14‐42
ACLU v. Clapper
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE SECOND CIRCUIT
August Term, 2014
(Argued: September 2, 2014 Decided: May 7, 2015)
Docket No. 14‐42‐cv
________________
AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, AMERICAN CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION FOUNDATION,
NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION, NEW YORK CIVIL LIBERTIES UNION
FOUNDATION,
Plaintiffs‐Appellants,
— v. —
JAMES R. CLAPPER, in his official capacity as Director of National Intelligence,
MICHAEL S. ROGERS, in his official capacity as Director of the National Security
Agency and Chief of the Central Security Service, ASHTON B. CARTER, in his
official capacity as Secretary of Defense, LORETTA E. LYNCH, in her official
capacity as Attorney General of the United States, and JAMES B. COMEY, in his
official capacity as Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation,
Defendants‐Appellees.*
*
The Clerk of Court is respectfully directed to amend the official caption in this
case to conform with the caption above. See Fed. R. App. P. 43(c)(2).
B e f o r e:
SACK and LYNCH , Circuit Judges, and BRODERICK, District Judge.**
__________________
Plaintiffs‐appellants American Civil Liberties Union and American Civil
Liberties Union Foundation, and New York Civil Liberties Union and New York
Civil Liberties Union Foundation, appeal from a decision of the United States
District Court for the Southern District of New York (William H. Pauley, III,
Judge) granting defendants‐appellees’ motion to dismiss and denying plaintiffs‐
appellants’ request for a preliminary injunction. The district court held that § 215
of the PATRIOT Act impliedly precludes judicial review; that plaintiffs‐
appellants’ statutory claims regarding the scope of § 215 would in any event fail
on the merits; and that § 215 does not violate the Fourth or First Amendments to
the United States Constitution. We disagree in part, and hold that § 215 and the
statutory scheme to which it relates do not preclude judicial review, and that the
bulk telephone metadata program is not authorized by § 215. We therefore
**
The Honorable Vernon S. Broderick, of the United States District Court for the
Southern District of New York, sitting by designation.
2
VACATE the judgment of the district court and REMAND for further
proceedings consistent with this opinion.
VACATED AND REMANDED.
Robert D. Sack, Circuit Judge, concurs in the opinion of the Court and files a
separate concurring opinion.
ALEXANDER ABDO, American Civil Liberties Union Foundation
(Jameel Jaffer, Patrick Toomey, Brett Max Kaufman, Catherine Crump,
American Civil Liberties Union Foundation, New York, NY;
Christopher T. Dunn, Arthur N. Eisenburg, New York Civil Liberties
Union Foundation, New York, NY, on the brief), New York, NY, for
Plaintiffs‐Appellants.
STUART F. DELERY, Assistant Attorney General, Civil Division,
United States Department of Justice (Douglas N. Letter, H. Thomas
Byron III, Henry C. Whitaker, Appellate Staff, Civil Division, United
States Department of Justice, Washington, DC; Preet Bharara, United
States Attorney for the Southern District of New York, New York, NY;
David S. Jones, John D. Clopper, Emily E. Daughtry, Assistant United
States Attorneys, New York, NY, on the brief), Washington, D.C., for
Defendants‐Appellees.
Laura K. Donohue, Georgetown University Law Center, Washington
DC, Erwin Chemerinsky, University of California, Irvine School of
Law, Irvine, CA, for Amici Curiae Former Members of the Church
Committee and Law Professors in Support of Plaintiffs‐Appellants.
Charles S. Sims, Proskauer Rose LLP, New York, NY, for Amici Curiae
Senator Ron Wyden, Senator Mark Udall, and Senator Martin Heinrich in
Support of Plaintiffs‐Appellants.
3
Cindy Cohn, Mark Rumold, Andrew Crocker, Electronic Frontier
Foundation, San Francisco, CA, for Amici Curiae Experts in Computer and
Data Science in Support of Appellants and Reversal.
John W. Whitehead, Douglas R. McKusick, The Rutherford Institute,
Charlottesville, Virginia, Daniel L. Ackman, Law Office of Daniel
Ackman, New York, NY, for Amicus Curiae The Rutherford Institute in
Support of Appellants and Reversal.
Edward J. Davis, Linda Steinman, Lacy H. Koonce, III, Davis Wright
Tremaine LLP, New York, NY, for Amicus Curiae PEN American Center,
Inc., in Support of Appellants.
John Frazer, Law Office of John Frazer, PLLC, Fairfax, VA, for Amicus
Curiae National Rifle Association of America, Inc., in Support of Plaintiffs‐
Appellants and Supporting Reversal.
Jonathan Hafetz, Association of the Bar of the City of New York, Gary
D. Sesser, Stephen L. Kass, Michael Shapiro, Laura A. Zaccone, Carter
Ledyard & Milburn LLP, New York, NY, for Amicus Curiae Association
of the Bar of the City of New York Supporting Plaintiffs‐Appellants’ Brief.
GERARD E. LYNCH, Circuit Judge:
This appeal concerns the legality of the bulk telephone metadata collection
program (the “telephone metadata program”), under which the National Security
Agency (“NSA”) collects in bulk “on an ongoing daily basis” the metadata
associated with telephone calls made by and to Americans, and aggregates those
metadata into a repository or data bank that can later be queried. Appellants
4
challenge the program on statutory and constitutional grounds. Because we find
that the program exceeds the scope of what Congress has authorized, we vacate
the decision below dismissing the complaint without reaching appellants’
constitutional arguments. We affirm the district court’s denial of appellants’
request for a preliminary injunction.
BACKGROUND
In the early 1970s, in a climate not altogether unlike today’s, the
intelligence‐gathering and surveillance activities of the NSA, the FBI, and the CIA
came under public scrutiny. The Supreme Court struck down certain warrantless
surveillance procedures that the government had argued were lawful as an
exercise of the President’s power to protect national security, remarking on “the
inherent vagueness of the domestic security concept [and] the necessarily broad
and continuing nature of intelligence gathering.” United States v. U.S. Dist.
Court for the E. Dist. of Mich. (Keith), 407 U.S. 297, 320 (1972). In response to that
decision and to allegations that those agencies were abusing their power in order
to spy on Americans, the Senate established the Select Committee to Study
Governmental Operations with Respect to Intelligence Activities (the “Church
Committee”) to investigate whether the intelligence agencies had engaged in
5
unlawful behavior and whether legislation was necessary to govern their
activities. The Church Committee expressed concerns that the privacy rights of
U.S. citizens had been violated by activities that had been conducted under the
rubric of foreign intelligence collection.
The findings of the Church Committee, along with the Supreme Court’s
decision in Keith and the allegations of abuse by the intelligence agencies,
prompted Congress in 1978 to enact comprehensive legislation aimed at
curtailing abuses and delineating the procedures to be employed in conducting
surveillance in foreign intelligence investigations. That legislation, the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (“FISA”), Pub. L. No. 95‐511, 92 Stat. 1783
(1978) (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. §§ 1801 et seq.), established a special
court, the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (“FISC”), to review the
government’s applications for orders permitting electronic surveillance. See 50
U.S.C. § 1803. Unlike ordinary Article III courts, the FISC conducts its usually ex
parte proceedings in secret; its decisions are not, in the ordinary course,
disseminated publicly. Id. § 1803(c).
We are faced today with a controversy similar to that which led to the
Keith decision and the enactment of FISA. We must confront the question
6
whether a surveillance program that the government has put in place to protect
national security is lawful. That program involves the bulk collection by the
government of telephone metadata created by telephone companies in the
normal course of their business but now explicitly required by the government to
be turned over in bulk on an ongoing basis. As in the 1970s, the revelation of this
program has generated considerable public attention and concern about the
intrusion of government into private matters. As in that era, as well, the nation
faces serious threats to national security, including the threat of foreign‐
generated acts of terrorism against the United States. Now, as then, Congress is
tasked in the first instance with achieving the right balance between these often‐
competing concerns. To do so, Congress has amended FISA, most significantly,
after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, in the PATRIOT Act. See USA
PATRIOT ACT of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107‐56, 115 Stat. 272 (2001). The government
argues that § 215 of that Act authorizes the telephone metadata program. See id.
§ 215, 115 Stat. at 287 (codified as amended at 50 U.S.C. § 1861).
I. Telephone Metadata
Before proceeding to explore the details of § 215 of the PATRIOT Act, we
pause to define “telephone metadata,” in order to clarify the type of information
7
that the government argues § 215 authorizes it to collect in bulk. Unlike what is
gleaned from the more traditional investigative practice of wiretapping,
telephone metadata do not include the voice content of telephone conversations.
Rather, they include details about telephone calls, including, for example, the
length of a call, the phone number from which the call was made, and the phone
number called. Metadata can also reveal the user or device making or receiving a
call through unique “identity numbers” associated with the equipment (although
the government maintains that the information collected does not include
information about the identities or names of individuals), and provide
information about the routing of a call through the telephone network, which can
sometimes (although not always) convey information about a caller’s general
location. According to the government, the metadata it collects do not include
cell site locational information, which provides a more precise indication of a
caller’s location than call‐routing information does.
That telephone metadata do not directly reveal the content of telephone
calls, however, does not vitiate the privacy concerns arising out of the
government’s bulk collection of such data. Appellants and amici take pains to
emphasize the startling amount of detailed information metadata can reveal –
8
“information that could traditionally only be obtained by examining the contents
of communications” and that is therefore “often a proxy for content.” Joint
App’x 50 (Declaration of Professor Edward W. Felten). For example, a call to a
single‐purpose telephone number such as a “hotline” might reveal that an
individual is: a victim of domestic violence or rape; a veteran; suffering from an
addiction of one type or another; contemplating suicide; or reporting a crime.
Metadata can reveal civil, political, or religious affiliations; they can also reveal
an individual’s social status, or whether and when he or she is involved in
intimate relationships.1
1
A report of a recent study in Science magazine revealed how much information
can be gleaned from credit card metadata. In the study, which used three months
of anonymous credit card records for 1.1 million people, scientists were able to
reidentify 90% of the individuals where they had only four additional
“spatiotemporal points” of information – for example, information that an
individual went to one particular store on four specific days. Such information
could be gathered from sources as accessible as a “tweet” from that individual.
Yves‐Alexandre de Montjoye, Laura Radaelli, Vivek Kumar Singh, Alex “Sandy”
Pentland, Unique in the Shopping Mall: On the Reidentifiability of Credit Card
Metadata, Science, Jan. 30, 2015, at 536. The study’s authors concluded that, in the
context of most large‐scale metadata sets, it would not be difficult to reidentify
individuals even if the data were anonymized. Id. at 539. While credit card data
differ in important ways from telephone data, the study illustrates the ways in
which metadata can be used by sophisticated investigators to deduce significant
private information about individuals.
9
We recognize that metadata exist in more traditional formats, too, and that
law enforcement and others have always been able to utilize metadata for
investigative purposes. For example, just as telephone metadata may reveal the
charitable organizations that an individual supports, observation of the outside
of an envelope sent at the end of the year through the United States Postal Service
to such an organization might well permit similar inferences, without requiring
an examination of the envelope’s contents. But the structured format of
telephone and other technology‐related metadata, and the vast new technological
capacity for large‐scale and automated review and analysis, distinguish the type
of metadata at issue here from more traditional forms. The more metadata the
government collects and analyzes, furthermore, the greater the capacity for such
metadata to reveal ever more private and previously unascertainable information
about individuals. Finally, as appellants and amici point out, in today’s
technologically based world, it is virtually impossible for an ordinary citizen to
avoid creating metadata about himself on a regular basis simply by conducting
his ordinary affairs.
II. Section 215
The original version of § 215, which pre‐dated the PATRIOT Act, allowed
10
the Director of the FBI or his designee to obtain orders from the FISC authorizing
common carriers, among others, to provide to the government certain business
records for the purpose of foreign intelligence and international terrorism
investigations where there existed “specific and articulable facts giving reason to
believe that the person to whom the records pertain [wa]s a foreign power or an
agent of a foreign power.” That provision was enacted in 1998 as an amendment
to FISA. See Intelligence Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 1999, Pub. L. No. 105‐
272, § 602, 112 Stat. 2396, 2410‐11 (1998). The PATRIOT Act substantially revised
§ 215 to provide for the production not only of “business records” but also of
“any tangible things,” and to eliminate the restrictions on the types of businesses
such orders can reach. See USA PATRIOT ACT of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107‐56, § 215.
As subsequently amended by successor bills to the PATRIOT Act, the current
version of § 215 allows the Director of the FBI or his designee to
make an application for an order requiring the production
of any tangible things (including books, records, papers,
documents, and other items) for an investigation to obtain
foreign intelligence information not concerning a United
States person or to protect against international terrorism
or clandestine intelligence activities.
11
50 U.S.C. § 1861(a)(1). In its current form, the provision requires such an
application to include
a statement of facts showing that there are reasonable
grounds to believe that the tangible things sought are
relevant to an authorized investigation (other than a threat
assessment) conducted in accordance with subsection
(a)(2) of this section to obtain foreign intelligence
information not concerning a United States person or to
protect against international terrorism or clandestine
intelligence activities.
Id. § 1861(b)(2)(A). Such an order “may only require the production of a tangible
thing if such thing can be obtained with a subpoena duces tecum issued by a
court of the United States in aid of a grand jury investigation or with any other
order issued by a court of the United States directing the production of records or
tangible things.” Id. § 1861(c)(2)(D). Finally, the statute requires the Attorney
General to “adopt specific minimization procedures governing the retention and
dissemination by the [FBI] of any tangible things, or information therein, received
by the [FBI] in response to an order under this subchapter.” Id. § 1861(g)(1).
Because § 215 contained a “sunset” provision from its inception, originally
terminating its authority on December 31, 2005, it has required subsequent
renewal. USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, Pub. L. No. 107‐56, § 224, 115 Stat. at 295.
12
Congress has renewed § 215 seven times, most recently in 2011, at which time it
was amended to expire on June 1, 2015. See PATRIOT Sunsets Extension Act of
2011, Pub. L. No. 112‐14, 125 Stat. 216 (2011).
III. The Telephone Metadata Program
Americans first learned about the telephone metadata program that
appellants now challenge on June 5, 2013, when the British newspaper The
Guardian published a FISC order leaked by former government contractor
Edward Snowden. The order directed Verizon Business Network Services, Inc.
(“Verizon”), a telephone company, to produce to the NSA “on an ongoing daily
basis . . . all call detail records or ‘telephony metadata’ created by Verizon for
communications (i) between the United States and abroad; or (ii) wholly within
the United States, including local telephone calls.” In re Application of the FBI
for an Order Requiring the Prod. of Tangible Things From Verizon Bus. Network
Servs., Inc., ex rel. MCI Commc’n Servs., Inc., d/b/a Verizon Bus. Servs. (“Verizon
Secondary Order”), No. BR 13‐80, slip op. at 2 (F.I.S.C. Apr. 25, 2013). The order
thus requires Verizon to produce call detail records, every day, on all telephone
calls made through its systems or using its services where one or both ends of the
call are located in the United States.
13
After the order was published, the government acknowledged that it was
part of a broader program of bulk collection of telephone metadata from other
telecommunications providers carried out pursuant to § 215. It is now
undisputed that the government has been collecting telephone metadata
information in bulk under § 215 since at least May 2006, when the FISC first
authorized it to do so in a “Primary Order” describing the “tangible things” to be
produced as “all call‐detail records or ‘telephony metadata’ created by
[redacted] . . . , includ[ing] comprehensive communications routing information,
including but not limited to session identifying information (e.g., originating and
terminating telephone number[s], communications device identifier[s], etc.),
trunk identifier, and time and duration of call.” In re Application of the FBI for
an Order Requiring the Prod. of Tangible Things From [Redacted] (“2006 Primary
Order”), No. BR 06‐05, slip op. at 2 (F.I.S.C. May 24, 2006),
http://www.dni.gov/files/documents/section/pub_May%2024%202006%20Order
%20from%20FISC.pdf.
