Mattos v. Agarano

FOR PUBLICATION
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

TROY MATTOS; JAYZEL MATTOS, 
Plaintiffs-Appellees,
v.
DARREN AGARANO; RYAN AIKALA; No. 08-15567
STUART KUNIOKA; HALAYUDHA
MACKNIGHT,  D.C. No.
Defendants-Appellants, 07-CV-00220-DAE
and
MAUI COUNTY,
Defendant.

Appeal from the United States District Court
for the District of Hawaii
David A. Ezra, District Judge, Presiding

18999
19000 MATTOS v. AGARANO

MALAIKA BROOKS, 
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
CITY OF SEATTLE,
Defendant,
and No. 08-35526


STEVEN L. DAMAN, in his capacity D.C. No.
as an officer of the Seattle Police 2:06-cv-01681-RAJ
Department; DONALD M. JONES, in
his individual capacity as an OPINION
officer of the Seattle Police
Department; JUAN M. ORNELAS, in
his individual capacity as an
officer of the Seattle Police
Department,
Defendants-Appellants.

Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Western District of Washington
Richard A. Jones, District Judge, Presiding

Argued and Submitted
December 14, 2010—Pasadena, California

Filed October 17, 2011
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19001
Before: Alex Kozinski, Chief Judge, Mary M. Schroeder,
Barry G. Silverman, Susan P. Graber,
M. Margaret McKeown, Raymond C. Fisher,
Richard A. Paez, Johnnie B. Rawlinson, Richard R. Clifton,
and Carlos T. Bea, Circuit Judges.*

Opinion by Judge Paez;
Concurrence by Judge Schroeder;
Partial Concurrence and Partial Dissent by
Chief Judge Kozinski;
Partial Concurrence and Partial Dissent by Judge Silverman

*Judge Pamela A. Rymer was drawn as a member of the en banc court
for these cases. Following her recent death, we determined that it was not
necessary to draw a replacement judge.
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19005

COUNSEL

Brian T. Moto, Corporation Counsel, Laureen L. Martin,
Moana M. Lutey, Richard B. Rost, and Cheryl Tipton, Depu-
ties Corporation Counsel, Wailuku, Hawaii, for defendants-
appellants Darren Agarano, Ryan Aikala, Stuart Kunioka, and
Halayudha MacKnight.

Ted Buck and Karen L. Cobb, Stafford Frey Cooper, Seattle,
Washington, for defendants-appellants Steven Daman, Juan
Ornelas, and Donald Jones.

Eric A. Seitz, Honolulu, Hawaii, for plaintiffs-appellees Troy
Mattos and Jayzel Mattos.

Eric Zubel, Eric Zubel PC, Seattle, Washington, for plaintiff-
appellee Malaika R. Brooks.
19006 MATTOS v. AGARANO
John Burton, The Law Offices of John Burton, Pasadena, Cal-
ifornia, for the amicus curiae.

Daniel Marc Gluck, ACLU of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii, for
the amicus curiae.

Nancy Lynn Talner, ACLU of Washington Foundation,
Joseph R. Shaeffer, MacDonald Hoague & Bayless, Seattle,
Washington, for the amicus curiae.

OPINION

PAEZ, Circuit Judge:

These cases present questions about whether the use of a
taser to subdue a suspect resulted in the excessive use of force
and whether the officers are entitled to qualified immunity.1
In Brooks v. City of Seattle, Plaintiff Malaika Brooks was
tased; in Mattos v. Agarano, Plaintiff Jayzel Mattos was tased.
Both women were tased during an encounter with police offi-
cers. They subsequently filed suit under 42 U.S.C. § 1983
seeking damages for the alleged violation of their Fourth
Amendment rights. In Brooks’s case, the district court ruled
that she alleged a violation of her Fourth Amendment right to
be free from the excessive use of force when police officers
tased her and that those police officers were not entitled to
qualified immunity. In Jayzel and Troy Mattos’s case, the dis-
trict court ruled that questions of fact existed regarding
whether the use of a taser against Jayzel was constitutionally
reasonable and, therefore, denied the officers’ motion for
summary judgment on the basis of qualified immunity. Two
different panels of our court reversed the district courts and
held that the officers were entitled to qualified immunity. We
granted en banc review. We now hold that, although Plaintiffs
1
Our en banc court heard these cases together, and we have consolidated
them for disposition.
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19007
in both cases have alleged constitutional violations, the officer
Defendants are entitled to qualified immunity on Plaintiffs’
§ 1983 claims because the law was not clearly established at
the time of the incidents. We therefore reverse the district
courts’ denial of qualified immunity on these claims. In
Brooks, however, we affirm the district court’s denial of qual-
ified immunity on her state law assault and battery claims
against the defendant officers.

I. Brooks Background

On the morning of November 23, 2004, Plaintiff-Appellee
Malaika Brooks was driving her 11-year-old son to school in
Seattle, Washington. Brooks was 33 years old and seven
months pregnant at the time. The street on which Brooks was
driving had a 35-mile-per-hour posted speed limit until the
school zone began, at which point the speed limit became 20
miles per hour. When Brooks entered the school zone, she
was driving 32 miles per hour. Once in the school zone, a
Seattle police officer parked on the street measured Brooks’s
speed with a radar gun, found that she was driving faster than
20 miles per hour, and motioned for her to pull over.

Once Brooks pulled over, Seattle Police Office Juan
Ornelas approached her car. Ornelas asked Brooks how fast
she was driving and then asked her for her driver’s license.
Brooks gave Ornelas her license and then told her son to get
out of the car and walk to school, which was across the street
from where Ornelas had pulled her car over. Ornelas left,
returning five minutes later to give Brooks her driver’s license
back and inform her that he was going to cite her for a speed-
ing violation. Brooks insisted that she had not been speeding
and that she would not sign the citation. At this, Ornelas left
again.

Soon after, Officer Donald Jones approached Brooks in her
car and asked her if she was going to sign the speeding cita-
tion. Brooks again refused to sign the citation but said that she
19008 MATTOS v. AGARANO
would accept it without signing it. Jones told Brooks that
signing the citation would not constitute an admission of
guilt; her signature would simply confirm that she received
the citation. Brooks told Jones that he was lying, the two
exchanged heated words, and Jones said that if Brooks did not
sign the citation he would call his sergeant and she would go
to jail.

A few minutes later, Sergeant Steven Daman arrived at the
scene and he, too, asked Brooks if she would sign the citation.
When Brooks said no, Daman told Ornelas and Jones to
“book her.” Ornelas told Brooks to get out of the car, telling
her that she was “going to jail” and failing to reply when
Brooks asked why. Brooks refused to get out of the car. At
this point, Jones pulled out a taser and asked Brooks if she
knew what it was. Brooks indicated that she did not know
what the taser was and told the officers, “I have to go to the
bathroom, I am pregnant, I’m less than 60 days from having
my baby.” Jones then asked how pregnant Brooks was.
Brooks’s car was still running at this point.

After learning that Brooks was pregnant, Jones continued
to display the taser and talked to Ornelas about how to pro-
ceed. One of them asked “well, where do you want to do it?”
Brooks heard the other respond “well, don’t do it in her stom-
ach; do it in her thigh.” During this interchange, Jones was
standing next to Brooks’s driver’s side window, Ornelas was
standing to Jones’ left, and Daman was standing behind them
both.

After Jones and Ornelas discussed where to tase Brooks,
Ornelas opened the driver’s side door and twisted Brooks’s
arm up behind her back. Brooks stiffened her body and
clutched the steering wheel to frustrate the officers’ efforts to
remove her from the car. While Ornelas held her arm, Jones
cycled his taser, showing Brooks what it did. At some point
after Ornelas grabbed Brooks’s arm but before Jones applied
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19009
the taser to Brooks, Ornelas was able to remove the keys from
Brooks’s car ignition; the keys dropped to the floor of the car.

Twenty-seven seconds after Jones cycled his taser, with
Ornelas still holding her arm behind her back, Jones applied
the taser to Brooks’s left thigh in drive-stun mode. Brooks
began to cry and started honking her car horn. Thirty-six sec-
onds later, Jones applied the taser to Brooks’s left arm. Six
seconds later, Jones applied the taser to Brooks’s neck as she
continued to cry out and honk her car horn. After this third
tase, Brooks fell over in her car and the officers dragged her
out, laying her face down on the street and handcuffing her
hands behind her back.

The officers took Brooks to the police precinct station
where fire department paramedics examined her. The same
day, Brooks was examined at the Harborview Medical Center
by a doctor who confirmed her pregnancy and expressed
some concern about Brooks’s rapid heartbeat. After this
examination, Brooks was taken to the King County Jail.

On December 6, 2004, the City of Seattle filed a misdemea-
nor criminal complaint against Brooks, charging her with
refusal to sign an acknowledgment of a traffic citation, in vio-
lation of Seattle Municipal Code 11.59.090, and resisting
arrest, in violation of Seattle Municipal Code 12A.16.050.
Brooks was tried by a jury beginning on May 4, 2005, and
after a two-day trial the jury convicted her of failing to sign
the speeding ticket. The jury could not reach a verdict on the
resisting arrest charge, and it was dismissed.

Brooks gave birth to her daughter in January 2005. The dis-
trict court was presented with evidence that Brooks’s daughter
was born healthy, and Brooks’s counsel confirmed at oral
argument before this court that her daughter remains healthy
now. Brooks herself has not experienced any lasting injuries
from the tasing, though she does carry several permanent burn
scars from the incident.
19010 MATTOS v. AGARANO
Brooks sued Ornelas, Jones, Daman, Seattle Police Depart-
ment Chief Gil Kerlikowske, and the City of Seattle for
excessive force in violation of the Fourth Amendment; Kerli-
kowske and the City of Seattle for negligence; and Ornelas,
Jones, and Daman for assault and battery. The case is before
us on interlocutory appeal from the district court’s summary
judgment ruling that the defendant officers Daman, Jones, and
Ornelas are not entitled to qualified immunity. The district
court denied the defendants’ motion as to Brooks’s § 1983
excessive force claim against the officers, concluding that
with all the evidence construed in Brooks’s favor, she alleged
a Fourth Amendment excessive force claim and that the offi-
cers were not entitled to qualified immunity. The district court
also denied the defendants’ motion as to Brooks’s state law
assault and battery claims against the officers, concluding that
these claims presented questions for a jury and that the offi-
cers were not entitled to state qualified immunity on these
claims. The district court granted the defendants’ summary
judgment motion as to Brooks’s § 1983 and negligence claims
against Chief Kerlikowske and the City of Seattle. Thereafter,
the officers filed this interlocutory appeal. The only issue
raised on appeal by the officers is whether the district court
erred when it rejected their claim for federal qualified immu-
nity and state qualified immunity.

