v. Arapahoe Cnty. Court

The summaries of the Colorado Court of Appeals published opinions
constitute no part of the opinion of the division but have been prepared by
the division for the convenience of the reader. The summaries may not be
cited or relied upon as they are not the official language of the division.
Any discrepancy between the language in the summary and in the opinion
should be resolved in favor of the language in the opinion.

SUMMARY
July 9, 2020

2020COA104

No. 19CA0393, Gonzales v. Arapahoe Cnty. Court — Persons
Required to Report Child Abuse or Neglect; Courts and Court
Procedure — Limitation of Actions

As a matter of first impression, a division of the court of

appeals considers whether a mandatory reporter’s willful failure to

report child abuse or neglect under section 19-3-304, C.R.S. 2019,

constitutes a continuing offense for the purposes of determining

when the statute of limitations period begins to run. In the absence

of clear legislative intent, the division concludes that failure to

report is not a continuing offense, and that the statute of

limitations begins to run when a mandatory reporter has reason to

know or suspect child abuse or neglect but willfully fails to make an

immediate report.
 In a related case announced this same day, MacIntosh v.

People, 2020 COA 105, another division of this court reaches the

same conclusion based on the plain language of the statute. The

division here does not agree that the plain language of the statute

unambiguously and inexorably compels that result. Instead, after

applying the appropriate rules of statutory construction and

consulting legislative history, the division simply cannot conclude

that the General Assembly assuredly intended failure to report to be

a continuing offense.
COLORADO COURT OF APPEALS 2020COA104

Court of Appeals No. 19CA0393
Arapahoe County District Court No. 18CV31913
Honorable Stephen J. Schapanski, Judge

David Gonzales,

Plaintiff-Appellee,

v.

County Court of Arapahoe and the Honorable Cheryl Rowles-Stokes, Judge,

Defendants-Appellants.

ORDER AFFIRMED

Division VII
Opinion by JUDGE BROWN
Fox and Navarro, JJ., concur

Announced July 9, 2020

Recht Kornfeld P.C., David M. Beller, Andrew E. Ho, Denver, Colorado, for
Plaintiff-Appellee

Philip J. Weiser, Attorney General, Emily Buckley, Assistant Attorney General,
Michael Kotlarczyk, Assistant Attorney General, Denver, Colorado, for
Defendants-Appellants
¶1 In this C.R.C.P. 106(a)(4) action, we consider whether a

mandatory reporter’s willful failure to report child abuse or neglect

constitutes a continuing offense such that the statute of limitations

does not begin to run until a report is made or law enforcement

discovers the failure to report.

¶2 Under section 19-3-304(1)(a), C.R.S. 2019 (the failure to report

statute), any mandatory reporter

who has reasonable cause to know or suspect
that a child has been subjected to abuse or
neglect . . . shall immediately upon receiving
such information report or cause a report to be
made of such fact to the county department,
the local law enforcement agency, or through
the child abuse reporting hotline system . . . .

Any mandatory reporter “who willfully violates” the reporting

requirement commits a class 3 misdemeanor. § 19-3-304(4).

¶3 But when does the statute of limitations begin to run on this

misdemeanor offense? Is it triggered the moment the mandatory

reporter willfully fails to immediately report the child abuse or

neglect? Or is it tolled until a report is finally made or the failure to

report is discovered?

¶4 In a related case, MacIntosh v. People, 2020 COA 105, another

division of this court holds that the plain language of section 19-3-

1
 304 dictates that willful failure to report is not a continuing offense,

and that the statute of limitations begins to run when a mandatory

reporter has reason to know or suspect child abuse or neglect but

willfully fails to make an immediate report. We agree with the

MacIntosh division’s conclusion, albeit on slightly different grounds.

¶5 We do not agree that the plain language of the statute

unambiguously and inexorably compels our holding; instead, after

applying the appropriate rules of statutory construction and

consulting legislative history, we simply cannot conclude that the

General Assembly assuredly intended failure to report to be a

continuing offense. In the absence of clear legislative intent, we

must conclude that failure to report is not a continuing offense, and

that the statute of limitations begins to run when a mandatory

reporter has reason to know or suspect child abuse or neglect but

willfully fails to make an immediate report.

¶6 Accordingly, we conclude the Arapahoe County Court and the

Honorable Cheryl Rowles-Stokes (collectively, the County Court)

erred by denying David Gonzales’s motion to dismiss the charge of

failure to report when the limitations period had expired before the

charge was filed.

2
 I. Background

¶7 The People allege that in April 2013, C.V., a female student at

Prairie Middle School, told another student that when she was

fourteen she had a sexual relationship with a teacher, Brian

Vasquez. According to the People, the student’s allegation was

disclosed to the school’s dean, but rather than report the abuse, the

dean met with C.V. and asked her to reconsider her allegation given

the consequences that it could have for Vasquez.

¶8 The dean then took C.V. to meet with Gonzales, the principal

of Prairie Middle School. As a public school official, it is undisputed

that Gonzales is a mandatory reporter under section 19-3-304(2)(l).

The People allege Gonzales questioned C.V., again stressing the

consequences that her accusations would have for Vasquez.