That order specified that the items were to be produced to the NSA; that
there were “reasonable grounds to believe the tangible things sought [were]
relevant to authorized investigations . . . to protect against international
14
terrorism”; and that the items sought “could be obtained with a subpoena duces
tecum issued by a court of the United States in aid of a grand jury investigation
or with any other order issued by a court of the United States directing the
production of records or tangible things.” Id. at 3. The order required its
recipient, upon receiving the “appropriate secondary order,”2 to “continue
production on an ongoing daily basis . . . for the duration of th[e] order” and
contemplated creation of a “data archive” that would only be accessed “when
NSA has identified a known telephone number for which . . . there are facts
giving rise to a reasonable, articulable suspicion that the telephone number is
associated with [Redacted]”– presumably, with terrorist activity or a specific
terrorist organization. Id. at 4‐5. The order also states that the NSA “exclusively
will operate” the network on which the metadata are stored and processed. Id. at
5.
The government has disclosed additional FISC orders reauthorizing the
program. FISC orders must be renewed every 90 days, and the program has
therefore been renewed 41 times since May 2006. Most recently, the program
2
The order published in The Guardian and served on Verizon was one such
“Secondary Order.”
15
was reauthorized by the FISC on February 26, 2015; that authorization expires on
June 1, 2015. See In re Application of the FBI for an Order Requiring the Prod. of
Tangible Things From [Redacted], No. BR 15‐24 (F.I.S.C. Feb. 26, 2015),
http://www.dni.gov/files/documents/0311/BR%2015‐24%20Primary%20Order%2
0‐%20Redacted.pdf.
The government disputes appellants’ characterization of the program as
collecting “virtually all telephony metadata” associated with calls made or
received in the United States, but declines to elaborate on the scope of the
program or specify how the program falls short of that description. It is unclear,
however, in what way appellants’ characterization of the program can be faulted.
On its face, the Verizon order requires the production of “all call detail records or
‘telephony metadata’” relating to Verizon communications within the United
States or between the United States and abroad. Verizon Secondary Order 2
(emphasis added). The Verizon order and the Primary Order described above
reveal that the metadata collected include “comprehensive communications
routing information, including but not limited to session identifying information
(e.g., originating and terminating telephone number, International Mobile
Subscriber Identity (IMSI) number, International Mobile station Equipment
16
Identity (IMEI) number, etc.), trunk identifier,3 telephone calling card numbers,
and time and duration of call.” Verizon Secondary Order 2; see also 2006
Primary Order 2. The government does not suggest that Verizon is the only
telephone service provider subject to such an order; indeed, it does not seriously
dispute appellants’ contention that all significant service providers in the United
States are subject to similar orders.
The government explains that it uses the bulk metadata collected pursuant
to these orders by making “queries” using metadata “identifiers” (also referred to
as “selectors”), or particular phone numbers that it believes, based on
“reasonable articulable suspicion,” to be associated with a foreign terrorist
organization. Joint App’x 264 (Declaration of Teresa H. Shea). The identifier is
used as a “seed” to search across the government’s database; the search results
yield phone numbers, and the metadata associated with them, that have been in
contact with the seed. Id. That step is referred to as the first “hop.” The NSA
can then also search for the numbers, and associated metadata, that have been in
contact with the numbers resulting from the first search – conducting a second
3
A “trunk identifier” provides information regarding how a call is routed
through the telephone network, revealing general information about the parties’
locations.
17
“hop.” Id. at 265. Until recently, the program allowed for another iteration of the
process, such that a third “hop” could be conducted, sweeping in results that
include the metadata of, essentially, the contacts of contacts of contacts of the
original “seed.” Id. The government asserts that it does not conduct any general
“browsing” of the data. Id. at 263‐65.
Section 215 requires that the Attorney General adopt “specific
minimization procedures governing the retention and dissemination by the
[government] of [information] received . . . in response to an order under this
subchapter.” 50 U.S.C. § 1861(g)(1). The procedures that have been adopted
include the requirement that the NSA store the metadata within secure networks;
that the metadata not be accessed for any purpose other than what is allowed
under the FISC order; that the results of queries not be disseminated outside the
NSA except in accordance with the minimization and dissemination
requirements of NSA procedures; and that the relevant personnel receive
comprehensive training on the minimization procedures and technical controls.
Joint App’x 267‐69. And as the government points out, the program is subject to
oversight by the Department of Justice, the FISC, and Congress. Id. at 269. The
minimization procedures require audits and reviews of the program by the
18
NSA’s legal and oversight offices, the Office of the Inspector General, attorneys
from the Department of Justice’s National Security Division, and the Office of the
Director of National Intelligence. Id. The FISC orders that created the program
require the NSA to provide periodic reports to the FISC. Id. at 141. In the event
of failures of compliance, reports must be made to the FISC, and, where those
failures are significant, to the Intelligence and Judiciary Committees of both
houses of Congress. Id. at 269. FISA itself also imposes a system of
Congressional oversight, requiring periodic reports on the program from the
Attorney General to the House and Senate Intelligence and Judiciary
Committees. See 50 U.S.C. §§ 1862, 1871.
Since the existence of the telephone metadata program became public, a
number of developments have altered the landscape, at least to some degree,
within which we analyze the program. Among the most notable are
modifications to the telephone metadata program announced by President
Obama in January 2014. President Barack Obama, Remarks by the President on
Review of Signals Intelligence (Jan. 17, 2014), http://www.whitehouse.gov/the‐
press‐office/2014/01/17/remarks‐president‐review‐signals‐intelligence. The two
immediate modifications that the President ordered, which were subsequently
19
incorporated in a FISC order sought by government motion, (1) limited the
number of “hops” that can be searched to two, rather than three, and (2) required
that a FISC judge find that the reasonable articulable suspicion standard has been
satisfied before a seed can be queried, rather than (as had previously been the
case) allowing designated NSA officials to determine for themselves whether
such suspicion existed. Id. Both limitations were approved by the FISC in a
February 5, 2014 FISC order. In re Application of the FBI for an Order Requiring
the Prod. of Tangible Things, No. BR‐14‐01 (F.I.S.C. Feb. 5, 2014),
http://www.uscourts.gov/uscourts/courts/fisc/br14‐01‐order.pdf. These
modifications were based in part on the recommendations of the Review Group
on Intelligence and Communications Technologies established by the President.
See President’s Review Grp. on Intelligence and Commc’ns Techs., Liberty and
Security in a Changing World: Rep. and Recommendations of the President’s
Review Grp. on Intelligence and Commc’ns Techs. (Dec. 12, 2013),
https://www.whitehouse.gov/sites/default/files/docs/2013‐12‐12_rg_final_report.
pdf. The Review Group also recommended that the system be modified such
that a third party or the private carriers, rather than the government, collect and
20
retain the bulk metadata. That recommendation, however, has so far not been
adopted.
In addition to that group, the Privacy and Civil Liberties Oversight Board
(“PCLOB”) published a detailed report on the program. The PCLOB is a
bipartisan agency within the executive branch that was established in 2007,
pursuant to a recommendation from the National Commission on Terrorist
Attacks Upon the United States (the “9/11 Commission,” established after the
September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks to prepare an account of the circumstances
surrounding the attacks), in order to monitor the actions taken by the
government to protect the nation from terrorism and to ensure that they are
appropriately balanced against the need to protect privacy and civil liberties. See
Implementing Recommendations of the 9/11 Comm’n Act of 2007, Pub. L.
No. 110‐53, 121 Stat. 266 (2007). The PCLOB concluded that the program was
inconsistent with § 215, violated the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, and
implicated privacy and First Amendment concerns. See Privacy and Civil
Liberties Oversight Board, Rep. on the Tel. Records Program Conducted Under
Section 215 of the USA PATRIOT Act and on the Operations of the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Court (Jan. 23, 2014) (“PCLOB Report”),
21
https://www.pclob.gov/library/215‐Report_on_the_Telephone_Records_Program.
pdf.
Legislation aimed at incorporating stronger protections of individual
liberties into the telephone metadata program in a variety of ways (or eliminating
it altogether) was introduced in both the House and the Senate during the 113th
Congress. See USA FREEDOM Act, H.R. 3361, 113th Cong. (2014); USA
FREEDOM Act, S. 2685, 113th Cong. (2014). A modified version of H.R. 3361,
which lost the backing of some of the bill’s original supporters because it failed to
end bulk collection, nevertheless passed the House in May 2014. USA
FREEDOM Act, H.R. 3361, 113th Cong. (2014). In November 2014, however, a
motion to invoke cloture on the Senate’s version of the bill – relatively more
robust in terms of privacy protections – failed by a vote of 58‐42, thereby
preventing the bill from coming up for a vote in the Senate despite the desire of
58 senators to proceed to a vote on the measure. USA FREEDOM Act, S. 2685,
113th Cong. (2014). The current Congress is likewise considering bills aimed at
modifying § 215; a bill that would place the bulk metadata collected into the
hands of telecommunications providers, to be accessed by the government only
with FISC authorization, has been introduced in both the House and the Senate in
22
recent weeks. See USA FREEDOM Act of 2015, H.R. 2048/S. 1123, 114th Cong.
(2015). On April 30, 2015, the bill passed the House Judiciary Committee. See
USA FREEDOM Act of 2015, H.R. 2048, 114th Cong. (2015). A vote from the full
House on the bill is expected later this month.
Finally, the program has come under scrutiny by Article III courts other
than the FISC. In addition to this case, similar cases have been filed around the
country challenging the government’s bulk collection of telephone metadata.
See, e.g., Smith v. Obama, 24 F. Supp. 3d 1005 (D. Idaho 2014), No. 14‐35555 (9th
Cir. argued Dec. 8, 2014); Klayman v. Obama, 957 F. Supp. 2d 1 (D.D.C. 2013),
No. 14‐5004 (D.C. Cir. argued Nov. 4, 2014).
IV. Procedural History
On June 11, 2013, the American Civil Liberties Union and American Civil
Liberties Union Foundation (collectively, “ACLU”) and the New York Civil
Liberties Union and New York Civil Liberties Union Foundation (collectively,
“NYCLU”) – current and former Verizon customers, respectively – sued the
government officials responsible for administering the telephone metadata
program, challenging the program on both statutory and constitutional grounds
and seeking declaratory and injunctive relief. The complaint asks the court to
23
declare that the telephone metadata program exceeds the authority granted by
§ 215, and also violates the First and Fourth Amendments to the U.S.
Constitution. It asks the court to permanently enjoin defendants from continuing
the program, and to order defendants to “purge from their possession all of the
call records of [p]laintiffs’ communications” collected in accordance with the
program. Joint App’x 27.
On August 26, 2013, plaintiffs moved for a preliminary injunction barring
defendants from collecting their call records under the program, requiring
defendants to quarantine all of the call records they had already collected, and
prohibiting defendants from using their records to perform queries on any phone
number or other identifier associated with plaintiffs. On the same date, the
government moved to dismiss the complaint.
On December 27, 2013, the district court granted the government’s motion
to dismiss and denied plaintiffs’ motion for a preliminary injunction. See ACLU
v. Clapper, 959 F. Supp. 2d 724 (S.D.N.Y. 2013). Plaintiffs now appeal that
decision.
24
DISCUSSION
We review de novo a district court’s grant of a motion to dismiss under
Federal Rules of Civil Procedure 12(b)(1) and 12(b)(6). Klein & Co. Futures, Inc.
v. Bd. of Trade of City of New York, 464 F.3d 255, 259 (2d Cir. 2006); see also
Lotes Co., Ltd. v. Hon Hai Precision Indus. Co., 753 F.3d 395, 403 (2d Cir. 2014).
We review a district court’s denial of a preliminary injunction for abuse of
discretion, see Cent. Rabbinical Cong. of U.S. & Canada v. N.Y.C. Dep’t of Health
& Mental Hygiene, 763 F.3d 183, 192 (2d Cir. 2014), which occurs when the
court’s decision either “rests on an error of law . . . or a clearly erroneous factual
finding, or . . . its decision – though not necessarily the product of a legal error or
a clearly erroneous factual finding – cannot be located within the range of
permissible decisions,” Vincenty v. Bloomberg, 476 F.3d 74, 83 (2d Cir. 2007).
I. Standing
The district court ruled that appellants had standing to bring this case.
Clapper, 959 F. Supp. 2d at 738. The government argues that the district court’s
ruling was erroneous, contending that appellants lack standing because they
have not demonstrated that any of the metadata associated with them have been
or will be actually reviewed by the government, and have not otherwise
25
identified an injury that is sufficiently concrete or imminent to confer standing.
We recognize that “‘[n]o principle is more fundamental to the judiciary’s proper
role in our system of government than the constitutional limitation of federal‐
court jurisdiction to actual cases or controversies.’” Clapper v. Amnesty Int’l
USA, 133 S. Ct. 1138, 1146 (2013), quoting DaimlerChrysler Corp. v. Cuno, 547
U.S. 332, 341 (2006) (alteration in original). In order to meet that requirement,
plaintiffs must, among other things, establish that they have standing to sue.
Raines v. Byrd, 521 U.S. 811, 818 (1997). “Standing under Article III of the
Constitution requires that an injury be concrete, particularized, and actual or
imminent; fairly traceable to the challenged action; and redressable by a
favorable ruling.” Monsanto Co. v. Geertson Seed Farms, 561 U.S. 139, 149
(2010); see also Amnesty Int’l, 133 S. Ct. at 1147 (collecting cases). The Supreme
Court has “repeatedly reiterated that ‘threatened injury must be certainly
impending to constitute injury in fact,’ and that ‘[a]llegations of possible future
injury’ are not sufficient.” Amnesty Int’l, 133 S. Ct. at 1147, quoting Whitmore v.
Arkansas, 495 U.S. 149, 158 (1990) (emphasis in original). We remain mindful
that the “‘standing inquiry has been especially rigorous when reaching the merits
of [a] dispute would force us to decide whether an action taken by one of the
26
other two branches of the Federal Government was unconstitutional’” and “in
cases in which the Judiciary has been requested to review actions of the political
branches in the fields of intelligence gathering and foreign affairs.” Id., quoting
Raines, 521 U.S. at 819‐20.
Appellants in this case have, despite those substantial hurdles, established
standing to sue, as the district court correctly held. Appellants here need not
speculate that the government has collected, or may in the future collect, their call
records. To the contrary, the government’s own orders demonstrate that
appellants’ call records are indeed among those collected as part of the telephone
metadata program. Nor has the government disputed that claim. It argues
instead that any alleged injuries here depend on the government’s reviewing the
information collected, and that appellants have not shown anything more than a
“speculative prospect that their telephone numbers would ever be used as a
selector to query, or be included in the results of queries of, the telephony
metadata.” Appellees’ Br. 22.