II. Mattos Background

On August 23, 2006, Jayzel Mattos and her husband Troy
had a domestic dispute. Around 11 p.m., Jayzel asked C.M.,
her 14-year-old daughter, to call the police, which C.M. did.
Several minutes later, Maui Police Officers Darren Agarano,
Halayudha MacKnight, and Stuart Kunioka arrived at the
Mattoses’ residence. As the officers approached the residence,
they saw Troy sitting on the top of the stairs outside the front
door with a couple of open beer bottles lying nearby. Troy is
six feet three inches tall, approximately 200 pounds, and he
smelled of alcohol when the officers arrived. Officer Ryan
Aikala arrived by himself soon after.
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19011
Kunioka approached Troy first and informed him about the
911 call. Troy told Kunioka that he and Jayzel had an argu-
ment, but he stated that nothing physical had occurred. As
Kunioka continued to question Troy, Troy became agitated
and rude. Kunioka asked Troy if he could speak to Jayzel to
ensure that she was okay. When Troy went inside to get Jay-
zel, Agarano stepped inside the residence behind him. Troy
returned with Jayzel and became angry when he saw Agarano
inside his residence. Jayzel was initially behind Troy, but she
ended up in front of him on her way to the front door to speak
with the officers. Troy yelled at Agarano to get out of the resi-
dence because he had no right to be inside. Agarano asked
Jayzel if he could speak to her outside.

Jayzel agreed to go outside, but before she could comply
with Agarano’s request, Aikala entered the residence and
stood in the middle of the living room. When Aikala
announced that Troy was under arrest, Jayzel was already
standing in front of Troy. She did not immediately move out
of the way. As Aikala moved in to arrest Troy, he pushed up
against Jayzel’s chest, at which point she “extended [her] arm
to stop [her] breasts from being smashed against Aikala’s
body.” Aikala then asked Jayzel, “Are you touching an offi-
cer?” At the same time, Jayzel was speaking to Agarano, ask-
ing why Troy was being arrested, attempting to defuse the
situation by saying that everyone should calm down and go
outside, and expressing concern that the commotion not dis-
turb her sleeping children who were in the residence.

Then, without warning, Aikala shot his taser at Jayzel in
dart-mode. Id. Jayzel “felt an incredible burning and painful
feeling locking all of [her] joints [and] muscles and [she]
f[e]ll hard on the floor.” Agarano and MacKnight handcuffed
Troy. Troy and Jayzel were taken into custody; Troy was
charged with harassment, in violation of Hawaii Revised Stat-
utes § 711-1106, and resisting arrest, in violation of Hawaii
Revised Statutes § 710-1026, and Jayzel was charged with
harassment and obstructing government operations, in viola-
19012 MATTOS v. AGARANO
tion of Hawaii Revised Statutes § 710-1010. All charges were
ultimately dropped.

The Mattoses sued the officers and others for violations of
their Fourth, Fifth, and Fourteenth Amendment rights based
on the officers’ warrantless entry into their home, their
arrests, and the officers’ use of the taser on Jayzel. The dis-
trict court granted summary judgment to the defendants on all
of the Mattoses’ claims except their Fourth Amendment
excessive force claim for the tasing. The district court con-
cluded that there were material questions of fact critical to
deciding whether the tasing was constitutionally reasonable,
which precluded a pretrial ruling on the issue of qualified
immunity. Thereafter, the officers filed this interlocutory
appeal challenging the denial of their claims to qualified
immunity.

III. Standard of Review and Jurisdiction

We review de novo a district court’s denial of summary
judgment on the basis of qualified immunity. Blanford v. Sac-
ramento County, 406 F.3d 1110, 1114 (9th Cir. 2005). Where
disputed issues of material fact exist, we assume the version
of the material facts asserted by the non-moving party. KRL
v. Estate of Moore, 512 F.3d 1184, 1188-89 (9th Cir. 2008).
We draw all reasonable inferences in favor of the non-moving
party. John v. City of El Monte, 515 F.3d 936, 941 (9th Cir.
2008). This court has jurisdiction to review the denial of qual-
ified immunity pursuant to 28 U.S.C. § 1291.2 See Mitchell v.
2
We note that a distinction exists between our ability to review a district
court’s denial of qualified immunity on summary judgment where unre-
solved issues of material fact exist, and our ability to review a district
court’s denial of summary judgment on the ground of evidentiary suffi-
ciency. We have previously explained that the former is an appealable
order while the latter is not. See Moran v. Washington, 147 F.3d 839, 844
(9th Cir. 1998) (“Because [defendant] is not contesting a determination of
evidentiary sufficiency, but, rather, is appealing the purely legal issue
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19013
Forsyth, 472 U.S. 511, 530 (1985) (holding “that a district
court’s denial of a claim of qualified immunity, to the extent
that it turns on an issue of law, is an appealable ‘final deci-
sion’ within the meaning of 28 U.S.C. § 1291 notwithstanding
the absence of a final judgment.”).

IV. Discussion

We begin by discussing qualified immunity and excessive
force generally, and then apply these doctrines to the facts in
Brooks v. City of Seattle and Mattos v. Agarano, respectively.

The Supreme Court has explained that “[t]he doctrine of
qualified immunity protects government officials ‘from liabil-
ity for civil damages insofar as their conduct does not violate
clearly established statutory or constitutional rights of which
a reasonable person would have known.’ ” Pearson v. Calla-
han, 129 S. Ct. 808, 815 (2009) (quoting Harlow v. Fitzger-
ald, 457 U.S. 800, 818 (1982)). Qualified immunity shields an
officer from liability even if his or her action resulted from
“ ‘a mistake of law, a mistake of fact, or a mistake based on

whether or not [plaintiff’s] claimed right to speak was clearly established
at the time of [plaintiff’s] termination, we conclude . . . that we do indeed
possess appellate jurisdiction over [defendant’s] appeal pursuant to 28
U.S.C. § 1291”) (internal quotation marks and brackets omitted); see also
Scott v. Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 376, 381 n.8 (2007) (explaining that a dis-
trict court’s denial of qualified immunity on a summary judgment motion
because “there are material issues of fact on which the issue of qualified
immunity turns,” is reviewable as a “pure question of law” once the court
has “determined the relevant set of facts and drawn all inferences in favor
of the nonmoving party”) (internal quotation marks omitted). In Brooks v.
City of Seattle, the officers do not significantly dispute Brooks’s version
of the material facts. They simply argue that they are entitled to qualified
immunity as a matter of law. In Mattos v. Agarano, although the district
court found that there were unresolved material issues of fact, the officers
argue in this appeal that they are entitled to qualified immunity as a matter
of law even assuming the Mattoses’ version of the facts and drawing all
reasonable inferences in their favor.
19014 MATTOS v. AGARANO
mixed questions of law and fact.’ ” Id. (quoting Groh v.
Ramirez, 540 U.S. 551, 567 (2004) (Kennedy, J., dissenting)).
The purpose of qualified immunity is to strike a balance
between the competing “need to hold public officials account-
able when they exercise power irresponsibly and the need to
shield officials from harassment, distraction, and liability
when they perform their duties reasonably.” Id.

In determining whether an officer is entitled to qualified
immunity, we employ a two-step test: first, we decide whether
the officer violated a plaintiff’s constitutional right; if the
answer to that inquiry is “yes,” we proceed to determine
whether the constitutional right was “clearly established in
light of the specific context of the case” at the time of the
events in question. Robinson v. York, 566 F.3d 817, 821 (9th
Cir. 2009) (citing Saucier v. Katz, 533 U.S. 194, 201 (2001)),
cert. denied, 130 S. Ct. 1047 (2010). The Supreme Court has
instructed that we may “exercise [our] sound discretion in
deciding which of the two prongs of the qualified immunity
analysis should be addressed first.” Pearson, 129 S. Ct. at
818. Here, we follow the Saucier order as recited above,
because this “two-step procedure promotes the development
of constitutional precedent” in an area where this court’s
guidance is sorely needed.3 Id.

[1] For the first step—whether the official violated a con-
stitutional right—we begin by looking to the Supreme Court’s
guidance on the excessive use of force in Graham v. Connor,
490 U.S. 386 (1989). In Graham, the Court instructed that
3
See Bryan v. MacPherson, 630 F.3d 805, 832-33 (9th Cir. 2010) (hold-
ing that although the plaintiff alleged a constitutional violation, the defen-
dant was entitled to qualified immunity because the law was not clearly
established at the time of the conduct); Costanich v. Dep’t of Soc. &
Health Servs., 627 F.3d 1101, 1110 (9th Cir. 2010) (same); Delia v. City
of Rialto, 621 F.3d 1069, 1071 (9th Cir. 2010) (same) cert. granted, 79
U.S.L.W. 3480, 80 U.S.L.W. 3015 (U.S. Sept. 27, 2011) (No. 10-1018);
Stoot v. City of Everett, 582 F.3d 910, 921-22 (9th Cir. 2009) (same), cert.
denied, 130 S. Ct. 2343 (2010).
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19015
“[d]etermining whether the force used to effect a particular
seizure is reasonable under the Fourth Amendment requires a
careful balancing of the nature and quality of the intrusion on
the individual’s Fourth Amendment interests against the
countervailing governmental interests at stake.” 490 U.S. at
396 (internal quotation marks omitted). More recently, the
Court has emphasized that there are no per se rules in the
Fourth Amendment excessive force context; rather, courts
“must still slosh [their] way through the factbound morass of
‘reasonableness.’ Whether or not [a defendant’s] actions con-
stituted application of ‘deadly force,’ all that matters is
whether [the defendant’s] actions were reasonable.” Scott v.
Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 383 (2007).

[2] We apply Graham by first considering the nature and
quality of the alleged intrusion; we then consider the govern-
mental interests at stake by looking at (1) how severe the
crime at issue is, (2) whether the suspect posed an immediate
threat to the safety of the officers or others, and (3) whether
the suspect was actively resisting arrest or attempting to evade
arrest by flight. Deorle v. Rutherford, 272 F.3d 1272, 1279-80
(9th Cir. 2001). As we have previously explained, “[t]hese
factors, however, are not exclusive. Rather, we examine the
totality of the circumstances and consider ‘whatever specific
factors may be appropriate in a particular case, whether or not
listed in Graham.’ ” Bryan v. MacPherson, 630 F.3d 805, 826
(9th Cir. 2010) (quoting Franklin v. Foxworth, 31 F.3d 873,
876 (9th Cir. 1994)).