¶9 Ultimately, C.V. retracted her claim. She was subject to

disciplinary proceedings, after which she was suspended from

school for purportedly falsifying an allegation against Vasquez.

Gonzales never reported C.V.’s sexual assault allegation, as

required by the failure to report statute.

¶ 10 In August 2017, police interviewed Vasquez regarding

allegations of sexual abuse pertaining to a different student.

3
 Vasquez confessed to sexually abusing numerous students —

including C.V. — starting in 2013.

¶ 11 In January 2018, after a grand jury hearing, Gonzales was

indicted on one count of failure to report child abuse in violation of

section 19-3-304(1)(a). At the time Gonzales was charged, the

statutory limitations period for his alleged offense was eighteen

months. § 16-5-401(1)(a), C.R.S. 2018.1 Accordingly, Gonzales

moved to dismiss the indictment, asserting that his prosecution

was initiated after the limitations period had expired in October

2014.

¶ 12 The People countered that the duty to report is a continuing

obligation, failure to meet that obligation is a continuing offense,

and the statute of limitations was not triggered until law

enforcement discovered the alleged nondisclosure in August 2017.

The County Court denied Gonzales’s motion, concluding that the

1 In March 2019, the General Assembly established a three-year
statute of limitations on a mandatory reporter’s failure to report
known or suspected “unlawful sexual behavior as defined in section
16-22-102(9)” involving a child. § 19-3-304(5), C.R.S. 2019; see Ch.
56, sec. 1, § 19-3-304(5), 2019 Colo. Sess. Laws 195.

4
 General Assembly intended failure to report child abuse to be a

continuing offense.

¶ 13 Gonzales challenged the County Court’s order through a

C.R.C.P. 106(a)(4) action in the district court. In a detailed order,

the district court concluded that failure to report is not a continuing

offense and ordered the County Court to dismiss the criminal case.

¶ 14 The County Court appeals, contending that the district court

erred by finding that Gonzales’s prosecution was barred by the

applicable statute of limitations because failure to report

constitutes a continuing offense.

II. Standard of Review and Applicable Law

A. Rule 106(a)(4)

¶ 15 An original proceeding under C.R.C.P. 106 is a proper avenue

for challenging the county court’s jurisdiction to proceed on

criminal charges. See Huang v. Cty. Court, 98 P.3d 924, 927 (Colo.

App. 2004). This is in contrast to an appeal challenging a county

court conviction or seeking review of the county court’s rulings

during the course of a criminal case properly before the county

court, which must be pursued in the district court. See § 13-6-

310(1), C.R.S. 2019; Crim. P. 37. And any further review of a

5
 district court’s decision on appeal from the county court is solely

via a petition for writ of certiorari to the supreme court. § 13-6-

310(4); Crim. P. 37(h); see also § 13-4-102(1)(f), C.R.S. 2019. But

appellate review of the district court’s decision in an original Rule

106 action is within our purview. § 13-4-102(1); see also Huang, 98

P.3d at 927.

¶ 16 In a proceeding under C.R.C.P. 106(a)(4), district court review

of a county court’s ruling is limited to whether the county court

exceeded its jurisdiction or abused its discretion when there is no

plain, speedy, or adequate remedy otherwise provided by law.

Huang, 98 P.3d at 928. The district court’s review is based on the

evidence in the record before the county court. City & Cty. of

Denver v. Cty. Court, 37 P.3d 453, 455-56 (Colo. App. 2001). A

county court abuses its discretion under Rule 106(a)(4) by

misconstruing or misapplying the law. Roalstad v. City of Lafayette,

2015 COA 146, ¶ 13.

¶ 17 On appeal from a district court’s decision in a Rule 106 action,

we are in the same position as the district court, so we review the

district court’s decision de novo to assess whether the county court

6
 exceeded its jurisdiction or abused its discretion. Berges v. Cty.

Court, 2016 COA 146, ¶ 6.

B. Statute of Limitations and Continuing Offenses

¶ 18 “The purpose of a statute of limitations is to limit exposure to

criminal prosecution to a certain fixed period of time following the

occurrence of those acts the legislature has decided to punish by

criminal sanctions.” Toussie v. United States, 397 U.S. 112, 114

(1970). Criminal statutes of limitation are designed to protect

individuals from having to defend themselves against charges when

the facts have been obscured by the passage of time, to minimize

the danger of punishment for acts in the far-distant past, and to

encourage law enforcement to promptly investigate suspected

criminal activity. Id. at 114-15. For these reasons, criminal

statutes of limitation are to be liberally construed in a favor of the

defendant. Id. at 115.

¶ 19 A statute of limitations typically begins to run when the crime

is complete. People v. Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d 1188, 1192 (Colo.

2003). In certain circumstances, however, a crime continues

beyond the first moment when all its substantive elements are

satisfied. Id. With a continuing offense, the statute of limitations

7
 does not begin to run so long as the illegal conduct continues. Id.

at 1193.

¶ 20 Because there is a tension between the purpose of a statute of

limitations and the continuing offense doctrine, the doctrine should

only be applied in limited circumstances. Id.; People v. Perez, 129

P.3d 1090, 1092 (Colo. App. 2005) (“There is a presumption against

a crime being a continuing offense.”). An offense should be

considered continuing only if (1) “the explicit language of the

substantive criminal statute compels such a conclusion” or (2) “the

nature of the crime involved is such that [the legislature] must

assuredly have intended that it be treated as a continuing one.”