But the government’s argument misapprehends what is required to
establish standing in a case such as this one. Appellants challenge the telephone
metadata program as a whole, alleging injury from the very collection of their
27
telephone metadata. And, as the district court observed, it is not disputed that
the government collected telephone metadata associated with the appellants’
telephone calls. The Fourth Amendment protects against unreasonable searches
and seizures. Appellants contend that the collection of their metadata exceeds the
scope of what is authorized by § 215 and constitutes a Fourth Amendment
search. We think such collection is more appropriately challenged, at least from a
standing perspective, as a seizure rather than as a search. Whether or not such
claims prevail on the merits, appellants surely have standing to allege injury
from the collection, and maintenance in a government database, of records
relating to them. “[A] violation of the [Fourth] Amendment is fully
accomplished at the time of an unreasonable governmental intrusion.” United
States v. Verdugo‐Urquidez, 494 U.S. 259, 264 (1990) (internal quotation marks
omitted). If the telephone metadata program is unlawful, appellants have
suffered a concrete and particularized injury fairly traceable to the challenged
program and redressable by a favorable ruling.
Amnesty International does not hold otherwise. There, the Supreme
Court, reversing our decision, held that respondents had not established standing
because they could not show that the government was surveilling them, or that
28
such surveillance was “certainly impending.” 131 S. Ct. at 1148‐1150. Instead,
the Supreme Court stated that respondents’ standing arguments were based on a
“speculative chain of possibilities” that required that: respondents’ foreign
contacts be targeted for surveillance; the surveillance be conducted pursuant to
the statute challenged, rather than under some other authority; the FISC approve
the surveillance; the government actually intercept the communications of the
foreign contacts; and among those intercepted communications be those
involving respondents. Id. Because respondents’ injury relied on that chain of
events actually transpiring, the Court held that the alleged injury was not “fairly
traceable” to the statute being challenged. Id. at 1150. As to costs incurred by
respondents to avoid surveillance, the Court characterized those costs as “a
product of their fear of surveillance” insufficient to confer standing. Id. at 1152.
Here, appellants’ alleged injury requires no speculation whatsoever as to
how events will unfold under § 215 – appellants’ records (among those of
numerous others) have been targeted for seizure by the government; the
government has used the challenged statute to effect that seizure; the orders have
been approved by the FISC; and the records have been collected. Amnesty
International’s “speculative chain of possibilities” is, in this context, a reality.
29
That case in no way suggested that such data would need to be reviewed or
analyzed in order for respondents to suffer injury.
The government also takes issue with the district court’s reliance on
Amidax Trading Group v. S.W.I.F.T. SCRL, 671 F.3d 140 (2d Cir. 2011). In
Amidax, we held that plaintiffs had not established standing to challenge the
government’s acquisition of financial records from SWIFT, a messaging service
that routes financial transactions, via administrative subpoenas issued by the
Office of Foreign Asset Control. Id. at 148‐49. Because there was insufficient
support for the allegation that Amidax’s own records were among those handed
over to the government, we held that Amidax had not alleged a plausible injury
in fact. Id. That case, too, differs from the case at bar, where appellants have
presented evidence that their data are being collected. To the extent Amidax
speaks to the circumstances presented by this case, it supports, albeit in dictum,
appellants’ position. We noted in Amidax that “[t]o establish an injury in fact –
and thus, a personal stake in this litigation – [Amidax] need only establish that its
information was obtained by the government.” Id. at 147 (second alteration in
original). There, too, we viewed the collection of the data in question, if it had in
30
fact occurred, as an injury sufficient to confer standing, without considering
whether such data were likely to be reviewed.
Finally, the government admits that, when it queries its database, its
computers search all of the material stored in the database in order to identify
records that match the search term. In doing so, it necessarily searches
appellants’ records electronically, even if such a search does not return
appellants’ records for close review by a human agent. There is no question that
an equivalent manual review of the records, in search of connections to a suspect
person or telephone, would confer standing even on the government’s analysis.
That the search is conducted by a machine might lessen the intrusion, but does
not deprive appellants of standing to object to the collection and review of their
data.
Appellants likewise have standing to assert a First Amendment violation.
Appellants contend that their First Amendment associational rights are being
violated, both directly and through a “chilling effect” on clients and donors. The
Supreme Court has long recognized that an organization can assert associational
privacy rights on behalf of its members, stating that “[i]t is hardly a novel
perception that compelled disclosure of affiliation with groups engaged in
31
advocacy may constitute . . . a restraint on freedom of association.” NAACP v.
Alabama, 357 U.S. 449, 462 (1958). In NAACP, furthermore, the Supreme Court
held that the organization “argue[d] . . . appropriately the rights of its members,
and that its nexus with them [wa]s sufficient to permit that it act as their
representative before this Court.” Id. at 458‐59. We have similarly stated that a
union’s “standing to assert the First and Fourteenth Amendment rights of
association and privacy of its individual members is beyond dispute.” Local
1814, Int’l Longshoremen’s Ass’n v. Waterfront Comm’n of N.Y. Harbor, 667 F.2d
267, 270 (2d Cir. 1981). When the government collects appellants’ metadata,
appellants’ members’ interests in keeping their associations and contacts private
are implicated, and any potential “chilling effect” is created at that point.
Appellants have therefore alleged a concrete, fairly traceable, and redressable
injury sufficient to confer standing to assert their First Amendment claims as
well.
II. Preclusion and the Administrative Procedure Act
The government next contends that appellants are impliedly precluded
from bringing suit to challenge the telephone metadata program on statutory
grounds. According to the government, the statutory scheme set out by § 215
32
limits judicial review of § 215 orders “to the FISC and its specialized mechanism
for appellate review,” Appellees’ Br. 26, and provides for challenges to those
orders only by recipients of § 215 orders (that is, the communications companies),
rather than the targets of such orders, thereby impliedly precluding appellants
here from bringing suit in federal court. The government also argues that 18
U.S.C. § 2712 impliedly precludes the relief appellants seek, either independently
or in conjunction with the larger statutory framework established by the two
provisions.
A. Section 215 and Implied Preclusion
The Administrative Procedure Act (“APA”) waives sovereign immunity
for suits against the United States for relief other than money damages. Under
the APA, “[a] person suffering legal wrong because of agency action, or
adversely affected or aggrieved by agency action within the meaning of a
relevant statute, is entitled to judicial review thereof,” and can bring suit in an
“action in a court of the United States seeking relief other than money damages.”
5 U.S.C. § 702. The APA thus establishes a broad right of judicial review of
administrative action. The APA does not, however, apply where “statutes
preclude judicial review.” Id. § 701.
33
In determining whether judicial review is precluded under a particular
statute, we must “begin with the strong presumption that Congress intends
judicial review of administrative action. From the beginning ‘our cases [have
established] that judicial review of a final agency action by an aggrieved person
will not be cut off unless there is persuasive reason to believe that such was the
purpose of Congress.’” Bowen v. Mich. Acad. of Family Physicians, 476 U.S. 667,
670 (1986), quoting Abbott Labs. v. Gardner, 387 U.S. 136, 140 (1967) (alterations
in original). “‘[O]nly . . . a showing of clear and convincing evidence of a
contrary legislative intent’” can rebut the presumption that Congress intended
that an action be subject to judicial review. Bowen, 476 U.S. at 672, quoting
Abbott Labs., 387 U.S. at 141. The Supreme Court has emphasized that there is a
“heavy burden” on a party that attempts to overcome this presumption. Id.
(internal quotation marks omitted).
That burden is, of course, not insurmountable, and “may be overcome by
specific language or specific legislative history that is a reliable indicator of
congressional intent.” Block v. Cmty. Nutrition Inst., 467 U.S. 340, 349 (1984).
Such an intent must be “fairly discernible in the statutory scheme,” id. at 351
(internal quotation marks omitted), looking to the scheme’s “structure . . . , its
34
objectives, its legislative history, and the nature of the administrative action
involved,” id. at 345. Importantly, “‘where substantial doubt about the
congressional intent exists, the general presumption favoring judicial review of
administrative action is controlling.’” NRDC v. Johnson, 461 F.3d 164, 172 (2d
Cir. 2006), quoting Block, 467 U.S. at 351. Implied preclusion of review is thus
disfavored.
The government points to no language in § 215, or in FISA or the PATRIOT
Act more generally, that excludes actions taken by executive or administrative
officials pursuant to its terms from the presumption of judicial review established
by the APA. Rather, it argues that the provision of one mechanism for judicial
review, at the behest of parties other than those whose privacy may be
compromised by the seizure, impliedly precludes review pursuant to the APA by
parties thus aggrieved. To understand that argument, we begin by describing the
provision for judicial review on which the government relies.
A recipient of a § 215 order may challenge its legality “by filing a petition
with the pool” of FISC judges established by the statute. 50 U.S.C.
§ 1861(f)(2)(A)(i). That decision can then be appealed to the FISA Court of
Review. Id. § 1861(f)(3). The statute also provides that “[a]ny production or
35
nondisclosure order not explicitly modified or set aside consistent with this
subsection shall remain in full effect.” Id. § 1861(f)(2)(D).
According to the government, those provisions establish a limited and
detailed framework that evinces Congressional intent to limit judicial review to
the method specified. Both the government and the district court point to the
Supreme Court’s language in Block that “when a statute provides a detailed
mechanism for judicial consideration of particular issues at the behest of
particular persons, judicial review of those issues at the behest of other persons
may be found to be impliedly precluded.” Block, 467 U.S. at 349.
But that is not always the case. The Supreme Court has also noted that “if
the express provision of judicial review in one section of a long and complicated
statute were alone enough to overcome the APA’s presumption of reviewability
for all final agency action, it would not be much of a presumption at all.” Sackett
v. EPA, 132 S. Ct. 1367, 1373 (2012). The question remains whether the
government has demonstrated by clear and convincing or “discernible” evidence
that Congress intended to preclude review in these particular circumstances.
36
(1) Secrecy
The government’s primary argument in support of preclusion is based on
the various secrecy provisions that attach to § 215 orders. For example, § 215
states that “[n]o person shall disclose to any other person that the Federal Bureau
of Investigation has sought or obtained tangible things pursuant to an order
under this section” unless disclosure is necessary to comply with the order; the
disclosure is made to an attorney for advice or assistance in connection with the
order; or the disclosure is made to others as permitted by the FBI Director or his
designee. 50 U.S.C. § 1861(d)(1). And the statute explicitly lays out various
supplemental secrecy procedures accompanying the review process, including
the requirements that the records of any such proceedings be “maintained under
security measures established by the Chief Justice of the United States, in
consultation with the Attorney General and the Director of National
Intelligence,” id. § 1861(f)(4); that “[a]ll petitions . . . be filed under seal,”
id. § 1861(f)(5); and that, in the case of any government submission that may
contain classified information, the court review it ex parte and in camera, id.
These secrecy measures, the government argues, are evidence that Congress did
37
not intend that § 215 orders be reviewable in federal court upon suit by an
individual whose metadata are collected.
Upon closer analysis, however, that argument fails. The government has
pointed to no affirmative evidence, whether “clear and convincing” or “fairly
discernible,” that suggests that Congress intended to preclude judicial review.
Indeed, the government’s argument from secrecy suggests that Congress did not
contemplate a situation in which targets of § 215 orders would become aware of
those orders on anything resembling the scale that they now have. That
revelation, of course, came to pass only because of an unprecedented leak of
classified information. That Congress may not have anticipated that individuals
like appellants, whose communications were targeted by § 215 orders, would
become aware of the orders, and thus be in a position to seek judicial review, is
not evidence that Congress affirmatively decided to revoke the right to judicial
review otherwise provided by the APA in the event the orders were publicly
revealed.
The government’s argument also ignores the fact that, in certain (albeit
limited) instances, the statute does indeed contemplate disclosure. If a judge
finds that “there is no reason to believe that disclosure may endanger the
38
national security of the United States, interfere with a criminal, counterterrorism,
or counterintelligence investigation, interfere with diplomatic relations, or
endanger the life or physical safety of any person,” he may grant a petition to
modify or set aside a nondisclosure order. 50 U.S.C. § 1861(f)(2)(C)(i). Such a
petition could presumably only be brought by a § 215 order recipient, because
only the recipient, not the target, would know of the order before such disclosure.
But this provision indicates that Congress did not expect that all § 215 orders
would remain secret indefinitely and that, by providing for such secrecy,
Congress did not intend to preclude targets of § 215 orders, should they happen
to learn of them, from bringing suit.
(2) Statutory Scheme
The government also relies heavily on Block in arguing that the statutory
scheme as a whole impliedly precludes judicial review. In Block, the Supreme
Court considered whether consumers of milk could obtain judicial review of milk
market orders, which are issued by the Secretary of Agriculture pursuant to the
Agricultural Marketing Agreement Act of 1937 (“AMAA”), codified as amended
at 7 U.S.C. § 601 et seq. Those orders set the minimum prices that milk
processors (also known as “handlers”) must pay to milk producers. The Court
39
held that, in the context of that statute, the statute’s silence as to the ability of
milk consumers to challenge milk market orders was sufficient to imply that
Congress intended that they be precluded from doing so. 467 U.S. at 347. The
government would have us view § 215 as a similarly complex administrative
scheme that would clearly be disrupted should targets of the orders be permitted
judicial review of them.
But the AMAA and the Court’s decision in Block are distinguishable from
this case. First, the Court in Block, and in its decisions since Block, has made
much of whether a statute has administrative review requirements that would be
end‐run if the APA provided for ordinary judicial review. In Block, for example,
the Court noted that, for a milk market order to become effective, the AMAA
requires that: (1) the Secretary of Agriculture conduct a rulemaking proceeding
before issuing a milk market order; (2) the public be notified of the proceeding
and given an opportunity for comment; (3) a public hearing be held, in which
(4) the evidence offered shows that the order will further the statute’s policy; and
(5) certain percentages of milk handlers and producers vote in favor of the
orders. See id. at 342.
40
Such a scheme is a far cry from what is contemplated by § 215. Section 215
contains no administrative review requirements that would be “end run” if
targets of the orders were allowed to obtain judicial review thereof. Indeed, the
only express mechanism for any review at all of § 215 orders is via judicial review
– albeit by the FISC, rather than a federal district court.
Unlike the AMAA, § 215 in no way contemplates a “cooperative venture”
that precedes the issuance of orders. Id. at 346. In Block, the Court pointed out
that the statute provided for milk handlers and producers – and not consumers –
to participate in the adoption of the market orders. See id. Those parties,
according to the Court, were the ones who could obtain review of the orders, not
the consumers, whom Congress had excluded from the entire process. Section
215, in contrast, does not contemplate ex ante cooperation between, for example,
telephone companies and the government in deciding how production orders
should be crafted and whether they should be approved. To the contrary, under
§ 215, the government unilaterally crafts orders that may then be approved or not
by the FISC. Unlike in the case of the AMAA, there is no indication that
Congress, in drafting § 215, intended that the phone companies be the only party
41
entitled to obtain judicial review of the orders by providing for them to otherwise
participate in the order‐issuing process.
Block is further distinguishable because the Court there emphasized the
fact that “[h]andlers ha[d] interests similar to those of consumers” and could
“therefore be expected to challenge unlawful agency action.” Id. at 352. Here, in
contrast, the interests and incentives of the recipients of § 215 orders are quite
different from those of the orders’ targets. As appellants point out,
telecommunications companies have little incentive to challenge § 215 orders –
first, because they are unlikely to want to antagonize the government, and
second, because the statute shields them from any liability arising from their
compliance with a § 215 order. See 50 U.S.C. § 1861(e). Any interests that they
do have are distinct from those of their customers. The telephone service
providers’ primary interest would be the expense or burden of complying with
the orders; only the customers have a direct interest in the privacy of information
revealed in their telephone records.
Indeed, courts since Block have interpreted this factor – whether Congress
has extended a cause of action to a party whose interests are aligned with those
of a party seeking to sue – as critical to the heavily fact‐bound Block decision.
