State v. Roque

SUPREME COURT OF ARIZONA
En Banc

STATE OF ARIZONA, ) Arizona Supreme Court
) No. CR-03-0355-AP
Appellee/Cross-Appellant, )
) Maricopa County
v. ) Superior Court
) No. CR 2001-095385
FRANK SILVA ROQUE, )
)
Appellant/Cross-Appellee. ) O P I N I O N
__________________________________)

Appeal from the Superior Court in Maricopa County
The Honorable Mark F. Aceto, Judge

CONVICTIONS AFFIRMED; SENTENCE REDUCED

________________________________________________________________

TERRY GODDARD, ARIZONA ATTORNEY GENERAL Phoenix
By Kent E. Cattani, Chief Counsel,
Capital Litigation Section
Vincent L. Rabago, Assistant Attorney General Tucson
Attorneys for the State of Arizona

JAMES J. HAAS, MARICOPA COUNTY PUBLIC DEFENDER Phoenix
By Stephen R. Collins, Deputy Public Defender
Anna M. Unterberger, Deputy Public Defender
Attorneys for Frank Silva Roque
________________________________________________________________

B E R C H, Vice Chief Justice

¶1 In September 2003, a jury found Appellant Frank Silva

Roque guilty of first degree murder, attempted first degree

murder, reckless endangerment, and three counts of drive-by

shooting. He was sentenced to death for the murder. This court

has jurisdiction of this capital appeal under Article 6, Section
5(3) of the Arizona Constitution, and Arizona Revised Statutes

(“A.R.S.”) section 13-4031 (2001).

I. FACTS AND PROCEDURAL BACKGROUND

¶2 Frank Roque was at work at Boeing on September 11,

2001, when he heard the news of the terrorist attacks in New

York, Pennsylvania, and Washington, D.C. When Roque returned

home that afternoon, he cried uncontrollably and babbled

incoherently as he watched the news coverage of the attacks.

Roque also cried and carried on that evening when he phoned his

brother, Howard.

¶3 Although Roque normally never missed work, he stayed

home on September 12. When a colleague from Boeing called Roque

that evening or the next, Roque told him that he wanted to shoot

some “rag heads,” referring to people Roque perceived to be of

Arab descent.

¶4 On the morning of September 15, Roque drank

approximately three twenty-five-ounce cans of beer. Early that

afternoon, Roque drove his truck to a Chevron gas station in

Mesa. The owner of the gas station, Balbir Singh Sodhi, a Sikh

of Indian descent who wore a turban, was standing outside

talking to landscape worker Louis Ledesma, who was down on his

knees. Roque fired five or six shots through the open window of

his truck, killing Sodhi. He then sped off.

¶5 Roque next drove to a home that he had previously

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owned and had sold to the Sahaks, an Afghan couple. From the

driver’s side of his truck, he fired at least three shots at the

house. Although family members were home, nobody was injured.

Then Roque drove to a Mobil gas station, where he fired seven

shots through the convenience store window at store clerk Anwar

Khalil, a man of Lebanese descent. Five bullets struck below

the store counter and two bullets struck above it, but Khalil

was not hit. Roque sped off in his truck. That afternoon,

Roque was seen in several area bars, where he reportedly paced,

cried, talked gibberish, and ranted at the televisions.

¶6 The police investigation of the shootings soon led to

Roque, and he was arrested at his home on the evening of

September 15. When the police arrived, Roque immediately put

his hands in the air and said, “I’m a patriot and American. I’m

American. I’m a damn American.” As they drove to the police

station in the patrol car, Roque yelled at the arresting

officers, “How can you arrest me and let the terrorists run

wild?” Roque added, “I wish that my punishment would be sending

me to Afghanistan with a lot of [expletive] weapons.”

¶7 Roque was brought to trial for the first degree murder

of Balbir Sodhi, attempted first degree murder of Anwar Khalil,

reckless endangerment of Louis Ledesma, and drive-by shootings

at the Chevron station, the Mobil station, and the Sahak

residence. The State filed a notice of intent to seek the death

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penalty, asserting two aggravating circumstances: Roque “was

previously convicted of a serious offense,” A.R.S. § 13-

703(F)(2) (Supp. 2003), and, in committing the murder, Roque

“knowingly created a grave risk of death to another person or

persons in addition to the person murdered during the commission

of the offense,” A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(3).

¶8 The State’s theory of the case was that the shootings

were intentional acts of racism. Roque did not deny the

shootings, but pursued an insanity defense. Six experts — three

psychiatrists and three psychologists — testified at trial

regarding Roque’s mental health.

¶9 The same jury sat for the guilt proceeding and the

sentencing proceeding. The jury found Roque guilty of all

charges and rendered a verdict of death for the murder. The

court imposed aggravated sentences of 12 years each for the

attempted first degree murder and drive-by shooting convictions

and 1.25 years for the reckless endangerment conviction.1

1
The sentences for the convictions arising from the shooting
at the Chevron station — first degree murder (death), drive-by
shooting (12 years), and reckless endangerment (1.25 years) —
run concurrently with one another. The sentences for the
convictions arising from the shooting at the Mobil station —
attempted first degree murder (12 years) and drive-by shooting
(12 years) — run concurrently with each other but consecutively
to the other sentences. The sentence for the drive-by shooting
at the Sahak residence (12 years) runs consecutively to the
other sentences. Roque has not challenged the structure of the
sentencing.

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 II. DISCUSSION

¶10 Roque raises thirty issues on appeal and identifies

ten additional issues to avoid preclusion. The State raises one

issue on cross appeal.

A. Jury Selection

1. Peremptory Strike of Veniremember

¶11 During jury selection, the trial court denied Roque’s

challenge to the State’s peremptory strike of Juror 97, an

African American veniremember. In Batson v. Kentucky, the

Supreme Court held that excluding a potential juror on the basis

of race violates the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth

Amendment. 476 U.S. 79, 89 (1986).

¶12 We review a trial court’s decision regarding the

State’s motives for a peremptory strike for clear error. State

v. Murray, 184 Ariz. 9, 24, 906 P.2d 542, 557 (1995). “We give

great deference to the trial court’s ruling, based, as it is,

largely upon an assessment of the prosecutor’s credibility.”

State v. Cañez, 202 Ariz. 133, 147, ¶ 28, 42 P.3d 564, 578

(2002).

¶13 A Batson challenge proceeds in three steps: “(1) the

party challenging the strikes must make a prima facie showing of

discrimination; (2) the striking party must provide a race-

neutral reason for the strike; and (3) if a race-neutral

explanation is provided, the trial court must determine whether

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the challenger has carried its burden of proving purposeful

racial discrimination.” Id. at 146, ¶ 22, 42 P.3d at 577

(citing Purkett v. Elem, 514 U.S. 765, 767 (1995)).