Toussie, 397 U.S. at 115; see also Allman v. People, 2019 CO 78,

¶ 12; Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d at 1193.

¶ 21 Determining whether an offense is continuing is a matter of

statutory interpretation, which we review de novo. Allman, ¶ 10.

¶ 22 When construing a statute, we must ascertain and give effect

to the intent of the General Assembly. State v. Nieto, 993 P.2d 493,

500 (Colo. 2000). To determine legislative intent, we look first to

the plain language of the statute. Id. We read words and phrases

in context and construe them literally according to common usage.

8
 People v. Yascavage, 101 P.3d 1090, 1093 (Colo. 2004). We

consider the statute as a whole, construing each provision

consistently and in harmony with the overall statutory design.

Allman, ¶ 13.

¶ 23 If the statutory language is clear and unambiguous, we do not

resort to any further rules of statutory construction; we enforce the

statute as written. Id.; Nieto, 993 P.2d at 500. However, where the

words chosen by the legislature are capable of two or more

reasonable constructions leading to different results, the statute is

ambiguous. Carrera v. People, 2019 CO 83, ¶ 22; Nieto, 993 P.2d at

500-01. If the statute is ambiguous, we may rely on other

interpretive aids such as legislative history, the General Assembly’s

declaration of purpose, the consequences of a given construction,

and the end to be achieved by the statute. § 2-4-203, C.R.S. 2019;

Yascavage, 101 P.3d at 1093; Nieto, 993 P.2d at 501; McLaughlin v.

Oxley, 2012 COA 114, ¶ 10.

III. Analysis

A. The Failure to Report Statute is Ambiguous

¶ 24 Gonzales was charged with failing to report child abuse or

neglect in violation of section 19-3-304. As noted, that statute

9
 requires that a mandatory reporter “who has reasonable cause to

know or suspect that a child has been subjected to abuse or neglect

. . . shall immediately upon receiving such information” make a

report. § 19-3-304(1)(a). A mandatory reporter who “willfully

violates the provisions of subsection (1)” commits a class 3

misdemeanor. § 19-3-304(4).

¶ 25 We are tasked with deciding whether failure to report is a

continuing offense such that the statute of limitations does not

begin to run until the mandatory reporter at issue makes a tardy

report or until law enforcement discovers the crime.

¶ 26 It is undisputed that “the explicit language of the substantive

criminal statute” does not answer the question. See Toussie, 397

U.S. at 115. The General Assembly did not define failure to report

as a continuing offense as it has so defined other crimes. See, e.g.,

§ 18-2-204(1), C.R.S. 2019 (defining conspiracy as a “continuing

course of conduct”); § 18-8-201(2), C.R.S. 2019 (defining escape as

“a continuing activity”).

¶ 27 So, we must turn to the alternative test and determine

whether the nature of the crime involved is such that the General

Assembly “must assuredly have intended that it be treated as a

10
 continuing one.” Toussie, 397 U.S. at 115; see Allman, ¶ 14. And

we begin by looking to the plain language of the statute. Allman, ¶

15.

¶ 28 Although the parties focus on different words in the statute,

both contend that the plain language supports their respective

interpretations. The County Court focuses on the language that

requires a mandatory reporter to make a report when he “has

reasonable cause” to know or suspect child abuse. § 19-3-304(1)(a)

(emphasis added). Relying on the dictionary definition of “have,”

see Webster’s Third New International Dictionary 1039 (2002)

(defining “have” to mean “to hold in possession as property” and “to

hold, keep or retain”), the County Court argues that the General

Assembly intended to create a duty to report that continues so long

as the mandatory reporter possesses knowledge or suspicion of

child abuse. According to the County Court, because the duty to

report continues the entire time a mandatory reporter “continues to

have, possess, or retain” such information, the mandatory reporter

continues to violate the statute each and every day he does not

make a report.

11
¶ 29 But Gonzales focuses on the General Assembly’s use of the

words “shall immediately . . . report,” § 19-3-304(1)(a) (emphasis

added), to argue that the statute requires that the mandatory

reporter complete a discrete act at a specific time — make a report

immediately. According to Gonzales, the crime is complete (and the

statute is violated just once) when, upon receiving information that

would cause the mandatory reporter to know or suspect child

abuse, he fails to “immediately” report it.

¶ 30 For guidance in determining whether a crime is a continuing

offense, we look to the Colorado Supreme Court’s decision in

Allman, ¶ 20, which held that identity theft by use was not a

continuing offense. Under section 18-5-902(1)(a), C.R.S. 2019, a

person commits identify theft by use when he “‘[k]nowingly uses the

personal identifying information, financial identifying information,

or financial device of another without permission,’ with the intent to

gain something of value.” Allman, ¶ 15 (citation omitted). The court

reasoned that each use of someone’s personal information is a

discrete act with its own new harm. Id. at ¶ 18.