42
The D.C. Circuit has noted that “some discussion in Block . . . sweep[s] broadly”
but has concluded that, for example, the AMAA does not preclude milk producers
(as opposed to consumers) from obtaining judicial review of market orders, in part
because “[u]nlike the consumers whose interests were coextensive with those of
handlers in Block, the producers are the only party with an interest in ensuring
that the price paid them is not reduced by too large a[n amount] paid to
handlers.” Ark. Dairy Coop. Ass’n v. U.S. Dep’t of Agric., 573 F.3d 815, 823 (D.C.
Cir. 2009) (internal citation omitted). In other words, whether a party with
aligned interests can obtain judicial review is an important consideration in
interpreting and applying Block.
(3) Legislative History
Finally, the legislative history of the provision for challenging § 215 orders
further supports appellants’ argument that Congress did not intend to preclude
targets of the orders from bringing suit. Appellants point out that the
amendment to § 215 that provided for judicial review of § 215 orders in the FISC
was passed in response to Doe v. Ashcroft, 334 F. Supp. 2d 471 (S.D.N.Y. 2004),
vacated in part sub nom. Doe v. Gonzales, 449 F.3d 415 (2d Cir. 2006). At the
same time it added the judicial review provision in § 215, Congress passed a
43
provision for judicial review in the context of National Security Letters (“NSLs”)
– a form of administrative subpoenas used to gather communications and
records in national security matters. That subsection was added to address the
court’s concerns in Doe that 18 U.S.C. § 2709, pursuant to which NSLs are issued,
“effectively bar[red] or substantially deter[red] any judicial challenge to the
propriety of an NSL request.” Doe, 334 F. Supp. 2d at 475. Congress’s primary
purpose in adopting both of these provisions was apparently to clarify that
judicial review was available to recipients of NSLs and § 215 orders – not to
preclude review at the behest of the targets of orders. In fact, in Doe, the
government argued that the NSL statute already implicitly provided for judicial
review. See id. at 492‐93. The amendment, therefore, only “clarif[ied] that a FISA
215 order may be challenged and that a recipient of a 215 order may consult with
the lawyer and the appropriate people necessary to respond to the order,” H.R.
Rep. No. 109‐174, pt. 1, at 106 (statement of Chairman Sensenbrenner) – both
concerns raised by the district court in Doe with respect to NSLs. The
amendment was a clarification of the judicial review provision that already
implicitly existed; in thus clarifying, it did not affirmatively take away a right to
judicial review from another category of individuals not mentioned in the statute.
44
The government argues that Congress “specifically considered, and
rejected, an amendment that would have allowed Section 215 orders to be
challenged not only in the FISC, but also in district court.” Appellees’ Br. 29. But
that is an oversimplification of the sequence of events relating to an amendment
proposed by Representative Nadler. First, the proposed amendment
encompassed more than the issue of judicial review. The amendment primarily
proposed a more rigorous standard for obtaining orders under § 215 than existed
at the time, and the bulk of the debate on the amendment concerned what degree
of suspicion should be required for issuance of a § 215 order. See H.R. Rep. No.
109‐174, pt. 1, at 128‐32, 135 (2005). Second, the amendment proposed judicial
review in a district court by the recipients of § 215 orders – a category of persons
already granted an avenue of review under § 215, through the FISC process. Id.
at 128, 134. It did not address – again, presumably because Congress did not
have reason to consider the question at that point – whether a person whose
records were seized as a result of such an order would be able, upon learning of
the order, to challenge it in district court. Indeed, Representative Nadler
specifically noted that his amendment did not grant judicial review at the behest
of the “target” of a § 215 order because such a target “doesn’t know about” the
45
order. See id. at 128 (statement of Rep. Nadler) (“It doesn’t give the target of the
order the ability to go to court. He doesn’t know about it.”); id. at 134 (statement
of Rep. Nadler) (“[T]he fact is that . . . the target of the investigation never hears
about this.”).
As Justice Scalia has reminded us, moreover, we should exercise caution in
relying on this type of legislative history in attempting to discern Congress’s
intent, because it is so often “impossible to discern what the Members of
Congress intended except to the extent that intent is manifested in the only
remnant of ‘history’ that bears the unanimous endorsement of the majority in
each House: the text of the enrolled bill that became law.” Graham County Soil
& Water Conservation Dist. v. United States ex rel. Wilson, 559 U.S. 280, 302
(2010) (Scalia, J., concurring) (emphasis in original). Congress’s rejection of the
Nadler amendment cannot reliably be interpreted as a specific rejection of the
opportunity for a § 215 target to obtain judicial review, under the APA or
otherwise.
Finally, the government argues that Congress must have intended to
preclude judicial review of § 215 orders, because if any customer of a company
that receives a § 215 order may challenge such an order, lawsuits could be filed
46
by a vast number of potential plaintiffs, thus “severely disrupt[ing] . . . the
sensitive field of intelligence gathering for counter‐terrorism efforts.” Appellees’
Br. 30 (internal quotation marks omitted).
That argument, however, depends on the government’s argument on the
merits that bulk metadata collection was contemplated by Congress and
authorized by § 215. The risk of massive numbers of lawsuits challenging the
same orders, and thus risking inconsistent outcomes and confusion about the
legality of the program, occurs only in connection with the existence of orders
authorizing the collection of data from millions of people. Orders targeting
limited numbers of persons under investigation could be challenged only by the
individuals targeted – who, it was expected, would never learn of the orders in
the first place. It is only in connection with the government’s expansive use of
§ 215 (which, as will be seen below, was not contemplated by Congress) that
these risks would create concern.
In any event, restricting judicial review of the legality of § 215 orders under
the statute itself would do little to eliminate the specter of duplicative lawsuits
challenging orders like the one at issue here. The government does not contend
that those whose records are collected pursuant to § 215, assuming they have
47
established standing, are somehow precluded from bringing constitutional
challenges to those orders. The government would thus attribute to Congress a
preclusion of statutory challenges that would not eliminate the supposed dangers
of multiplicative lawsuits, while channeling those lawsuits toward constitutional
issues.
Such an outcome would be anomalous. It would fly in the face of the
doctrine of constitutional avoidance, which “allows courts to avoid the decision of
constitutional questions” by providing “a tool for choosing between competing
plausible interpretations of a statutory text, resting on the reasonable
presumption that Congress did not intend the alternative which raises serious
constitutional doubts.” Clark v. Martinez, 543 U.S. 371, 381 (2005) (emphasis in
original). In contrast, the approach proffered by the government would preclude
lawsuits challenging the legality of § 215 on statutory grounds, while leaving
open the path to review of § 215 under the Constitution. While constitutional
avoidance is a judicial doctrine, the principle should have considerable appeal to
Congress: it would seem odd that Congress would preclude challenges to
executive actions that allegedly violate Congress’s own commands, and thereby
channel the complaints of those aggrieved by such actions into constitutional
48
challenges that threaten Congress’s own authority. There may be arguments in
favor of such an unlikely scheme, but it cannot be said that any such reasons are
so patent and indisputable that Congress can be assumed, in the face of the
strong presumption in favor of APA review, to have adopted them without
having said a word about them.
B. Section 2712 and Implied Preclusion
The other potentially relevant exception to the APA’s waiver of sovereign
immunity looks to whether “any other statute that grants consent to suit expressly
or impliedly forbids the relief which is sought.” 5 U.S.C. § 702 (emphasis added).
The government urges that 18 U.S.C. § 2712, passed in the same statute that
contained § 215, is just such a statute, granting as it does a private right of action
for money damages against the United States for violations of the Wiretap Act,
the Stored Communications Act, and three particular FISA provisions that
concern electronic surveillance, physical searches, and pen registers or trap and
trace devices (but not § 215). See 18 U.S.C. § 2712(a); see also 50 U.S.C. §§ 1806(a),
1825(a), 1845(a). Section 2712 withdrew the general right to sue the United States
under the Wiretap Act and the Stored Communications Act at the same time it
added a right of action for money damages. Importantly, it also stated that
49
“[a]ny action against the United States under this subsection shall be the
exclusive remedy against the United States for any claims within the purview of
this section.” 18 U.S.C. § 2712(d). According to the government, such provisions
demonstrate that, where Congress did intend to allow a private right of action for
violations of FISA, it did so expressly.
That the provision extending a right of action makes no mention of § 215,
however, supports appellants’ argument, not the government’s. To be sure,
“[w]hen Congress has dealt in particularity with a claim and [has] intended a
specified remedy . . . to be exclusive, that is the end of the matter; the APA does
not undo the judgment.” Match‐E‐Be‐Nash‐She‐Wish Band of Pottawatomi
Indians v. Patchak, 132 S. Ct. 2199, 2205 (2012) (second alteration in original)
(internal quotation marks omitted). But § 2712 does not deal “in particularity”
with § 215. Instead, the government would have us conclude “that in
authorizing one person to bring one kind of suit seeking one form of relief,
Congress barred another person from bringing another kind of suit seeking
another form of relief.” Id. at 2209. Section 2712 makes no mention whatsoever
of claims under § 215, either to permit them or to preclude them, and, as the
Supreme Court stated in Patchak, “[w]e have never held, and see no cause to
50
hold here, that some general similarity of subject matter can alone trigger a
remedial statute’s preclusive effect.” Id. The “exclusive remedy” provision
applies only to claims within the purview of the remedial section, which does not
cover all of FISA but rather specifies those FISA provisions to which it applies.
Had Congress intended § 2712’s exclusive right of action (and its preclusion of
other remedies) to extend to § 215, it is fair to assume that it would have also
enumerated that section – particularly considering the fact that both provisions
were passed in the same statute.
Section 2712, moreover, explicitly withdraws the right to challenge the
specific government actions taken under specific authorization, in connection
with extending an explicit cause of action for monetary damages in connection
with such actions. First, § 2712 shows that the Congress that enacted the
PATRIOT Act understood very well how to withdraw the right to sue under the
APA, and to create an exclusive remedy, when it wished to do so. Second, § 2712
manifestly does not create a cause of action for damages for violations of § 215, as
it does with respect to those statutes of which it does preclude review under the
APA.
51
Section 2712, therefore, does not preclude appellants’ suit here. Nor do the
two statutes, when viewed in combination, evince an intent of Congress to
preclude suits by targets of § 215 orders.
C. Summary
In short, the government relies on bits and shards of inapplicable statutes,
inconclusive legislative history, and inferences from silence in an effort to find an
implied revocation of the APA’s authorization of challenges to government
actions. That is not enough to overcome the strong presumption of the general
command of the APA against such implied preclusion. Congress, of course, has
the ability to limit the remedies available under the APA; it has only to say so.
But it has said no such thing here. We should be cautious in inferring legislative
action from legislative inaction, or inferring a Congressional command from
Congressional silence. At most, the evidence cited by the government suggests
that Congress assumed, in light of the expectation of secrecy, that persons whose
information was targeted by a § 215 order would rarely even know of such
orders, and therefore that judicial review at the behest of such persons was a non‐
issue. But such an assumption is a far cry from an unexpressed intention to
52
withdraw rights granted in a generally applicable, explicit statute such as the
APA.
Accordingly, we disagree with the district court insofar as it held that
appellants here are precluded from bringing suit against the government, and
hold that appellants have a right of action under the APA. We therefore proceed
to the merits of the case.
III. Statutory Authorization
Although appellants vigorously argue that the telephone metadata
program violates their rights under the Fourth Amendment to the Constitution,
and therefore cannot be authorized by either the Executive or the Legislative
Branch of government, or by both acting together, their initial argument is that
the program simply has not been authorized by the legislation on which the
government relies for the issuance of the orders to service providers to collect
and turn over the metadata at issue. We naturally turn first to that argument.
Section 215 clearly sweeps broadly in an effort to provide the government
with essential tools to investigate and forestall acts of terrorism. The statute
permits the government to apply for “an order requiring the production of any
tangible things . . . for an investigation . . . to protect against international
53
terrorism or clandestine intelligence activities.” 50 U.S.C. § 1861(a)(1) (emphasis
added). A § 215 order may require the production of anything that “can be
obtained with a subpoena duces tecum issued by a court of the United States in
aid of a grand jury investigation” or any other court order. Id. § 1861(c)(2)(D).
While the types of “tangible things” subject to such an order would appear
essentially unlimited, such “things” may only be produced upon a specified
factual showing by the government. To obtain a § 215 order, the government
must provide the FISC with “a statement of facts showing that there are
reasonable grounds to believe that the tangible things sought are relevant to an
authorized investigation (other than a threat assessment) conducted [under
guidelines approved by the Attorney General].” Id. § 1861(b)(2)(A); see id.
§ 1861(a)(2) (requiring that investigations making use of such orders be
conducted under guidelines approved by the Attorney General). The basic
requirements for metadata collection under § 215, then, are simply that the
records be relevant to an authorized investigation (other than a threat assessment).
For all the complexity of the statutory framework, the parties’ respective
positions are relatively simple and straightforward. The government emphasizes
that “relevance” is an extremely generous standard, particularly in the context of
54
the grand jury investigations to which the statute analogizes orders under § 215.
Appellants argue that relevance is not an unlimited concept, and that the
government’s own use (or non‐use) of the records obtained demonstrates that
most of the records sought are not relevant to any particular investigation; the
government does not seek the records, as is usual in a grand jury investigation,
so as to review them in search of evidence bearing on a particular subject, but
rather seeks the records to create a vast data bank, to be kept in reserve and
queried if and when some particular set of records might be relevant to a
particular investigation.
Echoing the district court’s statement that “‘[r]elevance’ has a broad legal
meaning,” 959 F. Supp. 2d at 746, the government argues that the telephone
metadata program comfortably meets the requisite standard. The government
likens the relevance standard intended by Congress to the standard of relevance
for grand jury and administrative subpoenas, and, to some extent, for civil
discovery.
Both the language of the statute and the legislative history support the
grand jury analogy. During the 2006 reauthorization debate, Senator Kyl recalled
that, in passing the PATRIOT Act shortly after September 11, Congress had
55
realized that “it was time to apply to terrorism many of the same kinds of
techniques in law enforcement authorities that we already deemed very useful in
investigating other kinds of crimes. Our idea was, if it is good enough to
investigate money laundering or drug dealing, for example, we sure ought to use
those same kinds of techniques to fight terrorists.” 152 Cong. Rec. S1607 (daily
ed. Mar. 2, 2006) (statement of Sen. Kyl). He also remarked that “[r]elevance is a
simple and well established standard of law. Indeed, it is the standard for
obtaining every other kind of subpoena, including administrative subpoenas,
grand jury subpoenas, and civil discovery orders.” Id. at S1606. And it is well
established that “where Congress borrows terms of art . . . , it presumably knows
and adopts the cluster of ideas that were attached to each borrowed word in the
body of learning from which it was taken and the meaning its use will convey to
the judicial mind unless otherwise instructed.” Morissette v. United States, 342
U.S. 246, 250 (1952).
So much, indeed, seems to us unexceptionable. In adopting § 215,
Congress intended to give the government, on the approval of the FISC, broad‐
ranging investigative powers analogous to those traditionally used in connection
with grand jury investigations into possible criminal behavior.
56
The government then points out that, under the accepted standard of
relevance in the context of grand jury subpoenas, “courts have authorized
discovery of large volumes of information where the requester seeks to identify
within that volume smaller amounts of information that could directly bear on
the matter.” Appellees’ Br. 31. The government asks us to conclude that it is
“eminently reasonable to believe that Section 215 bulk telephony metadata is
relevant to counterterrorism investigations.” Id. at 32. Appellants, however,
dispute that metadata from every phone call with a party in the United States,
over a period of years and years, can be considered “relevant to an authorized
investigation,” by any definition of the term.
