquiry; rather, our analysis
necessarily focuses on allegations that defendants intended to aid and
abet violations of customary international law carried out by the
Saddam Hussein regime—a contention that is unsupported by the
facts alleged in the complaint.24
applies only to violations of “customary international law,” a body of law which
“reflect[s] the practices and customs of States in the international arena that are applied
in a consistent fashion and that are generally recognized by what used to be called
‘civilized states.’” United States v. Yousef, 327 F.3d 56, 92 (2d Cir. 2003). As Judge Friendly
explained, even if a legal norm appears in the domestic code of every “civilized
nation”—robbery, murder, and thuggery of all kinds are examples—it only rises to the
level of customary international law if it “(a) affect[s] the relationship between states or
between an individual and a foreign state, and (b) [is] used by those states for their
common good and/or in dealings inter se.” Vencap, 519 F.2d at 1015. Customary
international law “does not stem from any single, definitive, readily‐identifiable source,”
Flores, 414 F.3d at 248, and thus, contrary to plaintiffs’ assertion above, it is incorrect to
simply conflate any violation of “international law” with a violation of customary
international law. See also Section II.A, ante.
The fact pattern presented here is similar in some relevant respects to that
24
encountered by the Fourth Circuit in Aziz v. Alcolac, Inc., 658 F.3d 388 (4th Cir. 2011), and
44 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Where the complaint appears to allege something akin to
purpose, it does so in conclusory terms and fails to establish even a
baseline degree of plausibility of plaintiffs’ claims. For example, the
complaint alleges in its introduction that “[d]efendants conspired
with the Saddam Hussein regime to maintain control and power
over Iraq in order to secure mutual financial benefits through the
egregious affronts on the human rights of the [p]laintiffs.” Compl.
Introduction. Plaintiffs never elaborate upon this assertion in any
way that establishes the plausibility of a large international
corporation intending—and taking deliberate steps with the purpose
of assisting—the Saddam Hussein regime’s torture and abuse of
Iraqi persons. See Kiobel, 621 F.3d at 192 (Leval, J., concurring in the
judgment) (“[T]he complaint pleads also in conclusory form that the
Nigerian military’s campaign of violence against the [victim‐
the Court of Appeals’ reasoning there is instructive. There, the defendant was a British
company that sold a certain chemical—which could be used to make mustard gas—to
another company that was a shell corporation facilitating acquisition of the chemical for
the Iraqi government, in violation of U.S. law. Id. at 391. Plaintiffs were individuals of
Kurdish descent who either were harmed by Iraqi government chemical attacks, or were
relatives of those killed by such attacks. Id. The Fourth Circuit first relied upon our
opinion in Presbyterian Church, and Judge Katzmann’s reasoning in his concurring
opinion in Khulumani, to hold that claims of aiding and abetting are cognizable under the
ATS, see id. at 396, and then held that such claims must be based on an allegation that
defendants had the purpose of facilitating the violations, id. at 401.
Applying those conclusions to the circumstances there presented, the Fourth
Circuit held that plaintiffs did not sufficiently plead intentional conduct by claiming,
without further explanation, that defendant had “placed [the chemical at issue] into the
stream of international commerce with the purpose of facilitating the use of said
chemicals in the manufacture of chemical weapons to be used, among other things,
against the Kurdish population in northern Iraq.” Id. at 401. Here, the complaint’s
allegations relating to intentional conduct are similarly lacking, unsubstantiated, and
conclusory.
45 No. 10‐5258‐cv
plaintiffs] was ‘instigated, planned, facilitated, conspired and
cooperated in’ by [defendant corporation]. Such pleadings are
merely a conclusory accusation of violation of a legal standard and
do not withstand the test of Twombly and Iqbal.”). Other points at
which the complaint seems to allege purposeful action are similarly
conclusory, and also fail to directly link the allegedly intentional
conduct with the human rights abuses at the heart of the
complaint.25 They thus fall short of the pleading standards required
by Iqbal and Twombly.