¶ 31 The court contrasted identity theft by use with identity theft by

possession. Id. at ¶ 19. The court explained that “[i]dentity theft by

12
 possession . . . is defined similarly to identity theft by use . . .

except that it requires only the possession of another’s identifying

or financial information with the intent to use, rather than the

actual use of that information.” Id. The court reasoned that a “use”

is “a discrete act that logically creates a unit of measurement,”

while a crime of possession is generally thought to be continuing

because “there is not an inherently logical way to measure

possession in units.” Id. (citing People v. Zuniga, 80 P.3d 965, 969

(Colo. App. 2003)).

¶ 32 Like the division in MacIntosh, ¶ 28, we read Allman to mean

that a criminal offense is not a continuing offense if it arises from “a

discrete act that logically creates a unit of measurement.” Allman,

¶ 19. But the Allman rubric does not readily apply here.

¶ 33 An affirmative act, like a “use” of someone else’s personal

identifying information, is easy to speak of in terms of “discrete

acts” and “measurable units.” There is a clear beginning and clear

end to the act, and it is easy to distinguish one act from another

because each new act causes a new “harm.” See id. at ¶ 18 (“[E]ach

act of putting another’s information into service for varying

purposes constitutes a separate, discrete act. This conclusion is

13
 supported by the fact that each time an identity thief uses another’s

information, a new harm occurs.”).

¶ 34 Because failure to report is a crime of omission, however, it is

not easy to speak of in terms of “discrete acts” or “measurable

units.” True, by using the word “immediately” in section 19-3-

304(1)(a), the General Assembly could have intended to criminalize

a discrete omission — a single failure to report. And it could have

intended that omission to have a measurable unit — the moment

the mandatory reporter receives information causing him to know

or suspect child abuse and willfully fails to “immediately” report it.

¶ 35 But because “immediately” is not defined in the statute, it is

unclear to us what the “measurable unit” of the crime is. How

many seconds, minutes, hours, or days must pass between the

mandatory reporter’s receipt of information from which he has

cause to know or suspect child abuse and his report of that

information for a violation of the statute to occur? Unfortunately,

the dictionary definition of “immediately” — “without interval of

time” or “in direct connection or relation,” Merriam-Webster

Dictionary, https://perma.cc/3B3T-JKYK — does not aid our

14
 analysis. Even applying this definition, it is unclear when the

omission criminalized by the statute begins and ends.

¶ 36 More importantly, under Gonzales’s interpretation, a

mandatory reporter is essentially relieved of any continuing duty to

report child abuse once he fails to immediately report it. And there

is the rub. There is no dispute that the statute is violated upon a

mandatory reporter’s willful failure to make an “immediate” report

of known or suspected child abuse. What remains in dispute is

whether there is an ongoing duty to report that continues beyond

the immediate failure to report. Although the General Assembly

used the word “immediately” for a reason, see Dep’t of Transp. v.

Stapleton, 97 P.3d 938, 943 (Colo. 2004) (“[W]e presume that the

General Assembly understands the legal import of the words it uses

and does not use language idly, but rather intends that meaning

should be given to each word.”), it is not clear to us that the reason

was to extinguish a mandatory reporter’s duty to report after a

passage of time. It is equally reasonable, as the County Court

argues, that the General Assembly used the word “immediately”

simply to signify the importance of the duty and encourage the

quick reporting of abuse.

15
¶ 37 Thus, it is reasonable to read the statute as creating an

ongoing duty to report child abuse that is continuously violated so

long as the mandatory reporter has cause to know or suspect child

abuse and willfully fails to report it. And it is also reasonable to

read the statute as creating only a discrete obligation that is

violated when a mandatory reporter willfully fails to make an

immediate report upon receipt of information that would cause him

to know or suspect child abuse.

¶ 38 Based on the plain language of the statute, we cannot

determine whether the General Assembly “must assuredly have

intended” to treat failure to report as a continuing offense. Toussie,

397 U.S. at 115; see Allman, ¶ 12; Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d at

1193. Because we conclude that the statute is ambiguous, we turn

to other tools of statutory construction to guide our analysis.

B. Other Continuing Offenses

¶ 39 The parties refer us to case law addressing other crimes that

have been deemed to be continuing offenses in Colorado and in

other jurisdictions. Unfortunately, these cases do not shed much

light on whether the “nature” of the crime of failure to report as

defined in section 19-3-304 is such that the General Assembly

16
 “must assuredly have intended that it be treated as a continuing

one.” Toussie, 397 U.S. at 115.

¶ 40 In People v. Johnson, 2013 COA 122, a division of this court

considered whether the crime of escape from custody was a

continuing offense. Turning first to the statutory text, the division

noted that “escape” was not defined as a continuing activity in the

crime’s elemental statute. Id. at ¶ 14; see § 18-8-208(1), C.R.S.

2019. But the division looked at the definition of “escape” in a

related provision criminalizing aiding and abetting an escapee.

Johnson, ¶ 18. Under that provision, an “escape” is “deemed to be

a continuing activity commencing with the conception of the design

to escape and continuing until the escapee is returned to custody or

the attempt to escape is thwarted or abandoned.” § 18-8-201(2).