The very terms in which this litigation has been conducted by both sides
suggest that the matter is not as routine as the government’s argument suggests.
Normally, the question of whether records demanded by a subpoena or other
court order are “relevant” to a proceeding is raised in the context of a motion to
quash a subpoena. The grand jury undertakes to investigate a particular subject
matter to determine whether there is probable cause to believe crimes have been
committed, and seeks by subpoena records that might contain evidence that will
57
help in making that determination.4 Given the wide investigative scope of a
grand jury, the standard is easy to meet, but the determination of relevance is
constrained by the subject of the investigation. In resolving a motion to quash, a
court compares the records demanded by the particular subpoena with the
subject matter of the investigation, however broadly defined.
Here, however, the parties have not undertaken to debate whether the
records required by the orders in question are relevant to any particular inquiry.
The records demanded are all‐encompassing; the government does not even
suggest that all of the records sought, or even necessarily any of them, are
relevant to any specific defined inquiry. Rather, the parties ask the Court to
decide whether § 215 authorizes the “creation of a historical repository of
information that bulk aggregation of the metadata allows,” Appellees’ Br. 32,
because bulk collection to create such a repository is “necessary to the application
4
Although subpoenas may be used in aid of other court proceedings, we take the
grand jury as our example because the powers of the grand jury are particularly
wide‐ranging, and the standard of relevance or materiality of information sought
is much more relaxed than, for example, in a trial, where to be relevant evidence
must tend to make a fact “of consequence in determining the action,” Fed. R.
Evid. 401(b), “more or less probable than it would be without the evidence,” id.
401(a).
58
of certain analytic techniques,” Appellants’ Br. 23. That is not the language in
which grand jury subpoenas are traditionally discussed.
Thus, the government takes the position that the metadata collected – a
vast amount of which does not contain directly “relevant” information, as the
government concedes – are nevertheless “relevant” because they may allow the
NSA, at some unknown time in the future, utilizing its ability to sift through the
trove of irrelevant data it has collected up to that point, to identify information
that is relevant.5 We agree with appellants that such an expansive concept of
“relevance” is unprecedented and unwarranted.
The statutes to which the government points have never been interpreted
to authorize anything approaching the breadth of the sweeping surveillance at
issue here.6 The government admitted below that the case law in analogous
5
Section 215 lists three factors that would render a tangible thing sought
“presumptively relevant” to an authorized investigation, see 50 U.S.C.
§ 1861(b)(2)(A), but the records of ordinary telephone company customers’ phone
calls do not fall within any of those descriptions.
6
A recently disclosed, now discontinued program under which the Drug
Enforcement Administration utilized administrative subpoenas obtained
pursuant to 21 U.S.C. § 876 to collect and maintain a telephone metadata
database may have demanded an interpretation approaching the breadth of the
government’s interpretation of similar language here. See ECF No. 159
(Appellants’ Fed. R. App. P. 28(j) letter); ECF No. 161 (Appellees’ Fed. R. App. P.
59
contexts “d[id] not involve data acquisition on the scale of the telephony
metadata collection.” ACLU v. Clapper, No. 13 Civ. 3994 (S.D.N.Y. Aug. 26,
2013), ECF No. 33 (Mem. of Law of Defs. in Supp. of Mot. to Dismiss) at 24. That
concession is well taken. As noted above, if the orders challenged by appellants
do not require the collection of metadata regarding every telephone call made or
received in the United States (a point asserted by appellants and at least
nominally contested by the government), they appear to come very close to doing
so. The sheer volume of information sought is staggering; while search warrants
and subpoenas for business records may encompass large volumes of paper
documents or electronic data, the most expansive of such evidentiary demands
are dwarfed by the volume of records obtained pursuant to the orders in question
here.
Moreover, the distinction is not merely one of quantity – however vast the
quantitative difference – but also of quality. Search warrants and document
subpoenas typically seek the records of a particular individual or corporation
28(j) letter). That program, which, according to both parties, has been
discontinued, is not being challenged here, and we therefore need not opine as to
whether the language of the statute pursuant to which the metadata were
collected authorized that program.
60
under investigation, and cover particular time periods when the events under
investigation occurred. The orders at issue here contain no such limits. The
metadata concerning every telephone call made or received in the United States
using the services of the recipient service provider are demanded, for an
indefinite period extending into the future. The records demanded are not those
of suspects under investigation, or of people or businesses that have contact with
such subjects, or of people or businesses that have contact with others who are in
contact with the subjects – they extend to every record that exists, and indeed to
records that do not yet exist, as they impose a continuing obligation on the
recipient of the subpoena to provide such records on an ongoing basis as they are
created. The government can point to no grand jury subpoena that is remotely
comparable to the real‐time data collection undertaken under this program.
Nevertheless, the government emphasizes the permissive standards
applied to subpoenas, noting that, at least in the context of grand jury subpoenas,
motions to quash on relevancy grounds are “denied unless the district court
determines that there is no reasonable possibility that the category of materials
the Government seeks will produce information relevant to the general subject of
the grand jury’s investigation.” United States v. R. Enters., Inc., 498 U.S. 292, 301
61
(1991). That is because such subpoenas “are customarily employed to gather
information and make it available to the investigative team of agents and
prosecutors so that it can be digested and sifted for pertinent matter” and are
therefore “often drawn broadly, sweeping up both documents that may prove
decisive and documents that turn out not to be.” United States v. Triumph
Capital Grp., 544 F.3d 149, 168 (2d Cir. 2008).
In that vein, the government points to cases in which courts have upheld
subpoenas for broad categories of information and for “large‐scale collection[] of
information.” Appellees’ Br. 33 (internal quotation marks omitted). For example,
in In re Grand Jury Proceedings: Subpoenas Duces Tecum, 827 F.2d 301 (8th Cir.
1987), the Eighth Circuit denied Western Union’s motion to quash a subpoena
that requested production by Western Union’s primary wire service agent in
Kansas City of all money order applications for amounts over $1,000 over a more
than two‐year period, and of a report summarizing all wire transactions it
conducted over an approximate one‐year period. Despite Western Union’s
argument that the subpoena would sweep in “records involving hundreds of
innocent people,” the court stated that grand juries are not necessarily prohibited
from engaging in “dragnet operation[s].” Id. at 305 (internal quotation marks
62
omitted). In In re Subpoena Duces Tecum, 228 F.3d 341 (4th Cir. 2000), the
Fourth Circuit also denied a motion to quash a subpoena issued to a doctor
requiring production of, inter alia, all patient records and documentation
concerning patients whose services were billed to Medicare, Medicaid, and a
number of insurance companies, including the patients’ complete medical files,
their billing records, office appointment books, sign‐in sheets, and telephone
messages, over a period of at least seven years. That court held that the
subpoena did not sweep too broadly, despite the high volume of documents it
demanded, in part because of the scope of the fraud being investigated and the
size of the doctor’s practice. Id. at 350‐51; see also Okla. Press Publ’g Co. v.
Walling, 327 U.S. 186, 209 (1946) (“[R]elevancy and adequacy or excess in the
breadth of the subpoena are matters variable in relation to the nature, purposes
and scope of the inquiry.”).
But broad as those subpoenas were, the cases cited by the government only
highlight the difference between the investigative demands at issue in those cases
and the ones at issue here. Both of those examples, and all examples of which we
are aware, are bounded either by the facts of the investigation or by a finite time
limitation. The telephone metadata program requires that the phone companies
63
turn over records on an “ongoing daily basis” – with no foreseeable end point, no
requirement of relevance to any particular set of facts, and no limitations as to
subject matter or individuals covered.7 Even in the Eighth Circuit case that the
government cites, moreover, although it upheld the subpoena at issue, the Eighth
Circuit suggested that the district court “consider the extent to which the
government would be able to identify in advance . . . patterns or characteristics
that would raise suspicion . . . designed to focus on illegal activity without taking
in an unnecessary amount of irrelevant material.” In re Grand Jury Proceedings:
Subpoenas Duces Tecum, 827 F.2d at 305‐06. Courts have typically looked to
constrain even grand jury subpoenas to a standard of reasonableness related to a
defined investigative scope; we have found excessively broad a subpoena
requiring production of all of an accountant’s files within a mere three filing
7
Drawing an analogy again to the context of administrative subpoenas, we note
too that courts are “more reluctant to enforce subpoenas when agencies have
sought records of third parties who were not targets of the agency’s
investigation.” In re McVane, 44 F.3d 1127, 1137 (2d Cir. 1995). The
overwhelming bulk of the metadata collected by the telephone metadata
program, as the government itself concedes, concerns “third parties” in that sense
of the word – individuals who are not targets of an investigation or suspected of
engaging in any crime whatsoever, and who are not even suspected of having
any contacts with any such targets or suspects. Their records are sought solely to
build a repository for the future application of the investigative techniques upon
which the program relies.
64
cabinets, “without any attempt to define classes of potentially relevant
documents or any limitations as to subject matter or time period,” because it
swept in papers that there was no reason to believe were relevant. In re
Horowitz, 482 F.2d 72, 79 (2d Cir. 1973). We therefore limited the subpoena’s
time period absent the government’s making a minimal showing of relevance.
Id. at 79‐80.
To the extent that § 215 was intended to give the government, as Senator
Kyl proposed, the “same kinds of techniques to fight terrorists” that it has
available to fight ordinary crimes such as “money laundering or drug dealing,”
152 Cong. Rec. S1607 (daily ed. Mar. 2, 2006) (statement of Sen. Kyl), the analogy
is not helpful to the government’s position here. The techniques traditionally
used to combat such ordinary crimes have not included the collection, via grand
jury subpoena, of a vast trove of records of metadata concerning the financial
transactions or telephone calls of ordinary Americans to be held in reserve in a
data bank, to be searched if and when at some hypothetical future time the
records might become relevant to a criminal investigation.
The government’s emphasis on the potential breadth of the term
“relevant,” moreover, ignores other portions of the text of § 215. “Relevance”
65
does not exist in the abstract; something is “relevant” or not in relation to a
particular subject. Thus, an item relevant to a grand jury investigation may not
be relevant at trial. In keeping with this usage, § 215 does not permit an
investigative demand for any information relevant to fighting the war on terror,
or anything relevant to whatever the government might want to know. It
permits demands for documents “relevant to an authorized investigation.” The
government has not attempted to identify to what particular “authorized
investigation” the bulk metadata of virtually all Americans’ phone calls are
relevant. Throughout its briefing, the government refers to the records collected
under the telephone metadata program as relevant to “counterterrorism
investigations,” without identifying any specific investigations to which such
bulk collection is relevant. See, e.g., Appellees’ Br. 32, 33, 34.8 The FISC orders,
too, refer only to “authorized investigations (other than threat assessments) being
8
While the government purports to have provided “examples” of “specific
counter‐terrorism investigations,” see Appellees’ Br. 33, citing Joint App’x 254‐55,
those examples serve only as instances in which the metadata already collected in
bulk were able to be queried and resulted in identification of a previously
unknown contact of known terrorists. The government does not contend that
most of the metadata already collected were relevant to any of those particular
investigations, let alone that it was able to so demonstrate prior to the collection
of those metadata.
66
conducted by the FBI . . . to protect against international terrorism,” see, e.g., 2006
Primary Order at 2; Joint App’x 127, 317, merely echoing the language of the
statute. The PCLOB report explains that the government’s practice is to list in
§ 215 applications multiple terrorist organizations, and to declare that the records
being sought are relevant to the investigations of all of those groups. PCLOB
Report 59. As the report puts it, that practice is “little different, in practical terms,
from simply declaring that they are relevant to counterterrorism in general. . . .
At its core, the approach boils down to the proposition that essentially all
telephone records are relevant to essentially all international terrorism
investigations.” Id. at 59‐60. Put another way, the government effectively argues
that there is only one enormous “anti‐terrorism” investigation, and that any
records that might ever be of use in developing any aspect of that investigation
are relevant to the overall counterterrorism effort.
The government’s approach essentially reads the “authorized
investigation” language out of the statute. Indeed, the government’s
information‐gathering under the telephone metadata program is inconsistent
with the very concept of an “investigation.” To “investigate” something,
according to the Oxford English Dictionary, is “[t]o search or inquire into; to
67
examine (a matter) systematically or in detail; to make an inquiry or examination
into.”9 8 Oxford English Dictionary 47 (2d ed. 2001). Section 215’s language thus
contemplates the specificity of a particular investigation – not the general
counterterrorism intelligence efforts of the United States government. But the
records in question here are not sought, at least in the first instance, because the
government plans to examine them in connection with a “systematic
examination” of anything at all; the records are simply stored and kept in reserve
until such time as some particular investigation, in the sense in which that word
is traditionally used in connection with legislative, administrative, or criminal
inquiries, is undertaken. Only at that point are any of the stored records
examined. The records sought are not even asserted to be relevant to any on‐
going “systematic examination” of any particular suspect, incident, or group;
they are relevant, in the government’s view, because there might at some future
point be a need or desire to search them in connection with a hypothetical future
inquiry.
9
The noun form “investigation” is similarly defined as “[t]he action of
investigating; the making of a search or inquiry; systematic examination; careful
and minute research.” 8 Oxford English Dictionary 47 (2d ed. 2001).
68
The government’s approach also reads out of the statute another important
textual limitation on its power under § 215. Section 215 permits an order to
produce records to issue when the government shows that the records are
“relevant to an authorized investigation (other than a threat assessment).” 50 U.S.C.
§ 1861(b)(2)(A) (emphasis added). The legislative history tells us little or nothing
about the meaning of “threat assessment.” The Attorney General’s Guidelines
for Domestic FBI Operations, however, tell us somewhat more. The Guidelines
divide the category of “investigations and intelligence gathering” into three
subclasses: assessments, predicated investigations (both preliminary and full),
and enterprise investigations. See Attorney General’s Guidelines for Domestic
FBI Operations 16‐18 (2008),
https://www.ignet.gov/sites/default/files/files/invprg1211appg1.pdf.
Assessments are distinguished from investigations in that they may be initiated
without any factual predication. Id. at 17. The Guidelines cite the objective of
preventing the commission of terrorist acts against the nation as an example of a
proper assessment objective, stating that the FBI “must proactively draw on
available sources of information to identify terrorist threats and activities.” Id.
The methods used in assessments are “generally those of relatively low
69
intrusiveness, such as obtaining publicly available information, checking
government records, and requesting information from members of the public.”
Id. at 17‐18. Because of that low level of intrusiveness, the Guidelines do not
require supervisory approval for assessments, although FBI policy may require it
in particular cases, depending on the assessment’s purpose and the methods
being used. Id. at 18.
The FBI Domestic Investigations and Operations Guide elaborates on this
scheme. It too provides that threat assessments “do not require a particular
factual predication but do require an authorized purpose and clearly defined
objective(s). Assessments may be carried out to detect, obtain information about,
or prevent or protect against Federal crimes or threats to the national security or
to collect foreign intelligence.” FBI Domestic Investigations and Operations
Guide § 5.1 (2011),
http://vault.fbi.gov/FBI%20Domestic%20Investigations%20and%20Operations%2
0Guide%20%28DIOG%29/fbi‐domestic‐investigations‐and‐operations‐guide‐diog
‐2011‐version/fbi‐domestic‐investigations‐and‐operations‐guide‐diog‐october‐15‐
2011‐part‐01‐of‐03/view. Although no specific factual predicate is required, the
70
Guide makes clear that assessments cannot be based on “arbitrary or groundless
speculation.” Id. It adds:
Although difficult to define, “no particular factual
predication” is less than “information or allegation” as
required for the initiation of a preliminary investigation
(PI). For example, an Assessment may be conducted
when: (i) there is reason to collect information or facts to
determine whether there is a criminal or national security
threat; and (ii) there is a rational and articulable
relationship between the stated authorized purpose of the
Assessment on the one hand and the information sought
and the proposed means to obtain that information on the
other.