¶14 The trial court found that Roque made a prima facie

case of discrimination, satisfying the first step. To satisfy

the second, the prosecutor offered three race-neutral reasons

for the strike: (1) Juror 97 had a brother in prison; (2) he

had some personal problems with police officers that he

attributed to racial motivation; and (3) he expressed his belief

that the death penalty is imposed more frequently on members of

minority groups. Roque offered nothing further to support his

challenge. The trial court ruled that the State’s peremptory

strike was not racially motivated and did not constitute

purposeful discrimination.

¶15 Because the Defendant bears the burden to prove

purposeful discrimination, this court will not reverse the trial

court’s determination unless the reasons provided by the State

are clearly pretextual. No such pretext is evident in this

record. The veniremember’s statements provide valid reasons for

the prosecutor to question this potential juror’s impartiality.

Antipathy toward the police alone may constitute a valid reason

to strike jurors when the State’s case relies on police

testimony. Moreover, the prosecutor did not strike all African

American jurors from the panel. Although not dispositive, “the

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fact that the state accepted other [minority] jurors on the

venire is indicative of a nondiscriminatory motive.” State v.

Eagle, 196 Ariz. 27, 30, ¶ 12, 992 P.2d 1122, 1125 (App. 1998),

aff’d, 196 Ariz. 188, 994 P.2d 395 (2000). Roque did not prove

purposeful racial discrimination. Accordingly, the trial court

did not clearly err in allowing the strike of Juror 97.

2. Excusing Veniremembers Who Objected to the Death
Penalty

¶16 Roque contests the exclusions for cause of

Veniremembers 9, 49, and 88, who expressed doubt that they could

impose the death penalty. We review a trial court’s decision to

strike potential jurors for cause for an abuse of discretion,

State v. Glassel, 211 Ariz. 33, 47, ¶ 46, 116 P.3d 1193, 1207

(2005), deferring to the trial judge’s superior opportunity to

observe the jurors’ demeanor and credibility, see Wainwright v.

Witt, 469 U.S. 412, 428 (1985).

¶17 In a capital case, the judge may exclude for cause

those jurors who would never vote for the death penalty, but not

those who have “conscientious or religious scruples against the

infliction of the death penalty” that they could set aside.

Witherspoon v. Illinois, 391 U.S. 510, 515 & n.9 (1968). To

serve as a basis for exclusion, the juror’s views must “prevent

or substantially impair the performance of his duties as a

juror.” Wainwright, 469 U.S. at 424 (quoting Adams v. Texas,

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448 U.S. 38, 45 (1980)); see also State v. Anderson (Anderson

I), 197 Ariz. 314, 318-19, ¶ 9, 4 P.3d 369, 373-74 (2000). The

State need not prove a juror’s opposition to the death penalty

with “unmistakable clarity,” Wainwright, 469 U.S. at 424, but

follow-up questions should be asked if written responses do not

show that the juror will be able to follow the law, Anderson I,

197 Ariz. at 319, ¶ 10, 4 P.3d at 374.

¶18 Based on a juror’s comments and demeanor, a judge may

excuse even a juror who promises to apply the law. In Glassel,

for example, “juror 16” called the death penalty “barbaric” and

said he was “absolutely” against it on a written questionnaire,

but then promised to apply the law during voir dire questioning.

211 Ariz. at 48, ¶ 49, 116 P.3d at 1208. This court upheld the

exclusion for cause of that juror. Id. ¶ 50. “[E]ven assuming

that juror 16 was sincere about being able to apply the law, the

judge could have reasonably determined that the juror’s views

would substantially impair his ability to deliberate

impartially.” Id.

¶19 Here, the three excused potential jurors expressed

ambivalence about their ability to impose the death penalty.

All said they could probably follow the law but were not sure if

they could enter a verdict of death. Juror 49 replied “yes”

when asked, “It sounds like you believe the death penalty is

okay, but you are not sure that you could vote for it; is that

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true?” The prosecutor asked Juror 9 if it was possible,

“despite the evidence and the law, . . . because of how it makes

you feel, how it impacts you, that you couldn’t [impose the

death penalty]?” She responded, “There is a possibility,

certainly.” The court asked Juror 88, “Are you sure you can

. . . decide this case based on the law without the influence of

your personal opinions about the death penalty?” She responded,

“I would like to think that I could but I also [have] never been

put in that position to have to make that choice.” In each

case, the judge concluded that the juror might be unable to vote

to impose a death sentence based on his assessment of the

jurors’ responses.

¶20 As Wainwright recognizes, it is sometimes impossible

to ask enough questions to make a potential juror’s feelings

clearly known, and the judge witnessing the questioning may

maintain a lingering impression of bias. 469 U.S. at 424-25.

Wainwright approved the exclusion of a juror who was “afraid”

her beliefs might affect her ability to impose the death

penalty. Id. at 416, 435. In light of each juror’s hesitation

to promise to disregard personal feelings about the death

penalty, we conclude that the judge did not abuse his discretion

in excluding these three jurors for cause.

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B. Evidentiary Rulings During the Guilt Proceeding

1. Non-disclosure of Expert Testimony

¶21 Roque claims that the trial court erred in not

precluding Dr. Ben-Porath, an expert for the State, from

testifying regarding Roque’s mental illness because that

testimony had not been properly disclosed to the defense under

Rule 15.1(a)(3) of the Arizona Rules of Criminal Procedure. The

scope of disclosure required under Rule 15.1(a)(3) is a question

of law that we review de novo, see State v. Moody, 208 Ariz.

424, 445, ¶ 62, 94 P.3d 1119, 1140 (2004), while we review the

judge’s assessment of the adequacy of disclosure for an abuse of

discretion, State v. Piper, 113 Ariz. 390, 392, 555 P.2d 636,

638 (1976). We also review for abuse of discretion the trial

judge’s imposition of a sanction for non-disclosure. State v.

Armstrong, 208 Ariz. 345, 353-54, ¶ 40, 93 P.3d 1061, 1069-70

(2004).

a. Background

¶22 Because Roque did not dispute committing the crimes

for which he was charged, the only question during the guilt

proceeding was whether he was legally insane at the time he

committed them. The defense called a psychologist, Dr. Barry,

and a psychiatrist, Dr. Rosengard, who testified that Roque was

legally insane at the time of the shootings. The State

countered with Dr. Scialli, a psychiatrist who testified that

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Roque was not legally insane at the time of the shootings.

¶23 As part of his assessment of Roque’s mental condition,

Dr. Barry conducted five diagnostic tests, including the Miller

Forensic Assessment of Symptoms Test (M-FAST), a tool for

determining whether a subject is malingering, and the Minnesota

Multiphasic Personality Inventory 2 (MMPI-2), a tool for

assessing mental illness. The MMPI-2 requires the subject to

respond to 567 true-or-false statements by filling in a bubble

on an answer sheet. Because other diagnostic tests had revealed

that Roque had poor visual motor function, Dr. Barry

administered the MMPI-2 to Roque by reading the statements aloud

and recording Roque’s answers for him.