In Scott, for example, the Supreme Court considered
whether a police officer used constitutionally excessive force
when he ran a fleeing motorist off the road to “stop [the
motorist’s] . . . public-endangering flight by ramming the
motorist’s car from behind.” 550 U.S. at 374. In assessing the
governmental interests at stake, the Court asked, “[H]ow does
a court go about weighing the perhaps lesser probability of
injuring or killing numerous bystanders against the perhaps
larger probability of injuring or killing a single person?” Id.
19016 MATTOS v. AGARANO
at 384. The Court thought “it appropriate in this process to
take into account not only the number of lives at risk, but also
their relative culpability.” Id. Thus, in assessing the govern-
mental interests at stake under Graham, we are free to con-
sider issues outside the three enumerated above when
additional facts are necessary to account for the totality of cir-
cumstances in a given case.

Ultimately, the “ ‘most important’ ” Graham factor is
whether the suspect posed an “ ‘immediate threat to the safety
of the officers or others.’ ” Smith v. City of Hemet, 394 F.3d
689, 702 (9th Cir. 2005) (en banc) (quoting Chew v. Gates,
27 F.3d 1432, 1441 (9th Cir. 1994)). We explained in Deorle
that when we consider whether there was an immediate threat,
a “simple statement by an officer that he fears for his safety
or the safety of others is not enough; there must be objective
factors to justify such a concern.” 272 F.3d at 1281.

For the second step in the qualified immunity analysis—
whether the constitutional right was clearly established at the
time of the conduct—we ask whether its contours were “ ‘suf-
ficiently clear’ that every ‘reasonable official would have
understood that what he is doing violates that right.’ ” Ash-
croft v. al-Kidd, 131 S. Ct. 2074, 2083 (2011) (quoting Ander-
son v. Creighton, 483 U.S. 635, 640 (1987)). While “[w]e do
not require a case directly on point, . . . existing precedent
must have placed the statutory or constitutional question
beyond debate.” Id.

The Supreme Court has made “clear that officials can still
be on notice that their conduct violates established law even
in novel factual circumstances.” Hope v. Pelzer, 536 U.S.
730, 741 (2002). We are particularly mindful of this principle
in the context of Fourth Amendment cases, where the consti-
tutional standard—reasonableness—is always a very fact-
specific inquiry. If qualified immunity provided a shield in all
novel factual circumstances, officials would rarely, if ever, be
held accountable for their unreasonable violations of the
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19017
Fourth Amendment. See Deorle, 272 F.3d at 1286
(“Otherwise, officers would escape responsibility for the most
egregious forms of conduct simply because there was no case
on all fours prohibiting that particular manifestation of uncon-
stitutional conduct.”). That result would not properly balance
the competing goals to “hold public officials accountable
when they exercise power irresponsibly and the need to shield
officials from harassment, distraction, and liability when they
perform their duties reasonably.” Pearson, 129 S. Ct. at 815.

We are careful, however, to apply the “clearly established”
rule in such a way that faithfully guards “ ‘the need to protect
officials who are required to exercise their discretion and the
related public interest in encouraging the vigorous exercise of
official authority.’ ” Harlow, 457 U.S. at 807 (quoting Butz v.
Economou, 438 U.S. 478, 506 (1978)). We must also allow
“for the fact that police officers are often forced to make split-
second judgments—in circumstances that are tense, uncertain,
and rapidly evolving—about the amount of force that is nec-
essary in a particular situation.” Graham, 490 U.S. at 396-97.

Finally, Graham’s general excessive force standard cannot
always, alone, provide fair notice to every reasonable law
enforcement officer that his or her conduct is unconstitutional.
See Brosseau v. Haugen, 543 U.S. 194, 198-99 (2004) (per
curiam) (explaining that Graham and Tennessee v. Garner,
471 U.S. 1 (1985), “are cast at a high level of generality” and
cannot, in every case, “offer a basis for decision”). The
Supreme Court has stated, however, that “in an obvious case,
these standards can ‘clearly establish’ the answer, even with-
out a body of relevant case law.” Id. at 199 (citing Hope, 536
U.S. at 738). Although this “obvious case” exception remains
good law, the Supreme Court recently clarified that the bar for
finding such obviousness is quite high. In al-Kidd, the Court
emphasized that it has “repeatedly told courts not to define
clearly established law at a high level of generality. The gen-
eral proposition, for example, that an unreasonable search or
seizure violates the Fourth Amendment is of little help in
19018 MATTOS v. AGARANO
determining whether the violative nature of particular conduct
is clearly established.” 131 S. Ct. at 2084 (citations omitted).
With these principles in mind, we turn to the cases before us.

A. Brooks v. City of Seattle

1. Defendant Officers Used Excessive Force Against
Brooks

[3] We begin by considering the nature and quality of the
force used against Brooks: a taser in drive-stun mode. We
have previously described the force involved when a taser is
deployed in dart-mode. See Bryan, 630 F.3d 805. In Bryan,
we explained that in dart-mode the taser

uses compressed nitrogen to propel a pair of
“probes”—aluminum darts tipped with stainless steel
barbs connected to the [taser] by insulated wires—
toward the target at a rate of over 160 feet per sec-
ond. Upon striking a person, the [taser] delivers a
1200 volt, low ampere electrical charge . . . The elec-
trical impulse instantly overrides the victim’s central
nervous system, paralyzing the muscles throughout
the body, rendering the target limp and helpless.

Id. at 824 (footnote omitted). When a taser is used in drive-
stun mode, the operator removes the dart cartridge and pushes
two electrode contacts located on the front of the taser directly
against the victim. In this mode, the taser delivers an electric
shock to the victim, but it does not cause an override of the
victim’s central nervous system as it does in dart-mode. Each
of the three times that Jones tased Brooks in drive-stun mode,
the shock was “extremely painful.” In Bryan, we held that
tasers used in dart-mode “constitute an intermediate, signifi-
cant level of force.” Id. at 826.

[4] Here, the record is not sufficient for us to determine
what level of force is used when a taser is deployed in drive-
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19019
stun mode. We follow the Supreme Court’s guidance in Scott,
however, and need not decide this issue in order to assess the
reasonableness of the tasing. See 550 U.S. at 383 (“Whether
or not [a defendant’s] actions constituted application of
‘deadly force,’ all that matters is whether [the defendant’s]
actions were reasonable.”). Instead, we proceed to determine
whether Jones’s use of the taser against Brooks in this case
was reasonable, keeping in mind the magnitude of the electric
shock at issue and the extreme pain that Brooks experienced.
See Brown v. City of Golden Valley, 574 F.3d 491, 495 (8th
Cir. 2009) (noting that a woman who was tased in drive-stun
mode experienced “extreme pain” and “felt a sharp pain
where the Taser met her arm, with the pain radiating from her
upper arm and causing her muscles to clench”).

In evaluating the reasonableness of Jones’s action, we con-
sider the governmental interests at stake and begin with (1)
how severe the crime at issue was, (2) whether the suspect
posed an immediate threat to the safety of the officers or oth-
ers, and (3) whether the suspect was actively resisting arrest
or attempting to evade arrest by flight.4 Deorle, 272 F.3d at
1279-80.
4
Brooks argues that the officers lacked probable cause to arrest her and
therefore that they could not use any amount of force against her. The dis-
trict court addressed this argument, concluding that “she is wrong as a
matter of law.” We need not decide whether the officers had probable
cause to effect a custodial arrest pursuant to Washington law because the
answer does not affect Brooks’s Fourth Amendment excessive force
claim. See Virginia v. Moore, 553 U.S. 164, 176 (2008) (“We conclude
that warrantless arrests for crimes committed in the presence of an arrest-
ing officer are reasonable under the Constitution, and that while States are
free to regulate such arrests however they desire, state restrictions do not
alter the Fourth Amendment’s protections.”). In addition, we have
explained that “establishing a lack of probable cause to make an arrest
does not establish an excessive force claim, and vice-versa.” Beier v. City
of Lewiston, 354 F.3d 1058, 1064 (9th Cir. 2004) (citing Arpin v. Santa
Clara Valley Transp. Agency, 261 F. 3d 912, 921-22 (9th Cir. 2001)).
19020 MATTOS v. AGARANO
[5] According to the facts as alleged by Brooks, the offi-
cers pulled her over for speeding and then detained and took
her into custody because she refused to sign a traffic citation.
She refused to sign the citation after she gave Ornelas her
driver’s license and he spent five minutes in his squad car
with the license, presumably checking the status of her
license. We appreciate the danger associated with speeding,
and we do not minimize the particular importance of observ-
ing school zone speed limits. We also recognize the impor-
tance of having people sign their traffic citations when
required to do so by state law. However, we have no difficulty
deciding that failing to sign a traffic citation and driving 32
miles per hour in a 20-mile-per-hour zone are not serious
offenses. Indeed, our case law demonstrates that far more
serious offenses than Brooks’s do not constitute severe crimes
in a Graham analysis. See Davis v. City of Las Vegas, 478
F.3d 1048, 1055 (9th Cir. 2007) (noting that trespassing and
obstructing a police officer were not severe crimes); City of
Hemet, 394 F.3d at 702 (concluding that suspect was not “par-
ticularly dangerous” and his offense was not “especially egre-
gious” where his wife had “called 911 to report that her
husband ‘was hitting her and/or was physical with her,’ [and]
that he had grabbed her breast very hard”).