Id.
In limiting the use of § 215 to “investigations” rather than “threat
assessments,” then, Congress clearly meant to prevent § 215 orders from being
issued where the FBI, without any particular, defined information that would
permit the initiation of even a preliminary investigation, sought to conduct an
inquiry in order to identify a potential threat in advance. The telephone
metadata program, however, and the orders sought in furtherance of it, are even
more remote from a concrete investigation than the threat assessments that –
however important they undoubtedly are in maintaining an alertness to possible
threats to national security – Congress found not to warrant the use of § 215
71
orders. After all, when conducting a threat assessment, FBI agents must have
both a reason to conduct the inquiry and an articulable connection between the
particular inquiry being made and the information being sought. The telephone
metadata program, by contrast, seeks to compile data in advance of the need to
conduct any inquiry (or even to examine the data), and is based on no evidence
of any current connection between the data being sought and any existing
inquiry.
We agree with the PCLOB, which concluded that the government’s
rationale for the “relevance” of the bulk collection of telephone metadata
“undermines” the prohibition on using § 215 orders for threat assessments:
[Section 215] provides that records cannot be obtained for
a “threat assessment,” meaning those FBI investigatory
activities that “do not require a particular factual
predicate.” By excluding threat assessments from the
types of investigations that can justify an order, Congress
directed that Section 215 not be used to facilitate the broad
and comparatively untethered investigatory probing that
is characteristic of such assessments. But by collecting the
nation’s calling records en masse, under an expansive
theory of their relevance to multiple investigations, the
NSA’s program undercuts one of the functions of the
“threat assessment” exclusion: ensuring that records are
not acquired by the government without some reason to
suspect a connection between those records and a specific,
predicated terrorism investigation. While the rules
72
governing the program limit the use of telephone records
to searches that are prompted by a specific investigation,
the relevance requirement in Section 215 restricts the
acquisition of records by the government.
PCLOB Report 60 (emphases in original) (footnote omitted).10
The interpretation urged by the government would require a drastic
expansion of the term “relevance,” not only with respect to § 215, but also as that
term is construed for purposes of subpoenas, and of a number of national
security‐related statutes, to sweep further than those statutes have ever been
thought to reach. For example, the same language is used in
18 U.S.C. § 2709(b)(1) and 20 U.S.C. § 1232g(j)(1)(A), which authorize,
respectively, the compelled production of telephone toll‐billing and educational
records relevant to authorized investigations related to terrorism. There is no
10
The government also argues that, aside from their relevance to the subject
matter of counterterrorism, the telephone metadata records are relevant to
authorized investigations in that they are necessary for the government to apply
certain investigative techniques – here, searching based on “selectors” through
the government’s metadata repository. That argument proves too much. If
information can be deemed relevant solely because of its necessity to a particular
process that the government has chosen to employ, regardless of its subject
matter, then so long as “the government develops an effective means of searching
through everything in order to find something, . . . everything becomes relevant to
its investigations” – and the government’s “technological capacity to ingest
information and sift through it efficiently” would be the only limit to what is
relevant. PCLOB Report 62 (emphases in original).
73
evidence that Congress intended for those statutes to authorize the bulk
collection of every American’s toll‐billing or educational records and to aggregate
them into a database — yet it used nearly identical language in drafting them to
that used in § 215. The interpretation that the government asks us to adopt defies
any limiting principle. The same rationale that it proffers for the “relevance” of
telephone metadata cannot be cabined to such data, and applies equally well to
other sets of records. If the government is correct, it could use § 215 to collect and
store in bulk any other existing metadata available anywhere in the private
sector, including metadata associated with financial records, medical records,
and electronic communications (including e‐mail and social media information)
relating to all Americans.
Such expansive development of government repositories of formerly
private records would be an unprecedented contraction of the privacy
expectations of all Americans. Perhaps such a contraction is required by national
security needs in the face of the dangers of contemporary domestic and
international terrorism. But we would expect such a momentous decision to be
preceded by substantial debate, and expressed in unmistakable language. There
is no evidence of such a debate in the legislative history of § 215, and the
74
language of the statute, on its face, is not naturally read as permitting
investigative agencies, on the approval of the FISC, to do any more than obtain
the sorts of information routinely acquired in the course of criminal
investigations of “money laundering [and] drug dealing.”
We conclude that to allow the government to collect phone records only
because they may become relevant to a possible authorized investigation in the
future fails even the permissive “relevance” test. Just as “the grand jury’s
subpoena power is not unlimited,” United States v. Calandra, 414 U.S. 338, 346
(1974), § 215’s power cannot be interpreted in a way that defies any meaningful
limit. Put another way, we agree with appellants that the government’s
argument is “irreconcilable with the statute’s plain text.” Appellants’ Br. 26.
Such a monumental shift in our approach to combating terrorism requires a
clearer signal from Congress than a recycling of oft‐used language long held in
similar contexts to mean something far narrower. “Congress . . . does not alter
the fundamental details of a regulatory scheme in vague terms or ancillary
provisions — it does not . . . hide elephants in mouseholes.” Whitman v. Am.
Trucking Ass’ns., 531 U.S. 457, 468 (2001). The language of § 215 is decidedly too
ordinary for what the government would have us believe is such an
75
extraordinary departure from any accepted understanding of the term “relevant
to an authorized investigation.”
Finally, as it did with respect to the question of judicial review, the
government again resorts to the claim that if Congress did not explicitly adopt the
rule for which it argues, it did so implicitly. Here, the government argues that
Congress has ratified the FISC’s interpretation of § 215, and thus the telephone
metadata program, by reauthorizing § 215 in 2010 and 2011. We reject that
argument.
First, the theory of congressional ratification of judicial interpretations of a
statute by reenactment cannot overcome the plain meaning of a statute. “Where
the law is plain, subsequent reenactment does not constitute an adoption of a
previous administrative construction.” Demarest v. Manspeaker, 498 U.S. 184,
603 (1991).
Second, although “Congress is presumed to be aware of an administrative
or judicial interpretation of a statute and to adopt that interpretation when it re‐
enacts a statute without change,” Lorillard v. Pons, 434 U.S. 575, 580 (1978), there
are limits to that presumption — particularly where, as here, knowledge of the
program was intentionally kept to a minimum, both within Congress and among
76
the public. We have said that, at least in the case of an administrative
interpretation of a statute, for the doctrine of legislative ratification to apply, we
must first “ascertain whether Congress has spoken clearly enough to constitute
acceptance and approval of an administrative interpretation. Mere reenactment
is insufficient.” Isaacs v. Bowen, 865 F.2d 468, 473 (2d Cir. 1989). In Atkins v.
Parker, the Supreme Court applied the doctrine of legislative ratification where
“Congress was . . . well aware of, and legislated on the basis
of, . . . contemporaneous administrative practice,” concluding that it therefore
“must be presumed to have intended to maintain that practice absent some clear
indication to the contrary.” 472 U.S. 115, 140 (1985). In contrast, in a situation in
which “there [wa]s nothing to indicate that [the interpretation of a regulation]
was ever called to the attention of Congress,” and the statute’s reenactment “was
not accompanied by any congressional discussion which throws light on its
intended scope,” the Court has “consider[ed] the . . . re‐enactment to be without
significance.” United States v. Calamaro, 354 U.S. 351, 359 (1957); see also
Comm’r v. Glenshaw Glass Co., 348 U.S. 426, 431 (1955) (“Re‐enactment [of a
statute] – particularly without the slightest affirmative indication that Congress
ever had [a particular] decision before it – is an unreliable indicium at best.”).
77
Third, as the above precedents suggest, the public nature of an
interpretation plays an important role in applying the doctrine of legislative
ratification. The Supreme Court has stated that “[w]here an agency’s statutory
construction has been fully brought to the attention of the public and the
Congress, and the latter has not sought to alter that interpretation although it has
amended the statute in other respects, then presumably the legislative intent has
been correctly discerned.” North Haven Bd. of Educ. v. Bell, 456 U.S. 512, 535
(1982) (internal quotation marks omitted); see also United States v. Chestman, 947
F.2d 551, 560 (2d Cir. 1991). Congressional inaction is already a tenuous basis
upon which to infer much at all, even where a court’s or agency’s interpretation
is fully accessible to the public and to all members of Congress, who can discuss
and debate the matter among themselves and with their constituents. But here,
far from the ordinarily publicly accessible judicial or administrative opinions that
the presumption contemplates, no FISC opinions authorizing the program were
made public prior to 2013 — well after the two occasions of reauthorization upon
which the government relies, and despite the fact that the FISC first authorized
the program in 2006.
78
Congress cannot reasonably be said to have ratified a program of which
many members of Congress – and all members of the public – were not aware. In
2010, the Senate and House Intelligence Committees requested that the Executive
Branch provide all members of Congress access to information about the
program before the reauthorization vote. In response, the Executive Branch
provided the Intelligence Committee chairs with a classified paper on the
program, which was then made available to members of Congress. That
availability, however, was limited in a number of ways. First, the briefing papers
could only be viewed in secure locations, for a limited time period and under a
number of restrictions. See Joint App’x 148‐165. The government does not
dispute appellants’ assertion that members of Congress could not bring staff with
them when they went to read the briefing papers, nor discuss the program with
their staff. And, of course, no public debate on the program took place. In 2011,
briefing papers were also provided to the Intelligence Committees, but only the
Senate Committee shared the papers with other members of that body who were
not committee members. The House Intelligence Committee did not share the
papers at all with non‐members, leaving the non‐committee Representatives in
79
the dark as to the program. See generally id. at 170‐73; see also Clapper, 959 F.
Supp. 2d at 745.
To be sure, the government is correct that whether a particular
interpretation was legislatively ratified ordinarily should not depend on the
“number of legislators with actual knowledge of the government’s
interpretation.” Appellees’ Br. 36. We do not insist, in the ordinary case, on
evidence that members of Congress actually read and understood administrative
or judicial decisions interpreting a statute to apply the doctrine of ratification.
But this is far from the ordinary case. In the ordinary case in which we apply the
Lorillard presumption, the administrative or judicial interpretation argued to
have been ratified by Congress was available to the public in published sources.
Concerned citizens and interest groups had every opportunity to bring
interpretations that they believed were incorrect or undesirable to the attention of
their representatives in the House and Senate, and to lobby for legislation
rejecting those interpretations. To the extent that some members of Congress
were unaware of the details of those interpretations, their ignorance itself very
likely reflected the absence of any particular controversy surrounding them.
80
In sharp contrast, the telephone metadata program was (for
understandable reasons) shrouded in the secrecy applicable to classified
information, and only a limited subset of members of Congress had a
comprehensive understanding of the program or of its purported legal bases.
There was certainly no opportunity for broad discussion in the Congress or
among the public of whether the FISC’s interpretation of § 215 was correct.11
Finding the government’s interpretation of the statute to have been “legislatively
ratified” under these circumstances would ignore reality. Practically speaking, it
is a far stretch to say that Congress was aware of the FISC’s legal interpretation of
§ 215 when it reauthorized the statute in 2010 and 2011. We therefore cannot
accept the argument that Congress, by reauthorizing § 215 without change in
2010 and 2011, thereby legislatively ratified the interpretation of § 215 urged by
the government. The widespread controversy that developed, in and out of
Congress, upon the public disclosure of the program makes clear that this is not a
11
Indeed, the discrepancy between the conclusion we reach herein and that
reached by the FISC may, at least in part, be accounted for by our having
received the benefit of an adversarial presentation of the issues. See post at pp. 6,
11 (Sack, J., concurring).
81
situation in which Congress quietly but knowingly adopted the FISC’s
interpretation of § 215 because there was no real opposition to that interpretation.
For all of the above reasons, we hold that the text of § 215 cannot bear the
weight the government asks us to assign to it, and that it does not authorize the
telephone metadata program. We do so comfortably in the full understanding
that if Congress chooses to authorize such a far‐reaching and unprecedented
program, it has every opportunity to do so, and to do so unambiguously. Until
such time as it does so, however, we decline to deviate from widely accepted
interpretations of well‐established legal standards. We therefore disagree with
the district court insofar as it held that appellants’ statutory claims failed on the
merits, and vacate its judgment dismissing the complaint.
IV. Constitutional Claims
In addition to arguing that the telephone metadata program is not
authorized by § 215, appellants argue that, even if the program is authorized by
statute, it violates their rights under the Fourth and First Amendments to the
82
Constitution. The Fourth Amendment claim, in particular, presents potentially
vexing issues.12
Appellants contend that the seizure from their telephone service providers,
and eventual search, of records of the metadata relating to their telephone
communications violates their expectations of privacy under the Fourth
Amendment in the absence of a search warrant based on probable cause to
believe that evidence of criminal conduct will be found in the records. The
government responds that the warrant and probable cause requirements of the
Fourth Amendment are not implicated because appellants have no privacy rights
in the records. This dispute touches an issue on which the Supreme Court’s
jurisprudence is in some turmoil.
12
For that reason, we discuss infra some of the Fourth Amendment concerns that
the program implicates. As to the First Amendment issues, appellants argue that
the program infringes their First Amendment associational privacy and free
speech rights, “substantially impair[ing]” those rights by “expos[ing] their
telephonic associations to government monitoring and scrutiny.” Appellants’ Br.
53. They contend that the program must therefore survive “exacting scrutiny.”
Id. at 58. The government responds, as to the merits of appellants’ First
Amendment claim, that any such burdens are merely “incidental.” Appellees’
Br. 54. As noted infra, because we find that the telephone metadata program
exceeds the bounds of what is authorized by § 215, we need not reach either
constitutional issue, and we see no reason to discuss the First Amendment claims
in greater depth.
83
In Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347 (1967), the Supreme Court departed
from the property‐based approach to the Fourth Amendment that had governed
since Olmstead v. United States, 277 U.S. 438 (1928), which depended upon
whether an actual physical trespass of property had occurred. As explained in
Justice Harlan’s concurring opinion, the Court held in Katz that a search occurs
where “a person ha[s] exhibited an actual (subjective) expectation of privacy,
and . . . the expectation [is] one that society is prepared to recognize as
‘reasonable.’” 389 U.S. at 361 (Harlan, J., concurring).
The Supreme Court has also long held, however, that individuals have no
“legitimate expectation of privacy in information [they] voluntarily turn[] over to
third parties.” Smith v. Maryland, 442 U.S. 735, 743‐44 (1979); see, e.g., California
v. Greenwood, 486 U.S. 35 (1988) (no objectively reasonable expectation of
privacy in garbage exposed to the public by being placed on a sidewalk); United
States v. Miller, 425 U.S. 435 (1976) (no legitimate expectation of privacy in bank
records). In Smith v. Maryland, the Court applied that doctrine to uphold the
constitutionality of installing a pen register at a telephone company’s office that
recorded the numbers dialed from a criminal suspect’s home telephone. 442 U.S.
at 737, 745‐46. The Court held that the installation of the pen register was not a
84
search for Fourth Amendment purposes because, by placing calls, individuals
expose the telephone numbers they dial to the telephone company and therefore
“assume[] the risk that the company [may] reveal to police the
numbers . . . dialed.” Id. at 744. Similarly, it has long been commonplace for
grand juries to subpoena an individual’s telephone records from the individual’s
telephone service provider, in the absence of probable cause or a warrant issued
by a judge. The acquisition of such records, it has been held, implicates no
legitimate privacy interest of the subscriber, because the records are not his or
hers alone. See, e.g., id. at 742‐44; Miller, 425 U.S. at 443; Couch v. United States,
409 U.S. 322, 334‐36 (1973). The subscriber cannot reasonably believe that the
records are private, because he or she has voluntarily exposed the information
contained in them to the telephone company, which uses them for its own
business purpose of billing the subscriber.