¶24 Several months before trial, the State informed the

defense that it intended to call a nationally known MMPI-2

expert, Dr. Ben-Porath, to testify that oral administration of

the MMPI-2 invalidates the results. In an interview, the

defense asked Dr. Ben-Porath how it might rehabilitate the MMPI-

2 results acquired from Dr. Barry’s oral testing of Roque. Dr.

Ben-Porath recommended letting at least six months pass before

re-administering the MMPI-2 to Roque to avoid a possible

“practice effect.”2

2
The other psychologists who testified at trial disagreed
that any “practice effect” arises from re-administering the
MMPI-2 because of the length of the test — 567 questions — and

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¶25 The defense hired Dr. Toma to re-administer the MMPI-2

to Roque. The re-test occurred three and one-half months after

the first administration of the MMPI-2 and two days after voir

dire began. Dr. Toma provided the new results to Dr. Barry, who

scored and incorporated them in his assessment of Roque. The

defense also notified the State of Dr. Toma’s testing and

disclosed the results.

¶26 At trial, the defense called Drs. Rosengard and Barry

to testify regarding Roque’s mental condition at the time of the

crimes. Before the defense rested, the State called Dr. Ben-

Porath out of order in rebuttal. The State had disclosed to the

defense only that Dr. Ben-Porath would testify regarding the

validity of the administrations of the MMPI-2. However, on the

stand, Dr. Ben-Porath began to interpret the results of Roque’s

MMPI-2 tests. The defense immediately objected that the

doctor’s testimony fell outside the scope of disclosure,

pointing out that the State had neither disclosed any written

report from Dr. Ben-Porath nor outlined his opinion. Citing

Arizona Rule of Criminal Procedure 15.1(a)(3), the defense

asserted that the State was obligated to disclose “an overview”

of the expert’s testimony, including an “outline” of his opinion

or a “written report.”

the fact that it does not test knowledge, but rather tests
reaction to certain statements.

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¶27 The judge concluded that the State would have had to

disclose any written report generated by Dr. Ben-Porath, but did

not have to create an overview of his testimony. The judge

therefore found no disclosure violation, but nonetheless

proposed giving the defense the remainder of the afternoon,

commencing at approximately 3:15 p.m., to interview Dr. Ben-

Porath. The defense attorney declined, saying that he could not

effectively challenge Dr. Ben-Porath’s expanded testimony on

such short notice. The judge ruled that Dr. Ben-Porath could

continue to testify, and the doctor proceeded to analyze Roque’s

MMPI-2 results in detail.

¶28 Dr. Ben-Porath then began to analyze the results of

the M-FAST that Dr. Barry had administered to Roque. The

defense again objected, this time because Dr. Ben-Porath was

testifying regarding a diagnostic tool other than the MMPI-2.

The judge overruled the objection. Dr. Ben-Porath proceeded to

opine on the critical questions of whether the MMPI-2 results

indicated that Roque had mental disorders and whether the M-FAST

results indicated malingering.

¶29 The prosecutors conceded below that they had not

revealed to the defense that Dr. Ben-Porath would testify to

anything other than the proper administration of the MMPI-2.

Recognizing that their failure to disclose the scope of Dr. Ben-

Porath’s testimony might create an appellate issue, the lead

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prosecutor said, “I don’t suppose an appellate court cares

whether I’m sorry about something but I think we had . . . a

miscommunication.” The prosecutor then said he would not object

if the defense had to hire another expert to rebut Dr. Ben-

Porath’s testimony because of the “miscommunication.”

b. The Scope of Disclosure Required under Rule
15.1(a)(3)

¶30 Arizona Rule of Criminal Procedure 15.1(a)(3)3

addresses the scope of disclosure of expert testimony in

criminal cases. It requires the State to provide or make

available to the defendant

[t]he names and addresses of experts who have
personally examined a defendant or any evidence in the
particular case, together with the results of physical
examinations and of scientific tests, experiments or
comparisons, including all written reports or
statements made by them in connection with the
particular case.

Ariz. R. Crim. P. 15.1(a)(3). Arizona Rule of Criminal

Procedure 15.6 makes the duty to disclose a continuing

obligation.

¶31 The trial court’s interpretation of Rule 15.1(a)(3) as

requiring the production only of a “written report or statement”

derives from the rule’s participial phrase, “including all

3
After Roque’s trial was completed, Rule 15.1(a) was revised
and Rule 15.1(a)(3) was renumbered as Rule 15.1(b)(4), effective
December 1, 2003. This opinion cites the version applicable to
Roque’s trial.

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written reports or statements made by [experts] in connection

with the particular case.” But the “including” language does

not limit disclosure of the “results of physical examinations

and of scientific tests, experiments or comparisons” to “written

reports or statements.” Typically, the word “including” is “not

one of all-embracing definition, but connotes simply an

illustrative application of the general principle.” Bernhart v.

Indus. Comm’n, 200 Ariz. 410, 413, ¶ 12, 26 P.3d 1181, 1184

(App. 2001) (quoting Fed. Land Bank of St. Paul v. Bismarck

Lumber Co., 314 U.S. 95, 100 (1941)).

¶32 The purpose of Rule 15.1(a)(3) is “to give full

notification of each side’s case-in-chief so as to avoid

unnecessary delay and surprise at trial.” Armstrong, 208 Ariz.

at 353, ¶ 38, 93 P.3d at 1069 (quoting State v. Dodds, 112 Ariz.

100, 102, 537 P.2d 970, 972 (1975)). The rule was “designed to

give the defendant an opportunity to check the validity of the

conclusions of an expert witness and to call such expert as his

own witness or to have the evidence examined by his own

independent expert witness.” State v. Spain, 27 Ariz. App. 752,

755, 558 P.2d 947, 950 (1976).

¶33 The Supreme Court has described the policy underlying

the discovery rules as facilitating the search for truth and

preventing surprise:

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 [I]n the absence of a strong showing of state
interests to the contrary, discovery must be a two-way
street. The State may not insist that trials be run
as a “search for truth” so far as defense witnesses
are concerned, while maintaining “poker game” secrecy
for its own witnesses. It is fundamentally unfair to
require a defendant to divulge the details of his own
case while at the same time subjecting him to the
hazard of surprise concerning refutation of the very
pieces of evidence which he disclosed to the State.

Wardius v. Oregon, 412 U.S. 470, 475-76 (1973) (footnote

omitted). Arizona’s policy serves similar goals:

However so it may appear at times, a criminal trial is
not a contest of wits and tactics between the
prosecution and defense counsel. “We believe justice
dictates that the defendant be entitled to the benefit
of any reasonable opportunity to prepare his defense
and to prove his innocence.”

State ex rel. Helm v. Superior Court (Deddens), 90 Ariz. 133,

139, 367 P.2d 6, 10 (1961) (quoting State ex rel. Mahoney v.

Superior Court (Stevens), 78 Ariz. 74, 79, 275 P.2d 887, 890

(1954)).