[6] We next consider whether Brooks “posed an immediate
threat to the safety of the officers or others.” Deorle, 272 F.3d
at 1280 (internal quotation marks omitted). When the encoun-
ter began, Brooks was compliant: she pulled over when sig-
naled to do so, gave her driver’s license to Ornelas when
asked, and waited in her car while Ornelas checked her infor-
mation. When Ornelas returned and informed Brooks that he
was going to cite her for the speeding violation, she became
upset and proceeded to become increasingly agitated and
uncooperative as the incident evolved. At no time did Brooks
verbally threaten the officers. She gave no indication of being
armed and, behind the wheel of her car, she was not physi-
cally threatening. At most, the officers may have found her
uncooperative and her agitated behavior to be potentially
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19021
threatening while Brooks’s keys remained in the ignition of
her car. In theory, she could have attempted to drive away
rapidly and recklessly, threatening the safety of bystanders or
the officers. But at some point after Ornelas grabbed Brooks’s
arm and before Jones applied the taser to her, Ornelas
removed the keys from Brooks’s car ignition and the keys
dropped to the car’s floor. Thus, at the time Jones applied the
taser to Brooks, she no longer posed even a potential threat
to the officers’ or others’ safety, much less an “immediate
threat.”5 Deorle, 272 F.3d at 1280. We reiterate that this is the
“ ‘most important single element’ ” of the governmental inter-
ests at stake. City of Hemet, 394 F.3d at 702 (quoting Chew,
27 F.3d at 1441).

[7] The third governmental interest factor in the Graham
test is whether Brooks was “actively resisting arrest or
5
In his Concurrence and Dissent (“Kozinski Concurrence”), Chief Judge
Kozinski claims that when Brooks’s car keys lay on the floor of her car,
she posed a threat to the officers and to innocent bystanders because she
“might’ve been able to reach it, start up the car and drive away,” and she
“might also have had a spare key.” Kozinski Concurrence at 19045. There
is no evidence in the record that Brooks attempted to reach for the keys
after Officer Ornelas removed them from the ignition. Nor is there any
evidence in the record that she reached for her purse or the glove-box,
potentially to look for a spare key. Moreover, Brooks was seven months
pregnant and therefore not likely able to reach down past the steering
wheel of her car to the floor under her driver’s seat in order to retrieve the
keys. Rather than viewing the evidence in the light most favorable to
Brooks, Chief Judge Kozinski flips the summary judgment standard on its
head by taking the evidence in the light most favorable to the defendants.
We are required, however, to take the facts in the light most favorable to
Brooks at this stage. Saucier, 121 S.Ct. at 2156; Blankenhorn v. City of
Orange, 485 F.3d 463, 471 (9th Cir. 2007). When Chief Judge Kozinski
asserts that Brooks was an immediate threat who had to be neutralized by
repeated tasings, he does more than ignore the proper summary judgment
standard. He engages in rank speculation, imagining possibilities—like a
spare key—that the officers have not even alleged. Because there is simply
no evidence that Brooks sought to drive off or otherwise flee, we cannot
properly point to this possibility as evidence that she posed an immediate
threat to anyone.
19022 MATTOS v. AGARANO
attempting to evade arrest by flight, and any other exigent cir-
cumstances that existed at the time of the arrest.” Deorle, 272
F.3d at 1280 (internal quotation marks omitted). Brooks
refused to get out of her car when requested to do so and later
stiffened her body and clutched her steering wheel to frustrate
the officers’ efforts to remove her from her car. In other
words, she resisted arrest. See Chew, 27 F.3d at 1442 (fleeing
and hiding from the police constitutes resisting arrest in the
Graham context). We observe, however, that Brooks’s resis-
tence did not involve any violent actions towards the officers.
In addition, Brooks did not attempt to flee, and there were no
other exigent circumstances at the time. The facts reflect that
the officers proceeded deliberately and thoughtfully, taking an
aside in the midst of the incident to discuss where they should
tase Brooks after they found out she was pregnant. There is
no allegation that an exigent circumstance requiring the atten-
tion of one of the three officers existed somewhere else, so
that the encounter with Brooks had to be resolved as quickly
as possible. Still, Brooks engaged in some resistance to arrest.

[8] Finally, we must examine the totality of the circum-
stances and consider “ ‘whatever specific factors may be
appropriate in a particular case, whether or not listed in Gra-
ham.’ ” Bryan, 630 F.3d at 826 (quoting Franklin, 31 F.3d at
876). We note that Brooks bears some responsibility for the
escalation of this incident, which influences the totality of
these circumstances. There are, however, two other specific
factors in this case that we find overwhelmingly salient. First,
Brooks told Jones, before he tased her, that she was pregnant
and less than 60 days from her due date. And as explained
above, Jones and Ornelas paused after they learned she was
pregnant and discussed where they should tase Brooks in light
of this information. The record unambiguously reflects that
the officers knew about and considered Brooks’s pregnancy
before tasing her.

[9] The second overwhelmingly salient factor here is that
Jones tased Brooks three times over the course of less than
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19023
one minute. Twenty-seven seconds after Jones cycled his
taser as a warning, he applied the taser to Brooks. Thirty-six
seconds later, he tased Brooks for the second time. Six sec-
onds after that, Jones tased Brooks for the third time. Each
time, Brooks cried out in pain. Three tasings in such rapid
succession provided no time for Brooks to recover from the
extreme pain she experienced, gather herself, and reconsider
her refusal to comply.

In sum, Brooks’s alleged offenses were minor. She did not
pose an immediate threat to the safety of the officers or oth-
ers. She actively resisted arrest insofar as she refused to get
out of her car when instructed to do so and stiffened her body
and clutched her steering wheel to frustrate the officers’
efforts to remove her from her car. Brooks did not evade
arrest by flight, and no other exigent circumstances existed at
the time. She was seven months pregnant, which the officers
knew, and they tased her three times within less than one min-
ute, inflicting extreme pain on Brooks.

[10] A reasonable fact-finder could conclude, taking the
evidence in the light most favorable to Brooks, that the offi-
cers’ use of force was unreasonable and therefore constitu-
tionally excessive.6 Compare Bryan, 630 F.3d at 832 (holding
that the plaintiff alleged a constitutional violation where he
was tased in dart mode even though he “was neither a flight
risk, a dangerous felon, nor an immediate threat”), and Parker
6
In arriving at a different conclusion about the tasing in Brooks—and
in Mattos—than we do, Chief Judge Kozinski expresses vivid disapproval
of Brooks’s behavior. His “covenant of cooperation” may be good man-
ners, but we do not view it as driving the Graham excessive force analy-
sis. Though failure to cooperate may be a relevant consideration, it is not
the primary factor that we are directed to consider. We must consider all
of the circumstances surrounding an alleged use of excessive force. Were
we to adopt Chief Judge Kozinski’s approach, just about any breach of the
“covenant of cooperation” would foreclose a Fourth Amendment exces-
sive force claim. We decline to adopt such an approach, which would be
contrary to the firmly established Graham analysis.
19024 MATTOS v. AGARANO
v. Gerrish, 547 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2008) (upholding a jury ver-
dict for excessive force used against a driver stopped for
speeding who admitted to drinking, exchanged hostile words
with an officer, and initially resisted arrest before being
tased), with Cook v. City of Bella Villa, 582 F.3d 840 (8th Cir.
2009) (finding no excessive force where a lone officer tased
the passenger of a car after he pulled the car over around mid-
night, three people got out of the car and immediately started
yelling at the officer, and one passenger took a threatening
step towards the officer).7

2. Defendant Officers Did Not Violate Clearly
Established Law When They Tased Brooks

Having determined that Brooks alleged a Fourth Amend-
ment violation, we next consider whether the officers are
nonetheless entitled to qualified immunity. That is, at the time
the officers tased Brooks, was the constitutional violation
described above “ ‘sufficiently clear’ that every ‘reasonable
official would have understood that what he [was] doing vio-
late[d] that right[?]’ ” al-Kidd, 131 S. Ct. at 2083 (quoting
Anderson, 483 U.S. at 640).

[11] We begin our inquiry into whether this constitutional
violation was clearly established by looking at the most analo-
gous case law that existed when the officers tased Brooks in
November 2004. At that time, there were three relevant opin-
ions from several of our sister circuits. In Russo v. City of
Cincinnati, 953 F.2d 1036, 1044-45 (6th Cir. 1992), the Sixth
Circuit held that the defendant officers did not violate the
Fourth Amendment when they tased Thomas Bubenhofer.
7
In Russo v. City of Cincinnati, 953 F.2d 1036 (6th Cir. 1992); Hinton
v. City of Elwood, 997 F.2d 774 (10th Cir. 1993); and Draper v. Reynolds,
369 F.3d 1270 (11th Cir. 2004), our sister circuits held that the respective
tasings did not violate clearly established law. As discussed infra, Part
IV.A.2., the facts in those cases are plainly distinguishable from the facts
in Brooks. We therefore do not find their holdings instructive with respect
to the first prong of the Saucier test.
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19025
Bubenhofer’s family called the police to help them return him
to a psychiatric institute; the officers who responded to the
call heard over the police radio that Bubenhofer “was a walk-
away from [the psychiatric institute] who was ‘suicidal, homi-
cidal, and a hazard to police.’ ” Id. at 1039. When the defen-
dant officers tried to get Bubenhofer out of his apartment,
Bubenhofer “threatened to kill anyone who entered the apart-
ment” and then opened the door and stood in the doorway,
holding “a knife in each hand with the blades pointed at the
officers.” Id. at 1040. The second time Bubenhofer opened the
door, again displaying the knives toward the officers, one of
the officers tased him several times. Id. Bubenhofer overcame
the effects of the taser and rushed toward the officers, still
holding the knives. Id. at 1040. The hostilities continued and
the officers tased Bubenhofer again—this time as he lay at the
bottom of a stairwell, at which “point [he] posed no immedi-
ate threat to the officers.” Id. at 1045. The Sixth Circuit held
that, as to the initial uses of the taser, “plaintiffs have failed
to show that clearly established law at the time of the incident
declared such actions unconstitutional.” Id. at 1044. As for the
subsequent tasings, the court held that it “[could] not conclude
that they constituted a show of excessive force.” Id. at 1045.

Although Russo is relevant to our clearly established
inquiry because it involves the use of a taser, we note that the
facts in Russo are readily distinguishable from the facts in
Brooks. Brooks, unlike Bubenhofer, was not a paranoid
schizophrenic, id. at 1039, did not make homicidal and suici-
dal threats to the police, id. at 1040, did not hold a knife in
each hand with the blades pointed at the officers, id., and did
not overcome the effects of being tased multiple times to
approach the officers with knives still in hand, id. at 1040-41.