The government argues, and the district court held, that this doctrine
requires rejection of appellants’ claim that the acquisition of telephone metadata
(as opposed to the contents of communications) violates the Fourth Amendment,
or even implicates its protections at all. Appellants respond that modern
85
technology requires revisitation of the underpinnings of the third‐party records
doctrine as applied to telephone metadata.
Appellants’ argument invokes one of the most difficult issues in Fourth
Amendment jurisprudence: the extent to which modern technology alters our
traditional expectations of privacy. On the one hand, the very notion of an
individual’s expectation of privacy, considered in Katz a key component of the
rights protected by the Fourth Amendment, may seem quaint in a world in which
technology makes it possible for individuals and businesses (to say nothing of the
government) to observe acts of individuals once regarded as protected from
public view. On the other hand, rules that permit the government to obtain
records and other information that consumers have shared with businesses
without a warrant seem much more threatening as the extent of such information
grows.
Appellants point to the Supreme Court’s decision in United States v. Jones,
132 S. Ct. 945 (2012), as exemplifying the kind of challenge to apparently
established law that they seek to bring. Jones does not address telephone or
other business records, but arose in the somewhat analogous context of physical
surveillance. Prior to Jones, in United States v. Knotts, 460 U.S. 276 (1983), in a
86
ruling based in substantial part on the core notion that an individual has no
expectation of privacy in what he exposes to the eyes of third parties, the Court
held that a person has no expectation of privacy in his public movements,
because he “voluntarily convey[s] to anyone who want[s] to look the fact that he
[i]s traveling on particular roads in a particular direction, the fact of whatever
stops he ma[kes], and the fact of his final destination.” Id. at 281‐82. The Court
therefore ruled that, just as police agents may follow a suspect in public without
a warrant or probable cause, the government’s use of a beeper to follow a suspect
without a warrant was constitutional; the beeper merely “augment[ed]” the
officers’ normal sensory faculties, but did nothing that an individual otherwise
monitoring the suspect could not do without it. Id. at 282. The Court noted,
however, in response to concern about the potential for twenty‐four hour
surveillance without judicial supervision, that “if . . . dragnet type law
enforcement practices . . . should eventually occur, there will be time enough
then to determine whether different constitutional principles may be applicable.”
Id. at 284.
That opportunity came decades later, in Jones. In that case, the
government had tracked an individual’s location over the course of 28 days using
87
a GPS tracking device it had attached to his vehicle without first obtaining a
warrant. 132 S. Ct. at 948. The D.C. Circuit held that, because an individual does
not expose his location to the public over the course of an entire month, either
actually or constructively, the proper framework from which to analyze the
operation was not a variation on the third‐party doctrine but instead Katz’s
reasonable expectation of privacy standard. United States v. Maynard, 615 F.3d
544, 555‐63 (D.C. Cir. 2010), aff’d on other grounds sub nom. Jones, 132 S. Ct. 945.
It held that the defendant’s expectation of privacy had been violated, because the
long‐term surveillance revealed a “mosaic” of information in which individuals
had privacy interests, even in the absence of a privacy interest in discrete pieces
of such information. Id. at 562‐63.
The Supreme Court affirmed the D.C. Circuit’s opinion, but on different
grounds. It held that the operation was a search entitled to Fourth Amendment
protection because the attachment of the GPS device constituted a technical
trespass on the defendant’s vehicle. Jones, 132 S. Ct. at 949‐53. The Court’s
majority opinion declined to reach the issue of whether the operation would have
passed Katz’s “reasonableness” test, id. at 954, or whether the third‐party
doctrine instead applied, id. at 952.
88
As appellants note, however, five of the Justices appeared to suggest that
there might be a Fourth Amendment violation even without the technical
trespass upon which the majority opinion relied. Four of the Justices argued that
the Court should have applied the Katz “reasonableness” test, and that the
surveillance would not survive that test. Id. at 957‐58, 964 (Alito, J., concurring).
Justice Sotomayor noted in another concurring opinion that “the majority
opinion’s trespassory test may provide little guidance” for certain modern‐day
surveillance techniques, for which physical trespass is often not necessary. Id. at
955 (Sotomayor, J., concurring). Consequently, she observed that “it may be
necessary to reconsider the premise that an individual has no reasonable
expectation of privacy in information voluntarily disclosed to third parties,”
noting that such an approach is “ill suited to the digital age, in which people
reveal a great deal of information about themselves to third parties in the course
of carrying out mundane tasks.” Id. at 957.
Appellants argue that the telephone metadata program provides an
archetypal example of the kind of technologically advanced surveillance
techniques that, they contend, require a revision of the third‐party records
doctrine. Metadata today, as applied to individual telephone subscribers,
89
particularly with relation to mobile phone services and when collected on an
ongoing basis with respect to all of an individual’s calls (and not merely, as in
traditional criminal investigations, for a limited period connected to the
investigation of a particular crime), permit something akin to the 24‐hour
surveillance that worried some of the Court in Jones. Moreover, the bulk
collection of data as to essentially the entire population of the United States,
something inconceivable before the advent of high‐speed computers, permits the
development of a government database with a potential for invasions of privacy
unimaginable in the past. Thus, appellants argue, the program cannot simply be
sustained on the reasoning that permits the government to obtain, for a limited
period of time as applied to persons suspected of wrongdoing, a simple record of
the phone numbers contained in their service providers’ billing records.
Because we conclude that the challenged program was not authorized by
the statute on which the government bases its claim of legal authority, we need
not and do not reach these weighty constitutional issues. The seriousness of the
constitutional concerns, however, has some bearing on what we hold today, and
on the consequences of that holding.
90
We note first that whether Congress has considered and authorized a
program such as this one is not irrelevant to its constitutionality. The
endorsement of the Legislative Branch of government provides some degree of
comfort in the face of concerns about the reasonableness of the government’s
assertions of the necessity of the data collection. Congress is better positioned
than the courts to understand and balance the intricacies and competing concerns
involved in protecting our national security, and to pass judgment on the value
of the telephone metadata program as a counterterrorism tool. Moreover, the
legislative process has considerable advantages in developing knowledge about
the far‐reaching technological advances that render today’s surveillance methods
drastically different from what has existed in the past, and in understanding the
consequences of a world in which individuals can barely function without
involuntarily creating metadata that can reveal a great deal of information about
them. A congressional judgment as to what is “reasonable” under current
circumstances would carry weight – at least with us, and, we assume, with the
Supreme Court as well – in assessing whether the availability of information to
telephone companies, banks, internet service providers, and the like, and the
ability of the government to collect and process volumes of such data that would
91
previously have overwhelmed its capacity to make use of the information,
render obsolete the third‐party records doctrine or, conversely, reduce our
expectations of privacy and make more intrusive techniques both expected and
necessary to deal with new kinds of threats.
Finally, we are not unmindful that a full debate by Congress of the
appropriateness of a program such as that now operated by the government may
result in the approval of a program with greater safeguards for privacy, or with
other limitations, that are not now in place and that could alter or even moot the
issues presented by appellants.13 In the last Congress, for example, a bill to
authorize a modified version of the telephone metadata program, supported by
the Administration, passed the House of Representatives; a similar bill failed in
the Senate after a majority of senators – but not the required 60 to cut off debate –
sought to bring the bill to a vote. See USA FREEDOM Act, H.R. 3361, 113th
Cong. (2014); USA FREEDOM Act, S. 2685, 113th Cong. (2014). As noted above,
more recently, on April 30, 2015, a modified version of the USA FREEDOM Act,
which would limit the bulk metadata program in various ways, was passed by
13
We note that, at oral argument, appellants’ counsel indicated that the adoption
of certain measures would lead at least these appellants to withdraw their
constitutional challenges.
92
the House Judiciary Committee, see USA FREEDOM Act of 2015, H.R. 2048,
114th Cong. (2015), and a vote in that Chamber is expected later this month. An
identical bill has been introduced in the Senate and referred to the Senate
Judiciary Committee. See USA FREEDOM Act of 2015, S. 1123, 114th Cong.
(2015).
We reiterate that, just as we do not here address the constitutionality of the
program as it currently exists, we do not purport to express any view on the
constitutionality of any alternative version of the program. The constitutional
issues, however, are sufficiently daunting to remind us of the primary role that
should be played by our elected representatives in deciding, explicitly and after
full debate, whether such programs are appropriate and necessary. Ideally, such
issues should be resolved by the courts only after such debate, with due respect
for any conclusions reached by the coordinate branches of government.
V. Preliminary Injunction
Finally, we consider the district court’s denial of appellants’ motion for a
preliminary injunction. A party seeking a preliminary injunction must either
show that he is likely to succeed on the merits; that he is likely to suffer
irreparable harm in the absence of preliminary relief; that the balance of equities
93
tips in his favor; and that an injunction is in the public interest, Winter v. NRDC,
555 U.S. 7, 20 (2008); or he may show irreparable harm and either a likelihood of
success on the merits or “sufficiently serious questions going to the merits to
make them a fair ground for litigation and a balance of hardships tipping
decidedly toward the party requesting the preliminary relief,” Christian
Louboutin S.A. v. Yves Saint Laurent Am. Holdings, Inc., 696 F.3d 206, 215 (2d
Cir. 2012) (internal quotation marks omitted).
Here, as is clear from our analysis above, the district court erred in certain
respects on several issues of law critical to deciding the legality of the
government’s program. On a correct view of those issues, appellants have shown
a likelihood – indeed, a certainty – of success on the merits of at least their
statutory claims. Appellants argue that, because they have alleged a deprivation
of constitutional rights, we should presume irreparable harm, and that the
balance of equities tips in their favor, because the government does not have any
legitimate interest in conducting unlawful surveillance.
At least at this point, however, we decline to conclude that a preliminary
injunction is required, and leave it to the district court to reconsider, in the first
instance, the propriety of preliminary relief in light of a correct understanding of
94
the governing law. We note that at the present time, § 215 is scheduled to expire
in just several weeks. The government vigorously contends that the program is
necessary for maintaining national security, which of course is a public interest of
the highest order. Allowing the program to remain in place for a few weeks
while Congress decides whether and under what conditions it should continue is
a lesser intrusion on appellants’ privacy than they faced at the time this litigation
began. In light of the asserted national security interests at stake, we deem it
prudent to pause to allow an opportunity for debate in Congress that may (or
may not) profoundly alter the legal landscape.
Moreover, given the necessity of congressional action, the statutory issues
on which we rest our decision could become moot (at least as far as the future of
the telephone metadata program is concerned), and the constitutional issues
appellants continue to press radically altered, by events that will occur in a short
time frame. If Congress decides to authorize the collection of the data desired by
the government under conditions identical to those now in place, the program
will continue in the future under that authorization. There will be time then to
address appellants’ constitutional issues, which may be significantly altered by
the findings made, and conclusions reached, by the political branches, and to
95
decide what if any relief appellants are entitled to based on our finding that the
program as it has operated to date is unlawful. If Congress decides to institute a
substantially modified program, the constitutional issues will certainly differ
considerably from those currently raised. If Congress fails to reauthorize § 215
itself, or reenacts § 215 without expanding it to authorize the telephone metadata
program, there will be no need for prospective relief, since the program will end,
and once again there will be time to address what if any relief is required in
terms of the data already acquired by the government. We believe that such
issues will be best addressed in the first instance by the district court in due
course.
CONCLUSION
This case serves as an example of the increasing complexity of balancing
the paramount interest in protecting the security of our nation – a job in which, as
the President has stated, “actions are second‐guessed, success is unreported, and
failure can be catastrophic,” Remarks by the President on Review of Signals
Intelligence – with the privacy interests of its citizens in a world where
surveillance capabilities are vast and where it is difficult if not impossible to
avoid exposing a wealth of information about oneself to those surveillance
96
mechanisms. Reconciling the clash of these values requires productive
contribution from all three branches of government, each of which is uniquely
suited to the task in its own way.
For the foregoing reasons, we conclude that the district court erred in
ruling that § 215 authorizes the telephone metadata collection program, and
instead hold that the telephone metadata program exceeds the scope of what
Congress has authorized and therefore violates § 215. Accordingly, we VACATE
the district court’s judgment dismissing the complaint and REMAND the case to
the district court for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.
97
14‐42‐cv
ACLU, et al. v. Clapper, et al.
SACK, Circuit Judge, concurring:
I fully concur in Judge Lynchʹs opinion for the Court. I nonetheless take
the liberty of offering several additional observations about the import of todayʹs
decision.
Because our decision is based on our reading of a federal statute, not the
Constitution, Congress can in effect overrule it. The enactment of a statute
amending or supplanting the portion of section 215 that, until now, has been
interpreted to authorize the NSAʹs bulk collection program would likely do the
job, subject, of course, to a subsequent constitutional challenge in the courts.
Alternatively, Congress might simply terminate the program. Recent news
dispatches indicate that it is considering doing just that.1 And the plaintiffs have
suggested that their grievance could be addressed by a statutory amendment
1 See Jonathan Weisman & Jennifer Steinhauer, Patriot Act Faces Curbs Supported by Both
Parties, N.Y. Times, May 1, 2015, at A1; see also, e.g., Ellen Nakashima, With Deadline
Near, Lawmakers Introduce Bill to End NSA Program, Wash. Post, Apr. 28, 2015,
http://www.washingtonpost.com/world/national‐security/with‐deadline‐near‐
lawmakers‐introduce‐bill‐to‐end‐nsa‐program/2015/04/28/8fd1cf6e‐edb4‐11e4‐a55f‐
38924fca94f9_story.html; Spencer Ackerman, NSA Reform Bill Imperilled as it Competes
with Alternative Effort in the Senate, The Guardian, Apr. 28, 2015,
http://www.theguardian.com/us‐news/2015/apr/28/house‐nsa‐reform‐bill‐senate‐usa‐
freedom‐act; H.R. 1466, 114th Cong. (2015).
1
replacing the bulk collection program with an arrangement under which the
telephone companies will retain the metadata in question, subject to valid
government subpoenas. See Argument Tr. at 7‐8 (Sept. 2, 2014) (statement by
counsel for the appellant); Jonathan Weisman & Jennifer Steinhauer, Patriot Act
Faces Curbs Supported by Both Parties, N.Y. Times, May 1, 2015, at A1 (reporting
that, under ʺbipartisan bills in the House and Senate, the Patriot Act would be
changed to prohibit bulk collection . . . . The data would instead be stored by the
phone companies themselves, and could be accessed by intelligence agencies
only after approval of theʺ Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court).
In any event, as Judge Lynchʹs opinion makes clear, it is Congressʹs
prerogative, not ours, to resolve the conflict underlying these issues in the first
instance. Ante at 7, 90.