¶34 Few Arizona cases have touched on the scope of

disclosure required under Rule 15.1(a)(3). By contrast, a

number of cases have addressed the scope of disclosure required

under other rules. See, e.g., State v. Williams, 183 Ariz. 368,

379, 904 P.2d 437, 448 (1995) (“Rule 15.1(a)(1) requires the

state to disclose the names of all [non-expert] witnesses

together with their relevant written or recorded statements,”

but does “not require the state to explain how it ‘intends’ to

use each of its witnesses.”); Englert v. Carondelet Health

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Network, 199 Ariz. 21, 25, ¶¶ 6-7, 13 P.3d 763, 767 (App. 2000)

(Rule 26.1 of the Arizona Rules of Civil Procedure requires a

party to disclose “a ‘fair description’ of each witness’s

expected testimony, and ‘the substance of the facts and

opinions’ of each expert’s expected testimony,” but not a

“detailed ‘scripting’ of expected testimony.”). But the other

rules do not include the language contained in Rule 15.1(a)(3)

requiring disclosure of “results of physical examinations and of

scientific tests, experiments or comparisons,” and these cases

are therefore of limited value in interpreting Rule 15.1(a)(3).4

¶35 Nor do the two published Arizona opinions analyzing

Rule 15.1(a)(3) control this case. In State v. Ramirez, this

court considered whether surprise, unwritten testimony by the

state’s expert as to the defendant’s mental illness violated

Rule 15.1(a)(3). 116 Ariz. 259, 267, 569 P.2d 201, 209 (1977).

But in that case, unlike this one, the state had not known that

4
Arizona Rule of Civil Procedure 26.1(a)(6) is broader than
Criminal Rule 15.1(a)(3). Rule 26.1(a)(6) requires disclosure
of “the subject matter on which the expert is expected to
testify, the substance of the facts and opinions to which the
expert is expected to testify,” and “a summary of the grounds
for each opinion.” The federal counterpart to Rule 15.1(a)(3)
is also broader than Arizona’s rule, requiring the government to
submit “to the defendant a written summary of any testimony that
the government intends to use . . . as evidence at trial on the
issue of the defendant’s mental condition. The summary provided
under this subparagraph must describe the witness’s opinions,
the bases and reasons for those opinions, and the witness’s
qualifications.” Fed. R. Crim. P. 16(a)(1)(G).

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its expert had made an assessment, so the relevant results were

not within the prosecutor’s “possession or control” as required

by the then-current version of Rule 15.1(a)(3).5 Id. at 268, 569

P.2d at 210.

¶36 In Spain, the court of appeals considered whether an

undisclosed in-court voice identification by the victim violated

Rule 15.1(a)(3). 27 Ariz. App. at 755, 558 P.2d at 950. The

court ultimately found no disclosure violation because Rule

15.1(a)(3) applies only to “expert testimony” and “clearly

pertains only to examinations, tests, experiments and

comparisons which have already been completed.” Id. Roque’s

case indisputably involves expert testimony.

¶37 No Arizona opinion pertaining to Rule 15.1(a)(3)

addresses a case in which the state knew that its expert had an

opinion on an issue to which he intended to testify, yet failed

to disclose it. Nor have we faced a situation in which a party

affirmatively represented that its expert would testify only

regarding the methodology of one test (MMPI-2), and then had the

expert interpret the results not only of that test, but also of

5
After Roque’s trial was completed, the Rules were revised
to make clear that the prosecutor’s obligations to disclose are
not limited to information within “the prosecutor’s possession
or control,” but also encompass information within the control
of certain other people, including “[a]ny other person who has
participated in the investigation or evaluation of the case and
who [is] under the prosecutor’s direction or control.” Ariz. R.
Crim. P. 15.1(f).

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another test (M-FAST) about which no disclosure was made.

Finally, we have never faced a case under Rule 15.1(a)(3) in

which an expert made no notes or reports whatsoever in an area

this complex, involving the interpretations of two tests

consisting of more than 1100 responses and the results of a

third assessment test. Courts in other states, however, have

addressed whether “results of physical examinations and of

scientific tests, experiments or comparisons” must be disclosed

even if unwritten.

¶38 The Kentucky Supreme Court considered whether a

defendant was entitled to disclosure of the Commonwealth’s

expert’s conclusion that traces of blood found on the

defendant’s hands and arms were traceable to the victim.

Barnett v. Commonwealth, 763 S.W.2d 119, 123 (Ky. 1988). The

expert did not include this opinion in his report, which had

been given to the defense. Id. After considering the Kentucky

analog to Arizona Rule 15.1(a)(3), which required disclosure of

“results or reports of physical or mental examinations, and of

scientific tests or experiments made in connection with the

particular case,” that court held it to be reversible error that

the expert’s report did not contain this “significant piece of

information, the expert’s opinion as to what the physical

findings indicated.” Id.

¶39 An Ohio court of appeals similarly concluded that, in

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combination with other errors, failure to disclose an important

expert opinion by not including it in the expert’s report

constituted reversible error. State v. Karl, 757 N.E.2d 30, 34-

35, 40 (Ohio Ct. App. 2001). Ohio’s version of Arizona Rule

15.1(a)(3) requires the state to “disclose the results or

reports of scientific tests made in connection with the case

that are known or by due diligence may become known to the

prosecutor.” Id. at 35 (citing Rule 16(B)(1)(d) of the Ohio

Rules of Criminal Procedure). On a question of forgery, the

state’s expert had concluded that the defendant’s handwriting

matched a signature in question, but had not included that

finding in the report provided to the defendant. Id. The court

found it “apparent that the prosecutor knew” of the expert’s

opinion from his questioning on direct examination. Id. The

failure to disclose this important finding violated the intent

of the disclosure rule and prejudiced the defendant by

potentially eliminating any reasonable doubt in the minds of the

jurors without giving the defense the opportunity to call its

own witness to rebut the evidence. Id.

¶40 Consistent with this case law, we hold that Rule

15.1(a)(3) applies even if an expert has not written down the

“results of physical examinations and of scientific tests,

experiments or comparisons,” as long as such results are known

to the state. Such a reading of Rule 15.1(a)(3) serves to avoid

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surprise and delay at trial, Armstrong, 208 Ariz. at 353, ¶ 38,

93 P.3d at 1069, and to allow a party time to check the

conclusions of the opposing party’s expert and call an expert in

rebuttal, if necessary, Spain, 27 Ariz. App. at 755, 558 P.2d at

950. We therefore conclude, under these facts, that the trial

court erred in ruling that Rule 15.1(a)(3) requires that only a

“written report or statement” need be disclosed.

c. The Adequacy of the State’s Disclosure

¶41 Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony far exceeded a discussion

of the validity of an oral administration of the MMPI-2 followed

three months later by a paper administration of the test. Dr.

Ben-Porath analyzed several of Roque’s scores from both test

administrations, such as those indicating bizarre mentation.