In Hinton v. City of Elwood, 997 F.2d 774, 782 (10th Cir.
1993), the Tenth Circuit also held that the defendant officers
did not violate the Fourth Amendment when they tased the
plaintiff. The court explained that “[u]ndeniably, the first two
[Graham] criteria weigh in favor of Hinton’s claim that [the
19026 MATTOS v. AGARANO
officers’] use of force was constitutionally excessive.” Id. at
781. “The crime for which Hinton was initially stopped by the
police was the misdemeanor of disturbing the peace. Further-
more, it is difficult to maintain that Hinton constituted any
type of immediate threat to the police or the public.” Id. Only
the third Graham factor weighed against Hinton’s excessive
force claim. Id. After Hinton declined the officers’ request to
speak to him, “Hinton shoved [an officer] out of his way.” Id.
at 776. An officer then informed Hinton that he was under
arrest, at which point “Hinton continued to struggle with [the
officers] by kicking his feet, flailing his arms, and biting the
officers . . . .” Id. at 777. The Tenth Circuit held that “Hinton
has failed to demonstrate that [the officers’] conduct
amounted to a violation of the law.” Id. at 782.

Again, while Hinton is relevant to our inquiry into whether
the constitutional violation that Brooks suffered was clearly
established, the facts in that case are dissimilar to the facts in
Brooks. In the context of a Fourth Amendment fact-specific
reasonableness inquiry, we see little determinative similarity
between a suspect who shoved, kicked, and bit law enforce-
ment officers, and a suspect who stiffened her body and
clutched her steering wheel to frustrate officers’ attempts to
remove her from her car.

Draper v. Reynolds, 369 F.3d 1270 (11th Cir. 2004), is the
third taser case that was decided before Brooks was tased. In
Draper, at 11:30 p.m., a lone officer pulled over the plaintiff,
who was driving a tractor trailer truck, “because its tag light
was not appropriately illuminated under Georgia law.” Id. at
1272. During the ensuing traffic stop, the plaintiff “acted in
a confrontational and agitated manner, paced back and forth,
and repeatedly yelled at [the officer].” Id. at 1276-77. When
the plaintiff failed to comply with the officer’s fifth request to
produce certain documents, the officer tased him. Id. at 1273.
The Eleventh Circuit held that the “use of the taser gun to
effectuate the arrest of [the plaintiff] was reasonably propor-
tionate to the difficult, tense and uncertain situation that [the
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19027
defendant officer] faced in this traffic stop, and did not consti-
tute excessive force.” Id. at 1278. Draper presents the most
analogous facts to Brooks, but we still see significant differ-
ences. Unlike the plaintiff in Draper, Brooks was immobile
in her car in daylight and the police outnumbered her three to
one when they tased her.

[12] In sum, when the defendant officers tased Brooks,
there were three circuit courts of appeals cases rejecting
claims that the use of a taser constituted excessive force; there
were no circuit taser cases finding a Fourth Amendment vio-
lation. Russo, Hinton, and Draper are factually distinguish-
able from Brooks. Indeed we have concluded that—unlike the
plaintiffs in those cases—Brooks has alleged a Fourth
Amendment violation. We cannot conclude, however, in light
of these existing precedents, that “every ‘reasonable official
would have understood’ . . . beyond debate” that tasing
Brooks in these circumstances constituted excessive force. al-
Kidd, 131 S. Ct. at 2083 (quoting Anderson, 483 U.S. at 640)
(emphasis added) (citation omitted). Moreover, the violation
was not so obvious that we can “define clearly established law
at a high level of generality,” finding that Graham alone ren-
ders the unconstitutionality of Brooks’s tasing clearly estab-
lished. Id. at 2084.

We therefore follow the example of our court’s three-judge
panel in Bryan v. MacPherson, 630 F.3d 805 (9th Cir. 2010).
In Bryan, we held that the use of a taser constituted excessive
force, but we concluded that the defendant officer was entitled
to qualified immunity. The tasing in Bryan took place in
2005, and we observed that in that year “there was no
Supreme Court decision or decision of our court addressing”
the use of a taser in dart mode. Id. at 833. As a result, we con-
cluded that “a reasonable officer in Officer MacPherson’s
position could have made a reasonable mistake of law regard-
ing the constitutionality of the taser use in the circumstances”
confronted. Id.
19028 MATTOS v. AGARANO
[13] Thus, we conclude that, although Brooks has alleged
an excessive force claim, the law was not sufficiently clear at
the time of the incident to render the alleged violation clearly
established. Accordingly, the defendant officers are entitled to
the defense of qualified immunity against Brooks’s § 1983
excessive force claim.8

B. Mattos v. Agarano

1. Defendant Officers Used Excessive Force Against
Mattos

[14] Determining whether the force used against Jayzel
Mattos was constitutionally excessive, we begin again by con-
sidering the nature and quality of the force used. Here, the
taser was employed in dart-mode, which we have held “cons-
titute[s] an intermediate, significant level of force.” Bryan,
630 F.3d at 826. The taser’s aluminum darts penetrated Jay-
zel’s skin and delivered the intended dart-mode response:
“[t]he electrical impulse instantly overrides the victim’s cen-
tral nervous system, paralyzing the muscles throughout the
body, rendering the target limp and helpless. Id. at 824. Jayzel
“felt an incredible burning and painful feeling locking all of
[her] joints [and] muscles and [she] f[e]ll hard on the floor.”
It is against this backdrop that we consider the governmental
interests at stake and the ultimate reasonableness of the offi-
cers’ action.

[15] Considering the first governmental interest factor, the
severity of the crime at issue, we are mindful that we must
construe the facts in the light most favorable to Jayzel at this
8
Because we conclude that a reasonable jury could find that the officers
used excessive force in tasing Brooks, we affirm the district court’s con-
clusion that the officers are not entitled to Washington state qualified
immunity for Brooks’s assault and battery claims. See Staats v. Brown,
991 P.2d 615, 627-28 (Wash. 2000) (“Nor is state qualified immunity
available for claims of assault and battery arising out of the use of exces-
sive force to effectuate an arrest.”).
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19029
stage. See KRL, 512 F.3d at 1188-89. When Jayzel appeared
in the hallway, Agarano asked to speak to Jayzel outside; she
agreed, but before she could comply, Aikala entered the resi-
dence. When Aikala announced that Troy was under arrest,
Jayzel was already standing in front of Troy. She did not
immediately move out of the way. As Aikala moved in to
arrest Troy, he pushed up against Jayzel’s chest, at which
point she “extended [her] arm to stop [her] breasts from being
smashed against Aikala’s body.” Aikala then asked Jayzel,
“Are you touching an officer?” At the same time, Jayzel was
speaking to Agarano, asking why Troy was being arrested,
attempting to defuse the situation by saying that everyone
should calm down and go outside, and expressing concern
that the commotion might disturb her sleeping children who
were in the residence. Taking the evidence in the light most
favorable to Jayzel, and resolving all conflicts in her favor,
the most that can be said about her actions is that, while
standing between Troy and Aikala, she attempted to prevent
Aikala from pressing up against her breasts. While this may
have momentarily deterred Aikala’s immediate access to
Troy, it did not rise to the level of obstruction. Thus, under
Graham, the severity of the crime, if any, was minimal.

[16] The next, and most important, Graham factor is
whether “the suspect posed an immediate threat to the safety
of the officers or others.” Deorle, 272 F.3d at 1280 (internal
quotation marks omitted) (emphasis added). Here, Jayzel was
the “suspect” against whom force was used, so we consider
whether she posed an immediate threat to the officers’ safety.
The officers came to the residence in response to a 911 call
made at Jayzel’s request during a domestic dispute with Troy.
Once the officers arrived and saw Jayzel, there were no objec-
tive reasons to believe that she was armed, she did not ver-
bally threaten the officers, and her only physical contact with
Aikala resulted from her defensively raising her hands to pre-
vent him from pressing his body against hers after he came
into contact with her. Jayzel’s main contribution to the scene
consisted of repeatedly entreating the officers and her hus-
19030 MATTOS v. AGARANO
band to calm down and go outside so that her sleeping chil-
dren would not be awakened. Jayzel posed no threat to the
officers.

[17] The third enumerated governmental interest factor is
whether Jayzel was actively resisting arrest or attempting to
evade arrest by flight. Deorle, 272 F.3d at 1280. According to
Jayzel’s rendition of the facts, the most that can be said is that
she minimally resisted Troy’s arrest. She was standing
between Aikala and Troy before Aikala moved in to arrest
Troy, and her physical contact with Aikala was defensive,
intended to protect her own body from contact with Aikala.
That being said, when Aikala stated that Troy was under
arrest, Jayzel did not immediately move out of the way to
facilitate the arrest. For the purposes of this Graham factor,
however, we draw a distinction between a failure to facilitate
an arrest and active resistance to arrest. Moreover, the crux of
this Graham factor is compliance with the officers’ requests,
or refusal to comply. Here, Jayzel was attempting to comply
with Agarano’s request to speak with her outside when she
got physically caught in the middle between Aikala and Troy.
Accordingly, this factor weighs in Jayzel’s favor.

Finally, it is important in this case that we consider the
additional “ ‘specific factors’” relevant to the totality of these
circumstances. Bryan, 630 F.3d at 826 (quoting Franklin, 31
F.3d at 876). While Jayzel herself did not pose any threat to
the officers’ safety, we must also consider the danger that the
overall situation posed to the officers’ safety and what effect
that has on the reasonableness of the officers’ actions. As we
have recounted, the officers came to the Mattoses’ residence
in response to a 911 domestic dispute call. When they arrived
they encountered Troy, who was sitting by himself outside the
residence, hostile, seemingly intoxicated, six feet three inches
tall and approximately 200 pounds. We have observed that
“[t]he volatility of situations involving domestic violence”
makes them particularly dangerous. United States v. Martinez,
406 F.3d 1160, 1164 (9th Cir. 2005). “When officers respond
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19031
to a domestic abuse call, they understand that violence may
be lurking and explode with little warning. Indeed, more offi-
cers are killed or injured on domestic violence calls than on
any other type of call.” Id. (internal quotation marks and cita-
tion omitted). We have also “recognized that the exigencies
of domestic abuse cases present dangers that, in an appropri-
ate case, may override considerations of privacy.” United
States v. Black, 482 F.3d 1035, 1040 (9th Cir. 2007) (internal
quotation marks omitted).