In that connection, Judge Lynchʹs opinion refers to ʺthe primary role that
should be played by [Congress] in deciding, explicitly and after full debate,
whether such programs [as those pursuant to which the NSA has collected
telephone metadata] are appropriate and necessary.ʺ Ante at 92. I agree. I think
it nonetheless appropriate to pause to ensure that that statement is not read to
devalue or minimize the role of the courts in determining the meaning of any
2
such legislation, its future application to particular acts or practices of the federal
government and others, or its propriety under the Constitution. The courts are
charged with the responsibility of making those judgments. They are, as an
institution, tasked with the duty, in the context of cases or controversies properly
brought before them, to seek to reconcile the never completely reconcilable
tension between the individualʹs interest in privacy and right to civil liberties and
the governmentʹs duty to protect American lives and property.2
The role of Congress under Article I of the Constitution and that of the
courts under Article III, ʺin the face of the concerns about the reasonableness of
the [] assertions [by the Executive Branch under Article II] of the necessity of the
data collection,ʺ ante at 90, are, moreover, not entirely independent from one
another. Congress has for more than thirty‐five years looked to the Foreign
Intelligence Surveillance Court (the ʺFISCʺ), first established for such matters
under the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act of 1978 (ʺFISAʺ), to adjudicate
cases and controversies arising out of the application and administration of the
Act. See ante at 6.
2 The writer has expressed general views on the subject elsewhere. See Robert D. Sack,
Speech: Judicial Skepticism and the Threat of Terrorism, 31 W. New Eng. L. Rev. 1 (2009)
(adapted from Law Day speech before the Federal Bar Council, New York City, May 1,
2008).
3
The FISC, like the quotidian federal district courts and courts of appeals, is
established under Article III of the Constitution.3 But because of its specialized
role dealing with matters touching on national security concerns, it conducts its
proceedings differently. Two of the fundamental characteristics of ordinary
Article III courts that are often considered central to their mission are
transparency (ʺopennessʺ) and a properly functioning adversary system. Neither
transparency nor a true adversary system characterizes the operation of the FISC.
Thus, most Article III courts, including this Court, operate under a strong
presumption that their papers and proceedings are open to the public. See, e.g.,
Richmond Newspapers, Inc. v. Virginia, 448 U.S. 555, 571‐72 (1980).
The value of openness lies in the fact that people . . . can have confidence
that standards of fairness are being observed; the sure knowledge that
anyone is free to attend gives assurance that established procedures are
being followed and that deviations will become known. Openness thus
enhances both the basic fairness of the criminal trial and the appearance of
fairness so essential to public confidence in the system.
Press‐Enterprise Co. v. Superior Court of Cal., 464 U.S. 501, 508 (1984) (emphasis
omitted). ʺPeople in an open society do not demand infallibility from their
3 ʺThe judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in
such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish.ʺ U.S.
Const., Art. III, § 1.
4
institutions, but it is difficult for them to accept what they are prohibited from
observing.ʺ Richmond Newspapers, Inc., 448 U.S. at 572.4
The FISC, by contrast, operates largely behind closed doors. While it may
do so at the cost of some public confidence, the courtʹs ability to do otherwise
would appear to be, at best, limited. Information cannot simultaneously be kept
secret and made public at the same time – at least not this side of quantum
physics.5
This conundrum is not unique to the FISC – it confronts any Article III
court addressing what purports to constitute state secrets or other information
the confidentiality of which is protectable by law. See, e.g., United States v.
Reynolds, 345 U.S. 1 (1953) (setting forth the method for judicial consideration of
4 The Supreme Courtʹs case law has been developed largely in the context of criminal
cases. It likely also applies to civil proceedings. See, e.g., Hartford Courant Co. v.
Pellegrino, 380 F.3d 83, 91 (2d Cir. 2004) (applying principles of First Amendment rights
of access to federal courts to conclude that there is a ʺqualified First Amendment right
to inspect [civil] docket sheets, which provide an index to the records of judicial
proceedingsʺ); Marc A. Franklin, et al., Mass Media Law: Cases and Materials 596 (8th ed.
2011) (ʺThe Supreme Court has not decided whether there is a constitutional right of
access to civil trials, but lower courts have assumed that the First Amendment right to
attend civil trials is at least as strong as the right to attend criminal trials.ʺ (citing, inter
alia, Westmoreland v. CBS, 752 F.2d 16, 23 (2d Cir. 1984); Publicker Industries, Inc. v. Cohen,
733 F.2d 1059 (3d Cir. 1984))).
5 To be sure, there may be aspects of FISC operations that simply do not warrant secret
treatment. Cf. Weisman & Steinhauer, supra (reporting that proposed congressional
legislation would require the declassification of all significant FISA court opinions). I
doubt, though, that in light of the likely scope of these exceptions, they materially affect
my overall observations about in camera FISC proceedings.
5
civil cases touching on state secrets); United States v. Stewart, 590 F.3d 93, 125‐32
(2d Cir. 2009) (describing at length the methods employed when a criminal
defendant in federal district court seeks FISA documents); Doe v. CIA, 576 F.3d 95
(2d Cir. 2009) (civil) (describing this Courtʹs manner of conducting an appeal
involving state secrets). In such cases, courts typically operate publicly only to
the extent they think practicable after evaluating the basis of the governmentʹs
purported need for secrecy and the effects of such secrecy on the other parties
before them.
The absence of a robust adversary system in the FISC may be another
matter. It requires little beyond the common experience of bench and bar to
establish the general importance to courts and the parties before them of hearing
from all sides of a dispute. The Supreme Court has recognized that:
Adversary proceedings are a major aspect of our system of criminal justice.
Their superiority as a means for attaining justice in a given case is nowhere
more evident than in those cases, such as the ones at bar, where an issue
must be decided on the basis of a large volume of factual materials, and
after consideration of the many and subtle interrelationships which may
exist among the facts reflected by these records. As the need for adversary
inquiry is increased by the complexity of the issues presented for
adjudication, and by the consequent inadequacy of ex parte procedures as
a means for their accurate resolution, the displacement of well‐informed
advocacy necessarily becomes less justifiable.
Alderman v. United States, 394 U.S. 165, 183‐84 (1969).
6
Considering the issue of advocacy in the context of deliberations involving
alleged state secrets, and, more broadly, the ʺleakʺ6 by Edward Snowden that led
to this litigation,7 calls to mind the disclosures by Daniel Ellsberg that gave rise to
the legendary ʺPentagon Papersʺ litigation.8 The district court and court of
appeals stages of the Pentagon Papers case unfolded in this courthouse some
forty‐four years ago. United States v. New York Times Co. (the ʺPentagon Papersʺ
case), 328 F. Supp. 324, 333 (S.D.N.Y.) (Gurfein, J.), remanded, 444 F.2d 544 (2d
I use quotation marks around the term ʺleakʺ for reasons adverted to in New York
6
Times Co. v. Gonzales, 459 F.3d 160 (2d Cir. 2006) (Sack, J., dissenting):
[T]he use of the term ʺleakʺ to identify unauthorized disclosures in this context
may be unhelpful. It misleadingly suggests a system that is broken. Some
unauthorized disclosures may be harmful indeed. But others likely contribute to
the general welfare . . . . Secretive bureaucratic agencies, like hermetically sealed
houses, often benefit from a breath of fresh air.
Id. at 183 (Sack, J., dissenting) (footnotes omitted).
7 The complaint was filed about one week after and based on the disclosure. See ACLU
v. Clapper, No. 11‐cv‐7562, DI 1 (Complaint). Although the ʺleakʺ led to this litigation,
our decision is not about the Snowden disclosures themselves nor should the
significance of our rather complex analysis of the statute be confused with the
significance vel non of the security breach or the NSA telephone metadata program.
8 A ʺLexisʺ search conducted by the writer on April 29, 2015 disclosed more than 40
articles comparing the two sets of unauthorized disclosures in ʺMajor Newspapers,ʺ
including The Los Angeles Times, The Hartford Courant, The Globe and Mail (Canada), The
Boston Globe, The San Francisco Chronicle and The Seattle Times. A further such ʺLexisʺ
search of The New York Times also found multiple examples. See also, Jonathan
Capehart, Snowden Is No Daniel Ellsberg, Wash. Post, July 2, 2013, at A15 (ʺI pleaded last
month for an end to the breathless comparisons between Edward Snowden and Daniel
Ellsberg.ʺ).
7
Cir.) (en banc) (per curiam), revʹd, 403 U.S. 713 (1971) (per curiam). The issues in
that case, like the concerns that led to the deliberations of the Church Committee,
and then to FISAʹs enactment and the creation of the FISC, arose, as Judge Lynch
puts it, during ʺthe early 1970s, in a climate not altogether unlike todayʹs.ʺ Ante
at 5. His observation is reminiscent of Judge Gurfeinʹs somber contemporary
dictum about the same era: ʺThese are troubled times.ʺ Pentagon Papers, 328 F.
Supp. at 331.
The disclosures, the national security issues, and the challenges facing the
Pentagon Papers district court and the FISC are different. There is, however, at
least one aspect of the Pentagon Papers cases that may be instructive here.
The FISCʹs hearings are, as noted, held ex parte. The targets of their
proceedings are ordinarily not represented by counsel. (Indeed it seems likely
that targets are usually unaware of the existence of the proceedings or their
subject.) In the Pentagon Papers case, the court held a hearing, part in public and
part in camera, to determine the facts of the case and the whether further
publication of the papers would endanger legitimate national security interests.
In both the open and closed portions of the hearing, The New York Times enjoyed
the assistance of highly competent counsel. The Times and its counsel already
8
had access to the material that the government was attempting to keep from
further public view; barring their presence in the otherwise closed hearing room
would not have advanced the legitimate security interests of the United States.
Their attendance at the hearing apparently turned out to be pivotal.
During the public portion of the hearing, there was little indication that
Judge Gurfein was sympathetic to the Timesʹ position that further publication of
the Papers, which were marked classified, was constitutionally protected or
otherwise permissible. See David Rudenstine, The Day the Presses Stopped: A
History of the Pentagon Papers Case 107‐52 (1996). As the public portion of the
hearing closed, ʺthe government had reason to be confident that it would prevail,
and the Times lawyers could take very little comfort from what had so far
occurred.ʺ Id. at 152.
It was only upon the Timesʹ cross‐examination of the first witness in the
subsequent closed‐door hearing, in which the Timesʹ counsel focused relentlessly
on what, specifically, in the Papers would present a threat to the United States if
disclosed and why, that Judge Gurfeinʹs apparent leaning began to shift towards
the position of the Times. Id.; see also James C. Goodale, Fighting for the Press: The
Inside Story of the Pentagon Papers and Other Battles 105‐07 (2013) (describing the
9
participation of counsel for the Times at the closed‐door hearing). The Judgeʹs
own questioning of the witnesses9 evinced his emerging acceptance of the Timesʹ
position and his embrace of the nature of the governmentʹs burden. Only after
hearing extensive argument, examination, and cross‐examination, from both
sides, did Judge Gurfein conclude: ʺI am constrained to find as a fact that the in
camera proceedings at which representatives of the Department of State,
Department of Defense and the Joint Chiefs of Staff testified, did not convince
this Court that the publication of these historical documents would seriously
breach the national security.ʺ Pentagon Papers, 328 F. Supp. at 330. By common,
if not universal, consensus, the district courtʹs conclusion that the publication of
the Papers by the Times would not ʺinvolve a serious security danger,ʺ informed
9 By happy coincidence, also contributing to the ability of the district court effectively
to address the issue of the national security implications of further publication was the
fact that Judge Gurfein had spent four years in World War II and after as an officer,
rising to the rank of Lieutenant Colonel in the O.S.S. (Office of Strategic Services). See
Biographical Directory of Federal Judges – Gurfein, Murray Irwin, Federal Judicial Center,
http://www.fjc.gov/servlet/nGetInfo?jid=930&cid=999&ctype=na&instate=na (last
visited April 30, 2015). The O.S.S. was the predecessor of the Central Intelligence
Agency. See History of the CIA, Central Intelligence Agency, https://www.cia.gov/about‐
cia/history‐of‐the‐cia/index.html (last visited April 30, 2015); see also Goodale, supra at
101 (describing Judge Gurfeinʹs use of his intelligence background during the hearing).
Notably, the possibility of giving the FISC improved access to relevant expertise
is reflected in currently proposed legislation. See Weisman & Steinhauer, supra (ʺThe
legislation would . . . create a panel of experts to advise the FISA court on privacy, civil
liberties, and technology matters . . . .ʺ).
10
as it was by the participation of legal representatives of all parties, was right.10
It may be worth considering that the participation of an adversary to the
government at some point in the FISCʹs proceedings could similarly provide a
significant benefit to that court. The FISC otherwise may be subject to the
understandable suspicion that, hearing only from the government, it is likely to
be strongly inclined to rule for the government. And at least in some cases it
may be that its decision‐making would be improved by the presence of counsel
opposing the governmentʹs assertions before the court. Members of each branch
of government have encouraged some such development.11
10 See Rudenstine, supra, at 326‐29. Some years later, Erwin Griswold, who, as the
United States Solicitor General, argued the case in the Supreme Court, conceded as
much. He wrote, ʺI have never seen any trace of a threat to the national security from
the publication [of the Papers]. Indeed, I have never seen it even suggested that there
was such an actual threat.ʺ Erwin N. Griswold, Secrets Not Worth Keeping: The Courts
and Classified Information, Wash. Post, Feb. 15, 1989, at A25. He further observed: ʺIt
quickly becomes apparent to any person who has considerable experience with
classified material that there is massive overclassification and that the principal concern
of the classifiers is not with national security, but rather with governmental
embarrassment of one sort or another.ʺ Id.
11 They include President Obama, Transcript of President Obamaʹs Jan. 17 Speech on
NSA Reforms, Wash. Post, Jan. 17, 2014, http://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/full‐
text‐of‐president‐obamas‐jan‐17‐speech‐on‐nsa‐reforms/2014/01/17/fa33590a‐7f8c‐11e3‐
9556‐4a4bf7bcbd84_story.html, judges who previously served on the FISC, see Charlie
Savage, Nation Will Gain by Discussing Surveillance, Expert Tells Privacy Board, N.Y.
Times, July 10, 2013, at A16; Judge James G. Carr, A Better Secret Court, N.Y. Times, July
23, 2013, at A21, and some members of Congress, see FISA Court Reform Act of 2013,
H.R. 3228, 113th Cong. (2013); The U.S.A. Freedom Act, H.R. 2048, 114th Cong. (2015).
11
Having said all that, I reiterate that we do not assert any institutional
capability to provide, recommend, or in the absence of a case or controversy,
pass on the propriety of FISCʹs deliberations. As Judge Lynch’s opinion makes
clear, it is Congress that must decide in the first instance under what
circumstance the government can obtain data touching upon conflicting national
security and personal privacy interests.
Recognition of the dangers to the fundamental rights of citizens that
inevitably arise when the nation attempts effectively to treat grave external
threats to lives and property was not dependent on the creation of telephone
metadata or the preparation of secret reports on the origin of the Vietnam War.
It is as old as the Republic.
Safety from external danger is the most powerful director of national
conduct. Even the ardent love of liberty will, after a time, give way to its
dictates. The violent destruction of life and property incident to war, the
continual effort and alarm attendant on a state of continual danger, will
compel nations the most attached to liberty to resort for repose and
security to institutions which have a tendency to destroy their civil and
But see Letter from Hon. John D. Bates, Director, Admin. Office of the U.S. Courts, to
Hon. Dianne Feinstein, Chairman, Select Comm. on Intelligence, U.S. Senate (Jan. 13,
2014) (arguing that ʺ[t]he participation of a privacy advocate is unnecessary—and could
prove counterproductive—in the vast majority of FISA matters, which involve the
application of a probable cause or other factual standard to case‐specific facts and
typically implicate the privacy interests of few persons other than the specified
targetsʺ).
12
political rights. To be more safe, they at length become willing to run the
risk of being less free.
The Federalist No. 8 (Alexander Hamilton). We judges have an often critical part
to play in resolving these issues, but only by addressing them in individual cases,
according to the law and Constitution, and as best we can.
13