Indeed, Dr. Ben-Porath testified to the ultimate question in

dispute, opining that Roque’s MMPI-2 scores did not indicate

that Roque had any of several mental conditions about which the

prosecutor questioned him. On this critical issue, Dr. Ben-

Porath was the only expert to find no evidence of mental

illness. Dr. Ben-Porath also testified that Roque’s M-FAST

score indicated malingering, and he offered a general

psychological opinion in response to a juror’s question.

¶42 Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony clearly revealed that he

had completed his analysis before taking the stand. For

example, with regard to Dr. Barry’s interpretation of Roque’s M-

- 21 -
FAST score, Dr. Ben-Porath testified as follows:

Well, clearly, [Roque] didn’t reach the threshold for
declaring he’s malingering because you needed to get a
score of five, of six, excuse me. The part that I
found significant was when I read Dr. Barry’s
interpretation of that score he said the score of five
indicates [Roque] wasn’t malingering. That is not
true. It’s still a very high score.

Discussing Roque’s bizarre mentation scores on the MMPI-2, Dr.

Ben-Porath acknowledged that he had reviewed Dr. Toma’s report

to reach his own conclusions about Roque’s mental condition.

¶43 The questioning by the State also makes clear that the

prosecutor knew of Dr. Ben-Porath’s scientific conclusions

before the doctor took the stand, satisfying the requirement in

the then-applicable version of Rule 15.1(a)(3) that the

information be “within the prosecutor’s possession or control.”

In considering the defense’s disclosure objection, the court

said to the prosecutor, “So you want to talk about, number one,

there [are] differences [between the two MMPI-2 tests], and

number two, Dr. Barry’s interpretation is wrong and the real

interpretation or the accurate interpretation should be this.”

The prosecutor replied, “Right. So [for] example, Dr. Barry

said that this shows signs of schizotypal personality

[disorder]. The test itself will show that that’s not the case.

So it’s the interpretation — it’s what the test is actually

saying.” It was also clear in the line of questioning

throughout the direct examination that the prosecutor already

- 22 -
knew the conclusions to which Dr. Ben-Porath would testify. The

State therefore should have disclosed that information to the

defense under Rule 15.1(a)(3).

¶44 The State argues that the defense should have

anticipated that Dr. Ben-Porath “would testify regarding what

the defense expert relied on, as well as the defense expert’s

evaluation.” But the record does not bear this out. The State

had engaged Dr. Ben-Porath, an expert in the administration of

the MMPI-2, to support its contention that the oral

administration of the MMPI-2 invalidated the results, and it had

disclosed only that information to the defense. That disclosure

was not sufficient to put the defense on notice that Dr. Ben-

Porath had interpreted Roque’s scores on the MMPI-2 and M-FAST

tests and assessed Roque’s mental health.

¶45 Moreover, the State had retained another expert, Dr.

Scialli, to assess Roque’s mental health and had disclosed to

the defense his report opining that Roque was not legally insane

at the time he committed the crimes. The defense should

therefore not have been expected to infer that Dr. Ben-Porath

also would testify regarding the ultimate issue.

¶46 Nor would the defense necessarily have expected Dr.

Ben-Porath to testify on the ultimate issue of Roque’s mental

health based solely on tests previously administered to Roque by

others. All other experts who testified stressed the importance

- 23 -
of personally interviewing the subject and reviewing collateral

information in addition to analyzing test results before

assessing a subject’s mental health. Dr. Ben-Porath had neither

interviewed Roque nor examined any collateral information.

¶47 We also find unconvincing the State’s explanation that

it failed to disclose Dr. Ben-Porath’s findings because it “did

not learn that a second test had been administered (by Dr. Toma)

until trial began.” In his interview by the defense more than a

month before trial, which the prosecutor attended, Dr. Ben-

Porath had recommended that a second MMPI-2 test be administered

to Roque to remedy the problems with the first administration.

Dr. Ben-Porath advised the defense to wait as long as possible

to re-administer the test to ameliorate any practice effect. In

light of its own expert’s advice, the State should not have been

surprised that the defense delayed as long as possible before

having the MMPI-2 re-administered to Roque.

¶48 Nor did the re-administration of the MMPI-2 test cause

the expansion of Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony. The State’s

intention to have Dr. Ben-Porath testify on his conclusions

regarding Roque’s M-FAST and first set of MMPI-2 results, for

example, could have been disclosed to the defense when the State

hired Dr. Ben-Porath, because the State already possessed those

results at that time. But the State disclosed only that it

intended for Dr. Ben-Porath to testify regarding the proper

- 24 -
procedure for administering the MMPI-2. The State’s failure to

fully and fairly disclose to the defense the results of Dr. Ben-

Porath’s assessment of Roque’s mental health, the critical issue

in this capital case, violated Rule 15.1(a)(3).

d. The Proposed Sanction

¶49 In this case, although the trial court did not find a

disclosure violation, it nonetheless sought to avoid any

prejudice from the nondisclosure. When the defense objected to

Dr. Ben-Porath’s expanded testimony, the judge proposed that the

court break for the day at 3:15 p.m. to allow the defense to

interview Dr. Ben-Porath. The defense declined to do so.

¶50 Arizona Rule of Criminal Procedure 15.7 provides

several sanctions that the trial court may impose for non-

compliance with the rules of discovery, including “granting a

continuance” or “[p]recluding a party from calling a witness,

offering evidence, or raising a defense not disclosed.” In

selecting the appropriate sanction, the trial court

should seek to apply sanctions that affect the
evidence at trial and the merits of the case as little
as possible since the Rules of Criminal Procedure are
designed to implement, not to impede, the fair and
speedy determination of cases. Prohibiting the
calling of a witness should be invoked only in those
cases where other less stringent sanctions are not
applicable to effect the ends of justice. The court
should also consider how vital the precluded witness
is to the proponent’s case, whether the opposing party
will be surprised and prejudiced by the witness’
testimony, whether the discovery violation was

- 25 -
 motivated by bad faith or willfulness, and any other
relevant circumstances.

State v. Fisher, 141 Ariz. 227, 246, 686 P.2d 750, 769 (1984)

(citations omitted). Even though the superior court found no

violation of the Rule here, had it done so, the short

continuance offered by the trial judge was an appropriate

initial approach to resolving the issue.

¶51 If a discovery dispute arises, the parties must make

good faith efforts to resolve it. When the trial court imposes

a sanction, a party may not simply decline it in the hope that

the court will substitute a more stringent sanction. Because

precluding the testimony of a witness should ordinarily not be

the trial court’s sanction of first resort, see id., we cannot

say that the trial court acted unreasonably here in initially

proposing a short continuance. The defense should have accepted

the opportunity to interview Dr. Ben-Porath to determine whether

the defense required additional time or witnesses to adequately

prepare its rebuttal. If more time was then needed, the defense

could have requested an appropriate continuance or suggested

another approach. Because the defense categorically rejected

the trial court’s initial attempt to resolve the dispute,

however, we cannot now fully assess the prejudice the defense

may ultimately have suffered. See Paragon Bldg. Corp. v.