In the instant case, the District Court correctly recognized this
pleading deficiency, albeit in its discussion of the TVPA. It
concluded that “nothing in the complaint suggests (even in a
conclusory fashion) that the defendants acted with the purpose of
facilitating human rights abuses,” and went even further,
concluding that the “claims as presently pleaded even fail to meet
the less stringent common law standard for aiding‐and‐abetting
liability, which requires that the defendants had ‘actual knowledge’
that their actions would contribute to the commission of human
rights abuses.” Mastafa v. Chevron Corp., 759 F. Supp. 2d 297, 300
(S.D.N.Y. 2010).
See, e.g., Compl. ¶ 163 (“Defendants acted as part of a conspiracy to profit from
25
violating the law of nations . . . in an effort and with the intent to profit from such
violations.”); id. ¶ 165 (“Defendants had the unlawful object[ive] of profiting from
violations of [international law].”); id. ¶ 173 (“Defendants acted as part of a common
design with the Saddam Hussein Regime to violate international law and receive illicit
profits which was a direct and proximate cause of the [abuses].”).
46 No. 10‐5258‐cv
Because the complaint fails plausibly to plead that defendants’
conduct related to aiding and abetting the alleged violations of
customary international law was intentional, that conduct cannot
form the basis for our jurisdiction.
Accordingly, we conclude that the District Court did not have
subject‐matter jurisdiction over this case.
CONCLUSION
To summarize, we hold that:
(1) The defendants in this action are corporations, and thus,
pursuant to the Supreme Court’s decision in Mohamad v.
Palestinian Authority, 132 S. Ct. 1702 (2012), they
indisputably are not subject to liability under the TVPA.
(2) In adjudicating claims brought under the ATS, a
“jurisdictional statute,” courts should begin their analysis
with the question of their jurisdiction over such claims
before proceeding to a determination on the merits.
(3) There are several jurisdictional predicates that must be
satisfied before a court can be assured of its jurisdiction
over an ATS claim, and the order and manner in which a
district court undertakes these inquiries is a matter of
discretion based upon the particular circumstances
presented.
47 No. 10‐5258‐cv
(4) Plaintiffs here satisfied their burden of asserting causes of
action grounded in actions recognized as violations of
customary international law.
(5) Plaintiffs alleged a theory of liability—aiding and
abetting—that is cognizable under customary international
law.
(6) In determining whether a claim under the ATS sufficiently
“touches and concerns” the United States with sufficient
force to displace the presumption against extraterritorial
application, courts must consider the following principles:
a. Under the Supreme Court’s decisions in Morrison
and Kiobel, and our Court’s opinion in Balintulo, the
“focus” of the ATS—and, thus, the focus of the
jurisdictional inquiry—is the conduct alleged to
violate the law of nations (or alleged to aid and abet
the violation of the law of nations), and where that
conduct occurred.
b. To establish our jurisdiction under the ATS, the
complaint must plead: (1) conduct of the defendant
that “touch[ed] and concern[ed]” the United States
with sufficient force to displace the presumption
against extraterritoriality, and (2) that the same
conduct, upon preliminary examination, states a
claim for a violation of the law of nations or aiding
48 No. 10‐5258‐cv
and abetting another’s violation of the law of
nations.
c. In identifying the “relevant conduct” for
jurisdictional purposes, Supreme Court and Second
Circuit precedent make clear that neither the U.S.
citizenship of defendants, nor their mere presence in
the United States, is relevant to a court’s
determination of its jurisdiction.
d. Here, plaintiffs have alleged specific, domestic
conduct in the complaint—namely, Chevron’s oil
purchases, financing of oil purchases, and delivery
of oil to another U.S. company, all within the United
States; and BNP’s use of a New York escrow account
and New York‐based “financing arrangements” to
systematically enable illicit payments to the Saddam
Hussein regime that allegedly facilitated that
regime’s violations of the law of nations, namely war
crimes, genocide, and other crimes against
humanity. This U.S.‐based conduct “touches and
concerns” the United States to satisfy the first prong
of our extraterritoriality analysis.
e. The complaint fails plausibly to plead that
defendants’ conduct related to aiding and abetting
the alleged violations of customary international law
was intentional, and accordingly, the conduct cannot
49 No. 10‐5258‐cv
state a claim for aiding and abetting liability under
the ATS and thus cannot form the basis for our
jurisdiction.
For the reasons stated above, the judgment of the District
Court is AFFIRMED.