The division reasoned that it would be “illogical for the General

Assembly to treat escape as a continuing offense in the context of

aiding escape, but not to do so in the context of the substantive

offense itself.” Johnson, ¶ 20. Thus, reading these provisions

together, the division concluded that the legislature must have

intended for escape to be a continuing offense. Id. Therefore,

although the crime of escape was not explicitly defined as a

17
 continuing offense, the division was able to discern the General

Assembly’s clear intent to treat it as one by examining the overall

statutory scheme. See id. at ¶ 8 (“[W]e read and consider the

statute as a whole, interpreting it in a manner that gives consistent,

harmonious, and sensible effect to all its parts.”); see also Allman,

¶ 13 (“[W]e consider ‘the statute as a whole, construing each

provision consistently and in harmony with the overall statutory

design.’” (quoting Whitaker v. People, 48 P.3d 555, 558 (Colo.

2002))).

¶ 41 Unlike in Johnson, no other related statutory provisions

define, imply, suggest, or refer to the crime of failure to report as a

continuing offense.

¶ 42 In Perez, a division of this court concluded that the crime of

criminal impersonation could be a continuing offense or could

occur at a specific time. 129 P.3d at 1092-93. To commit criminal

impersonation, one must “knowingly . . . [a]ssume[] a false or

fictitious identity.” § 18-5-113(1)(a), C.R.S. 2019. Relying on the

dictionary definition of “assume” as “to invest oneself with (a form,

attribute, or aspect),” the division concluded that the plain language

of the statute “implies that the offense of criminal impersonation

18
 may occur over a period of time rather than at a specific moment.”

Perez, 129 P.3d at 1092-93 (quoting Webster’s Third New

International Dictionary 133 (1986)). Because the defendant

impersonated the victim beginning as early as 1996 and continuing

until 2003, the division concluded that the defendant’s criminal

impersonation was a continuing offense. Id. at 1093.

¶ 43 In Zuniga, a division of this court concluded that theft by

receiving was a continuing offense. 80 P.3d at 969-70. Under the

then-existing statute, a person committed theft by receiving when

he “retain[ed] . . . anything of value of another, knowing or believing

that said thing of value ha[d] been stolen, and when he intend[ed] to

deprive the lawful owner permanently of the use or benefit of the

thing of value.” § 18-4-410(1), C.R.S. 2002. Noting that the

operative word “retain” was not defined in the statute, the division

turned to the dictionary, which defined “retain” to mean “to keep in

possession or use.” Zuniga, 80 P.3d at 969 (quoting Webster’s

Third New International Dictionary 1938 (1986)). Relying on this

definition, the division reasoned that the legislature intended the

theft by receiving statute to include the offense of possession of

stolen property and explained that a “defendant necessarily

19
 continues to commit any crime involving possession . . . during the

entire period he or she possesses the property.” Id.

¶ 44 Most recently, as explained above, the Colorado Supreme

Court in Allman held that identity theft by use was not a continuing

offense by contrasting it with the related crime of identity theft by

possession. Allman, ¶¶ 19-20. The court explained that crimes of

possession are generally thought to be continuing offenses. Id.

(citing Zuniga, 80 P.3d at 969).

¶ 45 Unlike the crimes of escape from custody, criminal

impersonation, theft by receiving, and identity theft by possession,

section 19-3-304 does not criminalize an affirmative, ongoing act.

Having cause to know or suspect child abuse triggers a mandatory

reporter’s obligation under 19-3-304(1)(a). But the crime is not

possessing such information; the crime is failing to immediately

report it. Failure to report is a crime of omission. In this way, the

nature of the crime is markedly different from those discussed in

Johnson, Perez, Zuniga, and Allman.

¶ 46 Still, a crime of omission may be a continuing offense when

the statute imposes a duty that persists until a defendant performs.

See Wright v. Superior Court, 936 P.2d 101, 103 (Cal. 1997)

20
 (“Ordinarily, a continuing offense is marked by a continuing duty in

the defendant to do an act which he fails to do. The offense

continues as long as the duty persists, and there is a failure to

perform that duty.”) (citation omitted). So, the fact that the crime of

failure to report is committed the moment an immediate report is

not made does not end the analysis. See Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d

at 1192 (“[I]n certain circumstances, a crime continues beyond the

first moment when all its substantive elements are satisfied.”).

¶ 47 In People v. Lopez, 140 P.3d 106, 109 (Colo. App. 2005), a

division of this court determined that the failure to register as a sex

offender — a crime of omission — is a continuing offense. The

division concluded that offenders in Colorado are “under a

continuing obligation to register.” Id. That conclusion turned on

the language of the statute itself, which explicitly imposed an

ongoing obligation on the defendant to register quarterly and notify

the authorities of any change in address. Id. Thus, the division

concluded that, for failing to register as a sex offender, “[a]

defendant does not commit the crime only at the particular moment

the obligation arises, but every day it remains unsatisfied.” Id. at

21
 108-09 (quoting State v. Goldberg, 819 So. 2d 123, 129 (Ala. Crim.

App. 2001)).

¶ 48 Failure to report under section 19-3-304, like the failure to

register as a sex offender, is a crime of omission that is committed

when a defendant breaches a statutory duty to act. Unlike the sex

offender registration statute, however, section 19-3-304 does not

contain an explicit, ongoing, periodic reporting obligation.