Bankers Trust Co., 116 Ariz. 87, 89, 567 P.2d 1216, 1218 (App.

- 26 -
1977). We therefore cannot conclude that the trial court abused

its discretion in failing to grant further relief.

¶52 By failing to disclose the scope of Dr. Ben-Porath’s

testimony, the State engaged in improper conduct. See State v.

Tucker, 157 Ariz. 433, 441, 759 P.2d 579, 587 (1988) (observing

that, without reversal, counsel may consider admonition only a

“verbal spanking”). But because the trial court imposed an

appropriate initial sanction that the defense refused to accept,

we cannot conclude that the trial court’s failure to preclude

Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony constitutes reversible error.6

2. Admission of Prior Conviction Evidence

¶53 Dr. Scialli, a State expert, testified that in

assessing Roque’s mental health, he considered Roque’s 1983

attempted robbery conviction. Citing Arizona Rule of Evidence

403, Roque asserts that the judge erred in allowing evidence of

the conviction because its prejudicial effect substantially

outweighed its probative value. We review this evidentiary

ruling for an abuse of discretion. See State v. Aguilar, 209

Ariz. 40, 49, ¶ 29, 97 P.3d 865, 874 (2004).

¶54 Generally, evidence of other wrongs may not be used

“to show that a defendant is a bad person or has a propensity

6
We do consider the State’s failure to disclose the extent
of Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony in assessing whether cumulative
prosecutorial misconduct warrants reversal in this case. See
infra ¶¶ 162-65.

- 27 -
for committing crimes.” State v. Amarillas, 141 Ariz. 620, 622,

688 P.2d 628, 630 (1984) (citation omitted); see also Ariz. R.

Evid. 404(b). “When insanity is at issue, [however,] evidence

of prior bad acts is admissible if relevant, Ariz. R. Evid. 402,

and if the probative value of the evidence is not substantially

outweighed by unfair prejudice, Ariz. R. Evid. 403.” State v.

Vickers, 159 Ariz. 532, 540, 768 P.2d 1177, 1185 (1989).

¶55 In State v. Amarillas, for example, we found the prior

bad acts of a defendant who asserted an insanity defense

relevant to prove lack of mental illness. 141 Ariz. at 622-23,

688 P.2d at 630-31. Amarillas argued that his crimes resulted

from paranoid delusions; the state countered that the crimes

were alcohol-induced. Id. Because Amarillas had committed

other crimes while intoxicated, evidence of those crimes

suggested that alcohol, rather than paranoid delusions, likely

induced the criminal acts. Id. We concluded that evidence of

the prior bad acts was relevant and there was no error in

admitting it. Id. Similarly, in Vickers we concluded that

evidence of prior bad acts was not outweighed by unfair

prejudice, and the trial court therefore did not abuse its

discretion in admitting that evidence. 159 Ariz. at 540, 768

P.2d at 1185 (no abuse of discretion in admitting prior bad acts

to show that the defendant’s crimes were not “random [or]

senseless” on account of temporal lobe epilepsy, but rather were

- 28 -
deliberate).

¶56 Here, however, the judge permitted an expert to

testify regarding his reliance on the conviction in assessing

Roque’s mental health. Roque does not contest that evidence of

his previous conviction is the type of evidence reasonably

relied upon by experts in making mental health assessments.

Under the Rules of Evidence, therefore, the evidence may be

disclosed as forming the basis of an opinion without regard to

its independent admissibility. See Ariz. R. Evid. 703. Roque

claims, however, that the mention of the conviction was so

unduly prejudicial that it outweighed the probative value of the

evidence.

¶57 We agree that Roque’s 1983 attempted robbery

conviction had only minimal probative value in showing a lack of

mental illness because the State did not produce evidence that

the attempted robbery was alcohol-induced or that it was

motivated by racism, which were its theories at trial. Nor did

Dr. Scialli’s testimony demonstrate the relevance of the 1983

conviction to his assessment of Roque’s mental health. See Ex

parte Vaughn, 869 So. 2d 1090, 1097, 1099 (Ala. 2002) (finding

probative value of prior bad acts substantially outweighed by

prejudice where state “presented nothing to indicate that the

prior acts committed by [defendant] were relevant to his mental

state during the shooting that occurred . . . many years

- 29 -
later”).

¶58 But if the probative value of the conviction was

minimal, so was any prejudicial effect. The jury heard of the

conviction from at least two other experts, Dr. Potts and Dr.

Rosengard, who testified that because of the age of the

conviction and lack of violence involved, it did not affect

their assessments of Roque’s mental health. Moreover, Roque

admitted doing the acts that constituted the crimes for which he

was charged in this trial, so the jury did not rely on the prior

conviction to conclude that Roque may have acted in conformity

with it in committing the present crimes. Finally, we note that

the trial judge offered to give a limiting instruction advising

the jurors to consider the conviction only as information relied

upon by the expert, but Roque declined the offer.

¶59 We conclude in these circumstances that any

prejudicial effect of the conviction does not substantially

outweigh its minimal probative value. The judge therefore did

not abuse his discretion in allowing evidence of the conviction.

3. Exclusion of Testimony as Hearsay

¶60 Roque’s sister Sylvia testified regarding their

mother’s mental illness. On cross-examination, the prosecutor

asked Sylvia if her mother had ever physically hurt her. Sylvia

replied, “I was told that she once tried to push me into traffic

by my grandmother.” The prosecutor objected on hearsay grounds,

- 30 -
and the judge sustained the objection. The judge then said,

“That testimony is stricken from the record. It’s inadmissible

under the rules of evidence as not being reliable. Please

disregard it.”

¶61 Roque asserts that Sylvia’s statement was material

because it showed that a family member’s mental illness had led

to violence. Roque further asserts that the judge erroneously

struck Sylvia’s statement as hearsay because it had the

“circumstantial guarantees of trustworthiness” required for

admission under Rule 803(24) of the Arizona Rules of Evidence.

Roque also argues that the judge erred by telling the jury that

the statement was “not reliable” because the judge thereby

implied that Sylvia’s testimony generally lacked reliability.

a. Rule 803(24)

¶62 Because Roque did not mention Rule 803(24) at trial in

response to the prosecutor’s hearsay objection, we review

Roque’s “circumstantial guarantee” argument only for fundamental

error. See State v. Henderson, 210 Ariz. 561, 567, ¶ 19, 115

P.3d 601, 607 (2005) (fundamental error standard applies if no

objection made at trial). “To obtain relief under the

fundamental error standard of review, [Roque] must first prove

error.” Id. at 568, ¶ 23, 115 P.3d at 608.