[18] We take very seriously the danger that domestic dis-
putes pose to law enforcement officers, and we have no trou-
ble concluding that a reasonable officer arriving at the
Mattoses’ residence reasonably could be concerned about his
or her safety. In light of such concerns, we have recognized
that “the exigencies of domestic abuse cases present dangers
that . . . may override considerations of privacy” where the
alleged Fourth Amendment violation was a warrantless entry
into a residence for the purpose of intervening in a domestic
dispute, protecting the potential victim, and gaining control
over a volatile situation that could endanger the officers. Id.;
see Martinez, 406 F.3d at 1165; United States v. Brooks, 367
F.3d 1128, 1133-34 (9th Cir. 2004). Here, though, the alleged
Fourth Amendment violation is the excessive use of force
against the potential non-threatening victim of the domestic
dispute whom the officers ostensibly came to protect. Our
previous reasoning for providing some Fourth Amendment
leeway to officers who must enter a residence without a war-
rant in response to domestic disputes does not logically
extend to officers who use an intermediate level of force on
the non-threatening victim of a domestic dispute whom they
have come to protect—especially when the domestic dispute
is seemingly over by the time the officers begin their investi-
gation.

In drawing this distinction, we are guided by the Supreme
Court’s reasoning in Scott. There, the Court observed that in
weighing the Graham governmental interests in a situation
19032 MATTOS v. AGARANO
where someone is likely to get hurt—either a fleeing suspect
or innocent bystanders—it is “appropriate in this process to
take into account . . . relative culpability.” Scott, 550 U.S. at
384. Given the procedural posture at this stage of the proceed-
ings, we cannot say that Jayzel was culpable in this situation.
We understand that Jayzel was unintentionally in the way
when Aikala attempted to gain control over a potentially dan-
gerous situation by arresting Troy, and we appreciate that
“police officers are often forced to make split-second judg-
ments . . . about the amount of force that is necessary in a par-
ticular situation.” Graham, 490 U.S. at 396-97. At the same
time, we are unable to identify any reasonableness in the
conclusion—whether made in a split-second or after careful
deliberation—that tasing the innocent wife of a large, drunk,
angry man when there is no threat that either spouse has a
weapon, is a prudent way to defuse a potentially, but not yet,
dangerous situation. See Deorle, 272 F.3d at 1281 (“A desire
to resolve quickly a potentially dangerous situation is not the
type of governmental interest that, standing alone, justifies the
use of force that may cause serious injury.”). We stress that
this unreasonableness is compounded by the officers’ knowl-
edge that there were children present in the home at the time.

[19] Finally, the fact that Aikala gave no warning to Jayzel
before tasing her pushes this use of force far beyond the pale.
We have previously concluded that an officer’s failure to
warn, when it is plausible to do so, weighs in favor of finding
a constitutional violation. See Bryan, 630 F.3d at 831; Boyd
v. Benton County, 374 F.3d 773, 779 (9th Cir. 2004); Deorle,
272 F.3d at 1284; see also Casey v. City of Federal Heights,
509 F.3d 1278, 1285 (10th Cir. 2007) (denying qualified
immunity for the use of a taser where the “absence of any
warning—or of facts making clear that no warning was
necessary—makes the circumstances of this case especially
troubling”).

[20] To summarize, Aikala used the intermediate force of
a taser in dart-mode on Jayzel after he and the other officers
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19033
arrived to ensure her safety. Her offense was minimal at most.
She posed no threat to the officers. She minimally resisted
Troy’s arrest while attempting to protect her own body and to
comply with Agarano’s request that she speak to him outside,
and she begged everyone not to wake her sleeping children.
She bears minimal culpability for the escalation of the situa-
tion. The officers were faced with a potentially dangerous
domestic dispute situation in which they reasonably felt that
Troy could physically harm them if he chose to, but there was
no indication that Troy intended to harm the officers or that
he was armed. When Aikala encountered slight difficulty in
arresting Troy because Jayzel was between the two men,
Aikala tased her without warning. Considering the totality of
these circumstances, we fail to see any reasonableness in the
use of a taser in dart-mode against Jayzel. When all the mate-
rial factual disputes are resolved in Jayzel’s favor and the evi-
dence is viewed in the light most favorable to her, we
conclude that she has alleged a Fourth Amendment violation.
That is, a reasonable fact finder could conclude that the offi-
cers’ use of force against Jayzel, as alleged, was constitution-
ally excessive in violation of the Fourth Amendment. See
Brown, 574 F.3d 491 (denying qualified immunity to officers
who tased the passenger-wife of a driver who evaded their ini-
tial attempts to pull him over when the wife refused to hang
up the 911 call she made after the officers pulled her husband
out of the car, threw him against the car, and handcuffed
him); Bryan, 630 F.3d at 832 (holding that the plaintiff
alleged a constitutional violation where he was tased in dart
mode even though he “was neither a flight risk, a dangerous
felon, nor an immediate threat”).9

9
Again, Russo, Hinton, and Draper are so factually dissimilar from
Mattos that we do not find them useful for the first prong of the Saucier
test.
19034 MATTOS v. AGARANO
2. Defendant Officers Did Not Violate Clearly
Established Law When They Tased Mattos

We next turn to whether the officers are entitled to quali-
fied immunity for the force they used against Jayzel in August
2006. Here, as above, we must determine whether the consti-
tutional violation was “ ‘sufficiently clear’ that every ‘reason-
able official would have understood that what he [was] doing
violate[d] that right.’ ” al-Kidd, 131 S. Ct. at 2083 (quoting
Anderson, 483 U.S. at 640).

[21] As in Brooks v. City of Seattle and Bryan v. MacPher-
son, we conclude that the alleged constitutional violation in
Mattos was not clearly established when the conduct
occurred. At the time, “there was no Supreme Court decision
or decision of our court addressing” the use of a taser in dart
mode. Bryan, 630 F.3d at 833. In addition, as we explained
above, none of the three existing federal court of appeals
cases dealing with tasers found a constitutional violation.
Even though the facts in Mattos are readily distinguishable
from the facts in Russo, Hinton, and Draper, the violation was
not so obvious that we can rely on the Graham factors and
define the contours of clearly established law at a high level
of generality. See al-Kidd, 131 S. Ct. at 2084. Accordingly,
we conclude that the officers here are entitled to qualified
immunity for tasing Jayzel.

V. Conclusion

For the foregoing reasons, we conclude that Brooks and the
Mattoses have alleged constitutional violations, but that not
every reasonable officer at the time of the respective incidents
would have known—beyond debate—that such conduct vio-
lates the Fourth Amendment. Accordingly, we reverse the dis-
trict courts’ denial of summary judgment on qualified
immunity grounds on Plaintiffs’ § 1983 excessive force
claims. In Brooks, however, we affirm the district court’s
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19035
denial of qualified immunity on Brooks’s state law assault
and battery claims.

No. 08-15567 REVERSED.

No. 08-35526 REVERSED in part and AFFIRMED in
part.

SCHROEDER, Circuit Judge, concurring:

I agree that in the absence of cases recognizing any specific
use of taser weapons as excessive force, the defendants are
entitled to qualified immunity under the Supreme Court’s
teaching in Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, 131 S.Ct. 2074, 2084 (2011).
I also agree wholeheartedly with the majority opinion by
Judge Paez that the use of such force in the cases before us
was excessive.

I write separately only to emphasize the non-threatening
nature of the plaintiffs’ conduct. Both were women, with chil-
dren nearby, who were tased after engaging in no threatening
conduct. In Mattos, a domestic violence victim wanted the
officers outside her home so they would not awaken her chil-
dren. In Brooks, the police stopped the pregnant plaintiff for
speeding in front of her child’s school — when she refused
to sign the traffic ticket and exit the vehicle, the police tased
her. Her behavior may be difficult to understand, but it cer-
tainly posed no immediate threat to the officers.

It is the threatening nature of the plaintiffs’ conduct that
justified the use of the taser in the cases Judge Kozinski could
rely upon. Draper v. Reynolds, 369 F.3d 1270 (11th Cir.
2004); Hinton v. City of Elwood, 997 F.2d 774 (10th Cir.
1993); Russo v. City of Cincinnati, 953 F.2d 1036 (6th Cir.
1992). When evaluating the use of any force, a prime consid-
eration is always whether the suspect posed an immediate
19036 MATTOS v. AGARANO
threat to the safety of the officers. See Graham v. Connor, 490
U.S. 386, 396 (1989); Smith v. City of Hemet, 394 F.3d 689,
702 (9th Cir. 2005) (en banc).

The relevant out of circuit cases upholding tasings all
involved the tasing of threatening men. Draper was described
as a “belligerent” truck driver. Hinton was an “angry” town
resident whose dog had been impounded, and who then
threatened the animal control officer and kicked and actually
bit the arresting officers. Russo was deranged, barricaded
himself in his apartment after leaving a psychiatric facility,
and then came after the police with butcher knives. This is not
to suggest that only men can be threatening, but that these
women were not.

Moreover, Judge Kozinski’s partial concurrence reflects
some serious misunderstanding of each woman’s situation.
While Judge Kozinski focuses on the fact that Brooks’ baby
was born healthy, the focus should be on whether the officers
had properly taken into account the risk of harm to the child
in using the taser. See Torres v. City of Madera, 648 F.3d
1119, 1126 (9th Cir. 2011) (“[A] jury might question the rea-
sonableness of choosing to send 1,200 volts of electricity
through a person when the alleged concern is for that person’s
safety.”) (footnote omitted). Judge Kozinski’s underlying
assumption in Mattos, that violence is gender-blind, and con-
cerns for womens’ safety thus “chauvinistic,” overlooks the
worldwide struggle to combat violence against women. See,
e.g., Violence Against Women Act, codified at 42 U.S.C.
§§ 3796gg, 13925 et seq.

One could argue that the use of painful, permanently scar-
ring weaponry on non-threatening individuals, who were not
trying to escape, should have been known to be excessive by
any informed police officer under the long established stan-
dards of Graham. The Eleventh Circuit has recently held that
police officers using a taser were not entitled to qualified
immunity where no threat, or escape, was imminent. Fils v.
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19037
City of Aventura, 647 F.3d 1272, 1289, 1292 (11th Cir. 2011).
Nevertheless, the Supreme Court’s opinion in al-Kidd appears
to require us to hold that because there was no established
case law recognizing taser use as excessive in similar circum-
stances, immunity is required. al-Kidd, 131 S.Ct. at 2084
(“We have repeatedly told courts—and the Ninth Circuit in
particular—not to define clearly established law at a high
level of generality.”) (internal citation omitted). I therefore
concur in Judge Paez’s good opinion.