¶ 49 The County Court relies on Lebo v. State, 977 N.E.2d 1031,

1037 (Ind. Ct. App. 2012), where the Indiana Court of Appeals

concluded that violation of Indiana’s mandatory reporter statute

constituted a continuing offense for the purposes of the statute of

limitations. Like section 19-3-304, the Indiana statute requires

that mandatory reporters who have reason to believe a child is

abused or neglected “shall immediately make an oral or written

report.” Ind. Code §§ 31-33-5-1, 31-33-5-4 (2020). However, the

Indiana statute also includes the following provision: “This chapter

does not relieve an individual of the obligation to report on the

individual’s own behalf, unless a report has already been made to

the best of the individual’s belief.” Ind. Code § 31-33-5-3 (2020).

22
¶ 50 Based on the language of the statute, the Indiana court

reasoned that “[a]n individual who has not been ‘relieved’ of his

duty to report must be considered to have a continuing duty to do

so.” Lebo, 977 N.E.2d at 1037. According to the court, a contrary

reading would frustrate the purpose of the statute and would allow

a mandatory reporter to avoid prosecution if the individual’s failure

to report was not discovered until after the statute of limitations

had elapsed. Id.

¶ 51 While Indiana’s mandatory reporter statute is similar to

section 19-3-304 in that they both require the immediate reporting

of child abuse, section 19-3-304 contains no language explaining

how long the duty to report lasts (e.g., unless a report has already

been made).

¶ 52 The County Court also cites State v. Kaiser, 139 S.W.3d 545,

555 (Mo. Ct. App. 2004), where the Missouri Court of Appeals held

that the offense of failure to report elder abuse under Missouri law

was a continuing offense. The court reasoned that

failure to report elderly abuse is a crime of
omission and, as such, is a continuing crime
that is not complete at the time of the initial
failure to report, but rather continues so long
as the duty to report exists. If we adopted [the

23
 defendant’s] line of reasoning, it would mean
the law imposed no duty on a caretaker to
report abuse after they first knew of the abuse
and then failed to report it. To the contrary,
we think the duty to report must continue at
least so long as the report of abuse may
operate to ameliorate the circumstances of
either the victim or another similarly-situated
senior citizen, or to bring the abuser to justice.

Id.

¶ 53 Kaiser is not instructive here because the court did not apply

the continuing offense analysis articulated in Toussie and adopted

by the Colorado Supreme Court in Thoro Products. Instead, the

Missouri court simply concluded that because elder abuse was a

crime of omission, it was necessarily a continuing offense. But not

all crimes of omission are continuing offenses. See, e.g., Toussie,

397 U.S. at 120-23 (concluding that the failure to register for the

draft, a crime of omission, was not a continuing offense); State v.

Taylor, 349 P.3d 696, 701-02 (Utah 2015) (concluding that

securities fraud statute that prohibited “mak[ing] any untrue

statement [or] . . . omit[ing] to state a material fact” described

discrete acts that did not constitute continuing offenses (quoting

Utah Code Ann. § 61-1-1 (West 2020))).

24
¶ 54 Finally, the County Court cites United States v. Canal Barge

Co., 631 F.3d 347, 351-54 (6th Cir. 2011), where the Sixth Circuit

held that the duty to “immediately” notify the coast guard of a

hazardous condition was a continuing offense for venue purposes.

There, a barge carrying benzene was travelling down a river when it

began to leak. Id. at 350. Rather than immediately report the

condition, defendants placed a patch over the leak that held for

several days. Id. However, further down the river, the patch failed,

and a report was made. Id. The question before the court was

whether the duty to report continued such that venue was proper in

both the district where the immediate failure to report occurred and

the district where the leak was ultimately reported. The court

reasoned that “the ‘immediate’ start of the obligation does not mean

that the obligation ceases as soon as there has been some delay in

reporting.” Id. at 352.

¶ 55 However, “the ‘continuing offense’ analysis for venue purposes

is ‘obviously different’ from the ‘continuing offense’ analysis for

statute of limitations.” United States v. Reitmeyer, 356 F.3d 1313,

1323 (10th Cir. 2004) (citation omitted). An offense may continue

in different geographic locations for venue purposes without

25
 qualifying as a continuing offense for statute of limitations

purposes. Id. Indeed, the Canal court recognized this important

distinction, noting that

[i]f the crime is deemed to be a continuing
offense for venue purposes, the defendant is
merely exposed to prosecution in a different
district. But if the crime is a continuing
offense for statute of limitations purposes, the
defendant may be prosecuted after a time at
which he would otherwise have no exposure
whatsoever. Thus, interpreting a crime as a
continuing offense for statute of limitations
purposes has more serious consequences than
it does in the context of venue.

Canal Barge Co., 631 F.3d at 353.

¶ 56 In the end, we do not find these cases particularly persuasive.

Failure to report is a crime of omission that is unlike that of other

crimes that have been found to be continuing offenses in Colorado,

and the language of section 19-3-304 is unlike other statutes

establishing crimes of omission as continuing offenses.

C. Legislative History and Declaration of Purpose

¶ 57 The parties do not cite, and our own research has not

revealed, relevant legislative history compelling us to conclude, one

way or the other, whether failure to report is a continuing offense.

Examining the statute’s declaration of purpose is equally unhelpful.