¶63 Rule 803(24) of the Arizona Rules of Evidence is an

exception to the hearsay rule that allows the admission of

- 31 -
evidence that possesses “equivalent circumstantial guarantees of

trustworthiness” to evidence admissible pursuant to the other

hearsay exceptions. The offered statement must be “evidence of

a material fact” that is “more probative on the point for which

it is offered than any other evidence which the proponent can

procure through reasonable efforts,” and its admission must

serve the “interests of justice.” Ariz. R. Evid. 803(24). A

judge must consider the “spirit rather than the letter” of Rule

803(24), and “look at each case individually [to] determine the

reliability of the particular evidence.” State v. Robles, 135

Ariz. 92, 95, 659 P.2d 645, 648 (1983). Factors the judge

should consider include the “presence of oath or cross-

examination,” the “ability of a declarant to perceive clearly,”

the “amount of time between event and declaration,” any

“corroboration,” the “self-incriminatory nature of the

declaration,” whether the “declaration was unambiguous and

explicit [or] contrary to [the declarant’s] pecuniary

interests,” and whether there are “multiple levels of hearsay”

involved. Id. (citing cases).

¶64 The judge did not err here in precluding Sylvia’s

statement. The statement allegedly made by Sylvia’s grandmother

was not made under oath or subject to cross-examination, and

nothing in the record indicates that she made the statement near

the time of the event in question. Nor is any other indicator

- 32 -
of reliability present. While Roque may be correct that a

grandmother is unlikely to lie to her granddaughter about an

attempt to hurt her, we cannot know whether Sylvia’s grandmother

ever made the statement, let alone whether Sylvia offered it

truthfully or accurately. The trial judge did not err in

concluding that the statement does not exhibit the reliability

necessary to qualify as an exception to the hearsay rule.

b. Explaining the Legal Reasoning to the Jury

¶65 Roque did not object when the judge explained to the

jury that he struck Sylvia’s hearsay statement “as not being

reliable,” so we review the comment only for fundamental error.

See Henderson, 210 Ariz. at 567, ¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607. Error

is fundamental if it “go[es] to the foundation of the case,

. . . takes from the defendant a right essential to

[defendant’s] defense, and [is] of such magnitude that the

defendant could not possibly have received a fair trial.” Id.

(quoting State v. Hunter, 142 Ariz. 88, 90, 688 P.2d 980, 982

(1984)). We reverse only if the error actually prejudiced the

defendant. Id. ¶ 20.

¶66 Historically, judges were permitted to comment on the

general weight of evidence to assist the jury in reaching its

verdicts. 9 WIGMORE ON EVIDENCE § 2551 (1981). In Arizona,

however, the constitution prohibits judges from commenting on

the evidence. Ariz. Const. art. 6, § 27. To violate this

- 33 -
prohibition, “the court must express an opinion as to what the

evidence proves” or “interfere with the jury’s independent

evaluation of that evidence.” State v. Rodriguez, 192 Ariz. 58,

63, ¶ 29, 961 P.2d 1006, 1011 (1998) (citations omitted).

¶67 Roque asserts that the judge’s comment on the

reliability of Sylvia’s statement was “implied vouching” and

suggests that “there is a reasonable likelihood that at least

one of the jurors considered this implied vouching in deciding

if other parts of Sylvia’s testimony were true.” This, Roque

maintains, constitutes judicial interference with the jury’s

independent evaluation of the evidence.

¶68 We agree that the judge should not imply that a

witness’s testimony is unreliable. State v. Philpot, 66 N.W.

730, 732 (Iowa 1896) (noting that “it is a matter of common

knowledge that jurors hang tenaciously upon remarks made by the

court during the progress of the trial”). But while the trial

judge would have been better advised simply to sustain the

motion to strike without explaining his reasoning, we do not

believe that his comments can be taken as relating to anything

but the stricken testimony. Moreover, were we to assume that

the judge’s explanation regarding one statement was a comment

regarding the reliability of Sylvia’s testimony generally, any

error would not be fundamental, as Sylvia’s other statements did

little to establish that Roque was mentally ill at the time of

- 34 -
the commission of his crimes. The judge’s explanation therefore

was not of such magnitude that Roque could not have received a

fair trial.

4. Right to Confront Source of Testimonial Statements

¶69 During the videotaped interrogation of Roque after the

shootings, the police detectives told Roque that his wife, Dawn,

had made statements to them incriminating Roque. Dawn refused

to testify at trial. Roque asserts that the admission of the

videos at trial violated the Sixth Amendment’s Confrontation

Clause as interpreted in Crawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36

(2004), because the detectives used Dawn’s statements in

questioning Roque and Roque had no opportunity to cross-examine

Dawn.

¶70 The trial court’s admission of the videos did not

violate the Confrontation Clause. Crawford establishes that the

Sixth Amendment right to confront witnesses attaches to

testimonial witness statements made to a government officer to

establish some fact. See 541 U.S. at 68. In this case,

however, there was no evidence presented that Dawn actually made

the statements that the detectives used in questioning Roque.

The detectives’ report of what Dawn said was not being offered

at trial for the truth of the matters allegedly asserted by Dawn

and therefore did not constitute hearsay. Instead, the

detectives were using an interrogation technique to elicit a

- 35 -
confession from Roque. The judge instructed the jury, in

watching the interrogation videos, not to consider the

detectives’ statements for their truth. Because the statements

allegedly made by Dawn were never introduced for their truth,

they were not testimonial hearsay statements barred by the

Confrontation Clause. See id. at 59 n.9. The admission of the

videotaped statements therefore did not violate Roque’s rights

under the Confrontation Clause.

C. Jury Instructions in the Guilt Proceeding

1. Adequacy of Guilty Except Insane Instructions

¶71 At trial, Roque claimed that before the shootings, he

heard God’s voice instructing him to “kill the devils.” Roque

now argues that the jury should have been instructed to consider

whether his belief that he was commanded by God to kill negated

any understanding that his acts were “wrongful” under Arizona’s

insanity statute, A.R.S. § 13-502 (2001). Specifically, Roque

argues that the jury should have been instructed that (1) the

statutory definition of insanity encompasses both moral

wrongfulness and legal wrongfulness; (2) the definition of

insanity includes the first prong of the M’Naghten test — that

the defendant has no knowledge of the nature and quality of the

act; and (3) mental illness may negate the element of mens rea.

The judge actually instructed the jury, pursuant to statutory

terms, that a “person is guilty except insane if at the time of

- 36 -
the commission of the criminal act, the person was afflicted

with a mental disease or defect of such severity that the person

did not know the criminal act was wrong.”

¶72 The insanity instruction given in Roque’s trial, which

reflected the language of A.R.S. § 13-502, consists of a portion

of the M’Naghten test for insanity. See Clark v. Arizona, ___

U.S. ___, ___, 126 S. Ct. 2709, 2718 (2006). The complete

M’Naghten test states that a person is not responsible for

criminal conduct by reason of insanity if, at the time of the

conduct, (1) the person was suffering from a mental disease or

defect so as not to know the nature and quality of the act, or

(2) the person did not know that what he was doing was wrong.