Chief Judge KOZINSKI, joined by Judge BEA, concurring in
part and dissenting in part:

By asking police to serve and protect us, we citizens agree
to comply with their instructions and cooperate with their
investigations. Unfortunately, not all of us hold up our end of
the bargain. As a result, officers face an ever-present risk that
routine police work will suddenly become dangerous. In the
last decade, more than half a million police were assaulted in
the line of duty. More than 160,000 were injured, and 536
were killed—the vast majority while performing routine law
enforcement tasks like conducting traffic stops and respond-
ing to domestic disturbance calls. Criminal Justice Info.
Servs. Div., Fed. Bureau of Investigation, Law Enforcement
Officers Killed & Assaulted, 2009 (Oct. 2010),
http://www2.fbi.gov/ucr/killed/2009/aboutleoka.html (tables
19 and 70).

Brooks and Mattos breached the covenant of cooperation
by refusing to comply with police orders. When citizens do
that, police must bring the situation under control, and they
have a number of tools at their disposal. Traditional tools,
such as choke holds, arm locks and other hand-to-hand tech-
niques, can cause permanent injury, even death. The standard
issue baton “is a deadly weapon that can cause deep bruising
as well as blood clots capable of precipitating deadly strokes.”
19038 MATTOS v. AGARANO
Young v. Cnty. of Los Angeles, No. 09-56372, slip op. 16,441,
16,454 (9th Cir. Aug 26, 2011); see also id. at 16,453 (pepper
spray is no fun either). These methods are also distasteful to
officers, who can deploy such close-range tactics only by
stepping in harm’s way.

The Taser is a safe alternative: It’s effective at a range of
fifteen to thirty-five feet, so officers can use it without engag-
ing in personal combat. And a study by six university depart-
ments of emergency medicine found that 99.7 percent of those
Tased by police suffer no injuries or, at most, mild ones. Wil-
liam P. Bozeman et al., Safety and Injury Profile of Con-
ducted Electrical Weapons Used by Law Enforcement Against
Criminal Suspects, 53 Annals Emergency Med. 480, 484
(2009). The research division of the Department of Justice
concluded that Taser deployment “has a margin of safety as
great or greater than most alternatives,” and carries a “signifi-
cantly lower risk of injury than physical force.” John H. Laub,
Director, Nat’l Inst. of Justice, Study of Deaths Following
Electro Muscular Disruption 30-31 (2011).

Cases in point: Malaika Brooks and Jayzel Mattos. Brooks
actively resisted arrest; Mattos refused to get out of the way
when police tried to arrest her large, drunk, angry husband. In
each case, the arresting officers deployed a Taser and were
able to defuse the situation without anyone getting seriously
hurt. We can’t be sure the results would have been as good
had the police used other methods.

The Fourth Amendment proscribes only unreasonable
searches and seizures. Police need not use the least necessary
force, see Luchtel v. Hagemann, 623 F.3d 975, 982 (9th Cir.
2010), but the officers here did just that. Nevertheless, the
majority finds their actions unconstitutional, and thereby
deters officers from employing a safe, effective technique for
subduing uncooperative subjects. This will cause police to
resort to more dangerous methods in the future. Count me out.
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19039
Brooks v. City of Seattle

Pulled over for speeding in a school zone, Brooks found
herself in a situation familiar to motorists. Every year, mil-
lions of people get traffic tickets. No one likes it, but we set
our resentment aside, sign our citations and move on. Not
Brooks. Officer Ornelas gave her a ticket in the normal
course, but Brooks denied speeding and refused to sign.
Ornelas assured Brooks that she wouldn’t admit guilt by sign-
ing, but she still refused. When Officer Jones stopped to
assist, he told Brooks she was required by law to sign and
reiterated that she wouldn’t admit guilt by doing so. Jones
pointed to the writing at the bottom of the ticket, which read:
“Without admitting to having committed each of the above
offenses, by signing this document I acknowledge receipt of
this notice of infraction and promise to respond as directed on
this notice.” Brooks called Jones a liar and again denied
speeding. Jones showed her the reading on the radar gun, but
Brooks claimed it had clocked the car in front of her. She
remained defiant even after Jones told her she’d be arrested
if she continued to refuse.

In an attempt to resolve the situation short of an arrest,
Jones called Sergeant Daman, who arrived five minutes later,
approached Brooks and introduced himself as the other offi-
cers’ supervisor. By then, Brooks was “irrational, screaming
and out of control,” but Daman gave her another chance to
sign the ticket instead of going to jail.

When Brooks still refused, Daman ordered Ornelas and
Jones to arrest her. Ornelas told Brooks to get out of her car,
but she refused. In further effort to avoid using force, Jones
told Brooks he’d Tase her if she wouldn’t leave the car. He
removed the darts from his Taser, told Brooks the device
would cause pain if he were required to use it, and cycled it
so she could see and hear its electric current. Brooks didn’t
get out, so the officers tried to extract her, but she “wrapped
19040 MATTOS v. AGARANO
her arm around the steering column . . . and wedged her body
into the driver’s seat.”

What were the officers supposed to do at that point? Brooks
had shown herself deaf to reason, and moderate physical force
had only led to further entrenchment. The officers couldn’t
just walk away—Brooks was under arrest. Moreover, Brooks
was behaving erratically, and her keys were in the car. The
officers had to physically control her somehow, lest she man-
age to start up the engine and run someone over. How long
was this stalemate supposed to go on? Brooks was tying up
two line officers, a sergeant and three police vehicles—
resources diverted from other community functions—to deal
with one lousy traffic ticket.

The majority casts aspersions on what the officers did here,
condemning their decision to Tase Brooks as unconstitutional.
But, even with the benefit of hindsight and plenty of time to
think about it, my colleagues offer no alternative course of
action. They ignore the significant fact that, at the time
Brooks was Tased, she was no longer a random motorist get-
ting a traffic ticket; she was under arrest. As the Supreme
Court has recognized, making an arrest “necessarily carries
with it the right to use some degree of physical coercion or
threat thereof to effect it.” Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386,
396 (1989). When police effect an arrest, their relationship
with the citizen changes in a material way: The citizen is now
subject to the officers’ control and has a lawful duty to submit
to their authority; failure to do so is a crime. By her own will-
ful conduct, Brooks delivered herself to the power of the offi-
cers and the force necessary for them to complete the arrest.

Nor do my colleagues explain why Brooks’s pregnancy
renders the officers’ actions any less reasonable. Should the
officers have slammed Brooks’s fingers with a baton to make
her let go of the steering column? Forcibly ripped her from
the driver’s seat, smashing her abdomen against the steering
wheel? Doused her with pepper spray or some other noxious
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19041
chemical, which would be absorbed into her bloodstream and
go straight to the fetus? Those options all involved serious
risk of harm to both Brooks and her unborn daughter. Had the
officers tried them, we’d still be here, only Brooks would
have a stronger case.

Having already warned Brooks that he’d Tase her if she
wouldn’t comply, Jones tried the lightest possible application
of the device, pressing it against her clothed thigh for five sec-
onds. Brooks continued to resist, so Jones applied the Taser
to the exposed skin of her arm and neck. The Tasing stopped
as soon as Brooks was out of the car, but Brooks was obsti-
nate to the bitter end, “resist[ing] being handcuffed by keep-
ing her arms tense.” The officers nevertheless defused the
situation without causing serious harm: Brooks suffered only
minor scars, her daughter was born healthy and Brooks’s
counsel confirmed at oral argument that the child remains
healthy.

Faced with these utterly positive results, despite Brooks’s
stubborn effort to put herself and her unborn daughter in
harm’s way, the majority is reduced to counting the seconds
between Tasings, finding that the “rapid succession provided
no time for Brooks to recover . . . and reconsider her refusal
to comply.” Majority op. at 19023. Bull pucky! Although
Brooks claims she was “scared” and “in shock” after the ini-
tial Tasing, she also admits that she began yelling for help and
honking her car’s horn. Stepping into the shoes of a reason-
able officer at the scene, as we must, see Graham, 490 U.S.
at 396-97; Luchtel, 623 F.3d at 980, Brooks’s actions weren’t
those of someone dazed and befuddled, unable to think about
what to do next. They bespoke a deliberate decision to con-
tinue her defiance. A single drive-stun application having
already proved insufficient inducement to Brooks’s compli-
ance, the double dose was an objectively reasonable next step
and was therefore entirely constitutional. See Scott v. Harris,
550 U.S. 372, 381-82 & n.8 (2007).
19042 MATTOS v. AGARANO
According to the majority, “Brooks bears some responsibil-
ity for the escalation of this incident.” Majority op. at 19022
(emphasis added). This suggests that the rest of the blame is
with the officers. Wrong, wrong, wrong. Brooks is com-
pletely, wholly, 100 percent at fault. Had she behaved respon-
sibly, she’d have driven away in a few minutes with no
complications. Instead, Brooks risked harm to herself, her
unborn daughter and three police officers because she got her
dander up over a traffic ticket. The officers, for their part,
were endlessly patient, despite being called liars and other-
wise abused by Brooks. They deserve our praise, not the
opprobrium of being declared constitutional violators. The
City of Seattle should award them commendations for grace
under fire.

I agree, of course, with the majority that the officers are
entitled to qualified immunity from Brooks’s excessive force
claim. But, because I believe the officers’ actions were
entirely reasonable, I dissent from my colleagues’ decision to
deny them immunity from Brooks’s state law assault and bat-
tery claims. See McKinney v. City of Tukwila, 13 P.3d 631,
641 (Wash. Ct. App. 2000) (“Having found . . . that the offi-
cers’ use of force was reasonable, we find that they are enti-
tled to state law qualified immunity for the assault and battery
claims.”).

Mattos v. Agarano

I find Mattos considerably closer but, for the reasons stated
in the panel opinion, Mattos v. Agarano, 590 F.3d 1082 (9th
Cir. 2010), I believe the officers in that case acted constitu-
tionally as well. They entered the Mattoses’ home in response
to a domestic violence call initiated by Jayzel herself. By the
time the officers arrived, Jayzel seems to have regretted get-
ting the police involved. However, police are trained not to
leave just because the parties to a domestic dispute ask them
to do so. They have to assess the situation and make sure
everyone is, in fact, OK. This usually involves talking to both
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19043
parties separately, determining whether the party who called
is under duress and entering the home to check on the safety
of children or others inside. This is a highly intrusive proce-
dure but one made necessary by our litigation-minded culture.