26
¶ 58 The County Court argues that the legislative declaration

accompanying the Child Protection Act (the Act) establishes that the

failure to report child abuse is a continuing offense. The legislative

declaration states:

The general assembly declares that the
complete reporting of child abuse is a matter of
public concern and that, in enacting this part
3, it is the intent of the general assembly to
protect the best interests of children of this
state and to offer protective services in order to
prevent any further harm to a child suffering
from abuse.

§ 19-3-302, C.R.S. 2019 (emphasis added).

¶ 59 The County Court argues that the only way to ensure the

“complete reporting of child abuse” is to impose a continuing duty

on mandatory reporters to report abuse. It asserts that if the

reporting obligation expires instantaneously after the failure to

make an immediate report, it would frustrate the General

Assembly’s intent to “prevent any further harm” to children. Thus,

to achieve the declared purpose of the statute, the General

Assembly must have intended for failure to report to be a

continuing crime.

27
¶ 60 We agree that the state has a compelling interest in protecting

children and ending child abuse that is furthered by requiring

mandatory reporters to promptly report known or suspected abuse.

And we agree that this purpose is frustrated when a mandatory

reporter who fails to fulfil his statutory obligation escapes liability

by staying silent until the limitations period expires.

¶ 61 But we also note that the legislative declaration was enacted in

1975 as part of a comprehensive reform of the Act designed to more

effectively prevent and address child abuse. Ch. 177, sec. 1, §§ 19-

10-101 to -115, 1975 Colo. Sess. Laws 645-55. And section 19-3-

302 still serves as the legislative declaration for the entire Act,

which includes provisions addressing, among other things,

emergency placement of abandoned children, evidence gathering

during investigations of child abuse or neglect, recorded interviews

of children concerning reports of abuse, assessments by county

departments of human or social services, establishment and

participation in safety plans, and creation of a differential response

program for low- or moderate-risk abuse or neglect. Nothing in the

legislative declaration addresses whether section 19-3-304 creates a

continuing duty or whether failure to report is a continuing offense.

28
 Rather, the legislative declaration speaks to a much broader intent

of the General Assembly in enacting the whole of the Act.

¶ 62 As to the failure to report statute itself, the parties did not cite,

and we could not find, legislative history speaking to how long a

mandatory reporter’s duty to report persists. The amendments to

the statute also reveal very little in this regard.

¶ 63 Before 1975, a mandatory reporter who had “reasonable cause

to believe that a child has been subject to abuse” was required to

“report such incident or cause a report to be made to the proper law

enforcement agency.” § 19-10-102, C.R.S. 1973. The word

“immediately” was added to the statute in 1975, requiring

mandatory reporters “who [have] reasonable cause to know or

suspect” child abuse or neglect to “immediately report or cause a

report to be made.” § 19-10-104, C.R.S. 1975 (emphasis added).

¶ 64 There is no indication in the legislative history that the

General Assembly intended the word “immediately” to affect the

duration of a mandatory reporter’s reporting obligation. Rather, it

appears to have been added as part of the Act’s overarching goal to

encourage the expeditious reporting and investigation of child

abuse. Indeed, the word “immediately” was included in several

29
 other provisions of the Act at the same time. See § 19-10-105,

C.R.S. 1975 (requiring any person to immediately report the death

of a child from known or suspected abuse or neglect); § 19-10-106,

C.R.S. 1975 (requiring that x-rays evidencing abuse be forwarded

immediately to the receiving agency); § 19-10-108(3), C.R.S. 1975

(requiring a receiving agency to immediately transmit a report of

known or suspected abuse to the district attorney and local law

enforcement); § 19-10-109, C.R.S. 1975 (requiring a receiving

agency to immediately investigate reports of known or suspected

abuse or neglect).

¶ 65 Since 1975, the reporting statute has been amended several

times, most notably in 2002 when the General Assembly amended

the statute to add the language (“upon receiving such information”)

that now appears after the word “immediately.” Ch. 177, sec. 2,

§ 19-3-304, 2002 Colo. Sess. Laws 568-69. While this amendment

further clarified the timeframe for when a report must be made,

there is no indication that the General Assembly intended to alter

the scope or duration of the reporting obligation.

30
¶ 66 Ultimately, neither the legislative declaration of the Act nor the

legislative history of the reporting statute helps us determine

whether failure to report is a continuing offense.

D. Consequences of the County Court’s Construction

¶ 67 Finally, the County Court argues that allowing a mandatory

reporter who stays silent for eighteen months to escape penalty for

his failure to report leads to an absurd result that subverts the

purpose of the statute to protect children from further abuse. But

adopting the County Court’s reasoning would allow for an indefinite

delay in triggering the limitations period. It could lead to

circumstances where a mandatory reporter would be subject to

prosecution decades after his initial failure to make an immediate

report. This would put failure to report, a class 3 misdemeanor, in

a similar category to felonies such as murder and kidnapping that

have no time limit for commencing prosecution. See § 16-5-

401(1)(a), C.R.S. 2019 (listing the statute of limitations for offenses,

including those with no limitations period).