It’s a difficult situation all around, and the best way to get
through it is for everyone to cooperate with the police. Unfor-
tunately, Jayzel’s husband was combative with the officers,
and Jayzel came to his defense instead of letting the police do
their work. When Officer Aikala placed Troy under arrest,
Jayzel stood in Aikala’s way, asking questions and insisting
that everyone go outside. It’s simple common sense, as well
as a civic duty, to stand aside immediately when police
announce they’re making an arrest. Jayzel neither exhibited
common sense nor fulfilled her civic duty; she breached the
covenant of cooperation by interfering with the officers’
efforts to do their job.

When Aikala moved in to handcuff Troy, Jayzel did not get
out of the way and allow the officer to complete the arrest.
Instead, she stood her ground, eventually raising her hands
and touching Aikala’s chest. Aikala stepped back and asked
if Jayzel was touching an officer, but she didn’t answer him.
Instead, she turned to Officer Agarano and again urged him
to move the confrontation outside. That’s when Aikala Tased
her, and his fellow officers handcuffed Troy.

In hindsight, Aikala might have given Jayzel a bit more
warning, but when evaluating the reasonableness of an offi-
cer’s use of force, we “ ‘allow[ ] for the fact that police offi-
cers are often forced to make split-second judgments—in
circumstances that are tense, uncertain, and rapidly evolv-
ing.’ ” Luchtel, 623 F.3d at 982 (quoting Graham, 490 U.S.
at 397). When, as here, police enter somebody’s house in
response to a domestic violence call, they become targets of
fear and anger generated during the initial dispute. They’re in
close quarters, “at the disadvantage of being on [their] adver-
sary’s ‘turf.’ ” Maryland v. Buie, 494 U.S. 325, 333 (1990).
19044 MATTOS v. AGARANO
Officers must maintain a defensive posture throughout their
investigation, operating under the assumption that “violence
may be lurking and explode with little warning.” United
States v. Martinez, 406 F.3d 1160, 1164 (9th Cir. 2005)
(internal quotation marks omitted). “[M]ore officers are killed
or injured on domestic violence calls than on any other type
of call.” Id. (internal quotation marks omitted). Accounting
for that enhanced risk, the officers’ actions here were objec-
tively reasonable.

***

Judge Schroeder seems to be of the view that police may
use Tasers, and presumably other types of force, only against
subjects who present a threat of violence. Concurrence at
19035-36. That has never been the law. A citizen has no right
to refuse to follow reasonable police orders, to tie up police
resources endlessly or to interfere with an arrest by standing
in the way and insisting that the police leave the scene of the
crime. The Supreme Court told us that “the right to make an
arrest . . . necessarily carries with it the right to use some
degree of physical coercion or threat thereof to effect it.” Gra-
ham, 490 U.S. at 396. Judge Schroeder’s theory conflicts with
this instruction, and also with Forrester v. City of San Diego,
25 F.3d 804, 806 (9th Cir. 1994), where we upheld a jury’s
finding that police didn’t use excessive force when they “forc-
ibly moved [passive protesters] by tightening [nonchakus]
around their wrists,” causing serious pain and lasting injuries.
Judge Schroeder would also have us split with the Tenth Cir-
cuit’s decision in Mecham v. Frazier, 500 F.3d 1200 (10th
Cir. 2007). There, an officer told a woman to leave her car or
he’d arrest her, but she refused. Id. at 1203. Displaying far
less patience than the officers here, the policeman in Mecham
simply pepper-sprayed her and pulled her from the car. Id.
The Tenth Circuit held that this was objectively reasonable.
Id. at 1205.

I’m also surprised by Judge Schroeder’s chauvinistic sug-
gestion that Brooks and Mattos were entitled to special treat-
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19045
ment because “[b]oth were women, with children nearby.”
Concurrence at 19035. I thought we were long past the point
where special pleading on the basis of sex was an acceptable
form of argument. Women can, of course, be just as uncoop-
erative and dangerous as men, and I would be most reluctant
to adopt a constitutional rule that police must treat people dif-
ferently because of their sex. As for the children being nearby,
that’s an appeal to the heartstrings that misses the mark in
both cases. Brooks’s son had left the car and trundled off to
school; his proximity had nothing at all to do with Brooks’s
bizarre behavior. And there is nothing in the record suggest-
ing that Mattos’s children were in harm’s way; I don’t see
how their presence in the house has any bearing on the case.

In any event, I disagree with Judge Schroeder’s premise
that these were non-threatening situations. In the Mattoses’
case, the danger was quite obvious: It came from Troy—
Jayzel’s out-of-control, drunken husband. He needed to be
subdued at once, before he could lunge at the officers, grab
a weapon or run away. By interfering, Jayzel wasted precious
time—time Troy could use to attack the officers or Jayzel her-
self.

Brooks was sitting inside a ton of steel, angry, screaming
and refusing to obey police orders. She was acting irratio-
nally, and there was no telling what she’d do next. The offi-
cers’ efforts to immobilize the car by removing the key were
unsuccessful, so the key remained on the floor. Brooks
might’ve been able to reach it, start up the car and drive away.
For all the officers knew, she might also have had a spare key.

The majority claims Brooks couldn’t reach the key on the
floor and there’s no evidence she had a spare. Majority op. at
19021 n.5. But the relevant question isn’t whether there was
a key within Brooks’s reach; it’s whether a reasonable officer
could have thought there might be. Graham, 490 U.S. at
396-97. Many people keep spare keys in the car for emergen-
cies. And, although Brooks’s pregnancy might have made it
19046 MATTOS v. AGARANO
difficult for her to reach the floor, the police couldn’t be sure
what was within her grasp. The officers were entitled to take
precautions for their own safety and that of others. Had they
been less vigilant, Brooks might well have driven off and run
over one of the children in the school zone. The officers were
entirely right in refusing to take that risk. If the City awards
them a commendation, as I suggest it should, I hope it carries
a substantial cash bonus for safeguarding the lives and safety
of innocent children.

***

The majority and concurrence get the law wrong, with dire
consequences for police officers and those against whom
they’re required to use force. My colleagues cast doubt on an
effective alternative to more dangerous police techniques, and
the resulting uncertainty will lead to more, worse injuries.
This mistake will be paid for in the blood and lives of police
and members of the public.

Today’s decision, though nominally a victory for the offi-
cers, is a step backward in terms of police and public safety.
One can only hope the Supreme Court will take a more
enlightened view.

SILVERMAN, Circuit Judge, with whom CLIFTON, Circuit
Judge, joins, concurring in part and dissenting in part:

Like Chief Judge Kozinski, I concur in the judgment in
Brooks. I agree with him that no constitutional violation was
shown. Brooks conceded that the police had the right to
remove her from the car when she repeatedly refused to step
out voluntarily. There are only so many ways that a person
can be extracted from a vehicle against her will, and none of
them is pretty. Fists, batons, choke holds, dogs, tear gas, and
chemical spray all carry their own risks to suspects and offi-
 MATTOS v. AGARANO 19047
cers alike. We see plenty of cases where someone on the busi-
ness end of these techniques suffers serious injuries, not to
mention injuries sustained by police officers who engage in
hand-to-hand combat with recalcitrant individuals. In this
case, tasing was a humane way to force Brooks out of her car,
causing her only fleeting pain and virtually no other harm
whatsoever. Because the force employed was not excessive,
there was no constitutional violation.

As for Mattos, I agree with the district court that there are
disputed issues of material fact on whether, under the law as
it existed in August 2006, Mattos’s conduct justified the
degree of force employed by Officer Aikala. Clearly estab-
lished law then extant prohibited the officers from using dis-
proportionate force in response to a trivial provocation. The
existence of disputed facts about whether Mattos’s conduct
was trivial is what requires a trial. This contrasts with the
Brooks case, in which the undisputed facts showed that the
police had the right to forcibly remove Brooks from her car.

Mattos had one version of their confrontation, Officer
Aikala another. She says Officer Aikala bumped into her,
pressed against her chest, and that she was merely shielding
her breasts. Aikala, on the other hand, claims that Mattos,
despite being warned to back off, fought with him as he tried
to pull her away from her husband. Although the police are
entitled to use force when they reasonably believe a suspect
poses a danger, it was well settled in August 2006, the time
of the events in this case, that the use of force must be propor-
tional to the gravity of the threat. See Smith v. City of Hemet,
394 F.3d 689, 701 (9th Cir. 2005) (en banc); Deorle v. Ruth-
erford, 272 F.3d 1272, 1279-80 (9th Cir. 2001). Indeed, the
Tenth Circuit has held that “it is excessive to use a Taser to
control a target without having any reason to believe that a
lesser amount of force — or a verbal command — could not
exact compliance.” Casey v. City of Fed. Heights, 509 F.3d
1278, 1286 (10th Cir. 2007). In Casey, the Tenth Circuit
reversed the district court’s grant of qualified immunity on
19048 MATTOS v. AGARANO
summary judgment because the officer’s “use of a Taser
immediately and without warning” violated established law as
of August 25, 2003. See id.

If Mattos’s story is credited and Aikala’s is disbelieved,
Officer Aikala dropped a nuclear bomb when a BB gun would
have sufficed. Was Officer Aikala’s tasing of Mattos a use of
force disproportionate to Mattos’s conduct, or did her behav-
ior justify it? Judge Ezra, a meticulous district judge, pains-
takingly examined the record and determined that, because
the facts were in dispute about what Mattos did or did not do,
a trial was necessary to resolve that question. Judge Ezra had
granted summary judgment to the officers on qualified immu-
nity grounds with respect to all of Mattos’s other claims;
however, the judge determined that this one claim could not
be resolved by motion. He was right.

Ashcroft v. al-Kidd instructs courts “not to define clearly
established law at a high level of generality,” 131 S. Ct. 2074,
2084 (2011); however, al-Kidd should not be read to require
a DNA-match between our precedent and the cases before us.
See id. at 2083; Wilson v. Layne, 526 U.S. 603, 615 (1999).
Precedent already on the books in August 2006 provided offi-
cers and courts with enough guidance to know that a taser in
dart mode is not a toy and presents a level of force on par with
other implements “used to subdue violent or aggressive per-
sons.” Russo v. City of Cincinnati, 953 F.2d 1036, 1040 n.1
(6th Cir. 1992). Because the district court correctly found that
the circumstances facing Officer Aikala are disputed, sum-
mary judgment was properly denied. I would affirm the dis-
trict court and, therefore, respectfully dissent.