¶ 68 “While there is a risk that an offender will conceal his

misdeeds in the hopes of avoiding prosecution, this is no less a risk

here than it would be in every criminal case in which a statute of

31
 limitations exists.” Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d at 1195. And in the

absence of clear and contrary direction from the General Assembly,

in our view, the County Court’s construction leads to the more

absurd result.

E. Failure to Report is Not a Continuing Offense

¶ 69 As discussed, criminal statutes of limitation are to be liberally

interpreted in favor of defendants. Toussie, 397 U.S. at 115.

Because there is a tension between the purpose of a statute of

limitations and the continuing offense doctrine, the doctrine should

be applied in limited circumstances. Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d at

1193. Indeed, “[t]here is a presumption against a crime being a

continuing offense.” Perez, 129 P.3d at 1092. To overcome the

presumption, we must find that the General Assembly “assuredly,”

Toussie, 397 U.S. at 115, “manifestly,” Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d at

1192, or “unmistakably,” People v. McMinn, 2013 COA 94, ¶ 29

(citation omitted), intended that the crime be treated as a

continuing one.

¶ 70 In addition, criminal law must be sufficiently clear so that a

person will know what the law forbids. Thoro Prods. Co., 70 P.3d at

1198. “For this reason, ambiguity in the meaning of a criminal

32
 statute must be interpreted in favor of the defendant under the rule

of lenity.” Id. The rule of lenity is a rule of last resort. While it

should not apply to defeat the evident intent of the General

Assembly, it should apply if, after utilizing various aids of statutory

construction, the General Assembly’s intent remains obscured. Id.

(first citing Muscarello v. United States, 524 U.S. 125, 138 (1998);

then citing United States v. Wilson, 10 F.3d 734, 736 (10th Cir.

1993)).

¶ 71 We are not persuaded that the plain language of section 19-3-

304 or the interpretive aids we have examined demonstrate that the

General Assembly assuredly intended that failure to report be a

continuing offense. We cannot say that the broad legislative

declaration of the Act or the generic legislative history of the

reporting statute itself requires us to find that the duty to report is

ongoing or that the failure to report is a continuing offense.

¶ 72 “We do not mean that the argument in support of implying a

continuing offense in this case is insubstantial, but it is at best

highly equivocal.” Toussie, 397 U.S. at 122. Like the Court in

Toussie, we are faced with the task of construing an ambiguous

statute in one of two ways for purposes of the statute of limitations.

33
 One construction would limit prosecution to a period of eighteen

months following a failure to immediately report, while the other

could indefinitely extend when the statute of limitations begins to

run.

“[W]hen [a] choice has to be made between two
readings of what conduct [the General
Assembly] has made a crime, it is appropriate,
before we choose the harsher alternative, to
require that [the General Assembly] should
have spoken in language that is clear and
definite. We should not derive criminal
outlawry from some ambiguous implication.”

Id. (quoting United States v. Universal C.I.T. Credit Corp., 344 U.S.

218, 221-22 (1952)).

¶ 73 We also do not mean to imply that the crime of failure to

report child abuse or neglect is not a serious offense or that it is

victimless. The duty to report is a vital tool in preventing and

stopping serious harm to vulnerable victims. And compliance is

easy. All the mandatory reporter must do is pass along information

to the county department of human services, the local law

enforcement agency, or the child abuse reporting hotline.

34
¶ 74 Nonetheless, we conclude that failure to report is not a

continuing offense.2 The limitations period for this misdemeanor

begins when all the substantive elements of section 19-3-304(4) are

satisfied; that is, it begins to run when a mandatory reporter

willfully fails to make an immediate report after receiving

information that gives him reasonable cause to know or suspect

that a child has been subjected to abuse or neglect.

2 Our conclusion is buttressed by a subsequent amendment to the
statute that created a three-year statute of limitations period
specific to the crime of failure to report “unlawful sexual behavior.”
§ 19-3-304(5); see supra note 1. Although we cannot infer the
intent of an earlier General Assembly by reviewing a subsequent
amendment to a statute, see State v. Nieto, 993 P.2d 493, 503 n.6
(Colo. 2000), it is notable that the General Assembly, through the
2019 amendment, created a longer statute of limitations for failing
to report one category of child abuse but did not clarify that the
crime of failure to report is a continuing offense. On the contrary,
in support of extending the statute of limitations, the bill sponsor
argued that, under the then-existing statute of limitations,
mandatory reporters who fail to report for eighteen months and one
day “are having their cases dismissed” and “are absolved of any
responsibility.” Hearing on S.B. 19-049 before the S. Judiciary
Comm., 72d Gen. Assemb., 1st Sess. (Feb. 6, 2019). These
statements suggest a common understanding that failure to report
is not a continuing offense; if it were, a mandatory reporter would
not escape liability by remaining silent for the limitations period.

35
 IV. Conclusion

¶ 75 Gonzales was accused of failing to report C.V.’s alleged abuse

beginning in April 2013. The eighteen-month limitations period

expired in October 2014, more than three years before Gonzales

was indicted. Accordingly, we agree with the district court that the

County Court abused its discretion by ruling that the statute of

limitations did not prevent Gonzales from being prosecuted in 2018

for a 2013 failure to report in violation of section 19-3-304.

¶ 76 The district court’s order is affirmed.

JUDGE FOX and JUDGE NAVARRO concur.

36