Id. at 2719; see also State v. Mott, 187 Ariz. 536, 541, 931

P.2d 1046, 1051 (1997). Arizona’s definition encompasses only

the second prong. Clark, 126 S. Ct. at 2718; see also A.R.S. §

13-502(A). In Clark, the Supreme Court held that Arizona’s

definition of insanity does not deny a defendant due process.

126 S. Ct. at 2724. The Court also concluded that due process

does not require that a jury determine whether mental illness

negates mens rea. Id. at 2737; see also Mott, 187 Ariz. at 541,

931 P.2d at 1051. Accordingly, in this case, the trial court

did not err in instructing the jury regarding a guilty except

insane verdict.

- 37 -
 2. Definition of “Clear and Convincing”

¶73 The trial court instructed the jury that, for a

verdict of guilty except insane, it must find that Roque proved

by clear and convincing evidence that he was legally insane at

the time of the commission of the crimes. See A.R.S. § 13-

502(C). The court defined “clear and convincing” as “highly

probable,” and added that “[t]his is a lesser standard of proof

than beyond a reasonable doubt.” By contrast, the court defined

“[p]roof beyond a reasonable doubt” as “proof that leaves you

firmly convinced of the defendant’s guilt.”

¶74 Roque asserts that the trial court erred in defining

“clear and convincing” because the “highly probable” instruction

with respect to clear and convincing evidence is

indistinguishable from the “firmly convinced” instruction given

with respect to proof beyond a reasonable doubt. Roque did not

object at trial, so we review only for fundamental error. See

Henderson, 210 Ariz. at 567, ¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607.

¶75 This court has adopted the definition of “clear and

convincing” that requires the jury to “be persuaded that the

truth of the contention is ‘highly probable.’” In re Neville,

147 Ariz. 106, 111, 708 P.2d 1297, 1302 (1985) (quoting MCCORMICK

ON EVIDENCE § 340(b) (2d ed. 1972)). Moreover, we have

repeatedly stated that jury instructions must be considered as a

whole. E.g., State v. Schrock, 149 Ariz. 433, 440, 719 P.2d

- 38 -
1049, 1056 (1986). In this case, the jury instructions complied

with precedent in defining clear and convincing as “highly

probable.” The judge also instructed that the clear and

convincing standard is lower than the beyond a reasonable doubt

standard of proof, thereby establishing the relative positions

of the standards.

¶76 Roque cites State v. Renforth, 155 Ariz. 385, 746 P.2d

1315 (App. 1987), for the proposition that erroneous jury

instructions constitute fundamental error. But Renforth stated

that the proper definition of “clear and convincing” is “highly

probable,” precisely as it was defined here, and found problems

only with the use of the terms “unambiguous” and “certain” in

the jury instructions. Id. at 388, 746 P.3d at 1318. This

court and others have cited Renforth with approval. See United

States v. Owens, 854 F.2d 432, 436 n.8 (11th Cir. 1988); State

v. King, 158 Ariz. 419, 422-23, 763 P.2d 239, 242-43 (1988).

Because the instruction at issue used the approved term “highly

probable” and correctly advised the jury that clear and

convincing is a lower standard than proof beyond a reasonable

doubt, there was no error in these jury instructions.

3. Constitutionality of Burden of Persuasion for Insanity

¶77 Roque claims that placing the burden on a defendant to

prove insanity by clear and convincing evidence, as required by

A.R.S. § 13-502(C), violates due process. We considered and

- 39 -
rejected this claim in State v. Moorman, 154 Ariz. 578, 586, 744

P.2d 679, 687 (1987). In that case, we observed that the

Supreme Court has upheld imposing on a defendant “the burden of

proving insanity beyond a reasonable doubt.” Id. (citing Leland

v. Oregon, 343 U.S. 790, 798 (1952)). If the requirement of

proof beyond a reasonable doubt is not unconstitutionally high,

neither is the requirement that a defendant prove insanity by

clear and convincing evidence.

D. Aggravation Phase Issues

1. State’s Cross-Appeal: Dismissal of (F)(2) Aggravating
Factor

¶78 Just before trial, the State filed an amended notice

of aggravating circumstances listing a 1983 California

conviction for attempted robbery as a qualifying prior serious

offense under A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(2). Concluding that the

California conviction did not qualify as a serious offense under

Arizona law, the judge granted a defense motion in limine.

After trial, the State filed a cross-appeal asserting that the

trial court erred in dismissing the (F)(2) aggravating factor.

See A.R.S. § 13-4032(3) (2001).

¶79 We elect to decide the cross-appeal because it

“presents a question of statutory interpretation of general

applicability in death penalty cases that we believe needs to be

resolved.” State v. Romanosky, 162 Ariz. 217, 227, 782 P.2d

- 40 -
693, 703 (1989). Its resolution also bears on our independent

review under A.R.S. § 13-703.04 (Supp. 2003). We review this

question of law de novo. Moody, 208 Ariz. at 445, ¶ 62, 94 P.3d

at 1140.

¶80 Section 13-703(F)(2) provides that “[t]he trier of

fact shall consider,” as an aggravating factor in a capital

case, that “[t]he defendant was previously convicted of a

serious offense, whether preparatory or completed.” Robbery

qualifies as a serious offense when committed outside Arizona if

the act would have constituted the offense of robbery if it had

been committed in Arizona. A.R.S. § 13-703(H)(8).7

a. Statutory Comparison of Attempted Robbery

¶81 When considering an offense committed in another

state, “[t]he statutory definition of the prior crime, and not

its specific factual basis, dictates whether an aggravating

circumstance exists under A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(2).” State v.

Henry, 176 Ariz. 569, 587, 863 P.2d 861, 879 (1993).8 To protect

“a criminal defendant’s due process rights,” a court “may not

consider other evidence[] or bring in witnesses” to establish

7
Section 13-703(H) was renumbered as § 13-703(I) in 2005.
8
The case law cited here addresses the predecessor to the
version of A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(2) applicable in this case, which
read: “The defendant was previously convicted of a felony in
the United States involving the use or threat of violence on
another person.” The rationale in those cases applies to both
versions of the statute.

- 41 -
the offense. State v. Schaaf, 169 Ariz. 323, 333-34, 819 P.2d

909, 919-20 (1991). We “will not ‘allow what is, in effect, a

second trial on defendant’s prior conviction to establish the

existence of an A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(2) aggravating

circumstance.’” Id. at 334, 819 P.2d at 920 (quoting State v.

Gillies, 135 Ariz. 500, 511, 662 P.2d 1007, 1018 (1983)).

¶82 The question is therefore whether, based on the

statutory provisions, Roque’s attempted robbery in California

would have constituted an attempted robbery if it had been

committed in Arizona. In Arizona,

[a] person commits robbery if in the course of taking
any property of another from his person or immediate
presence and against his will, such person threatens
or uses force against any person with intent either to
coerce surrender of property or to prevent resistance
to such person taking or retaining property.

A.R.S. § 13-1902(A) (2001). “‘Threat’ means a verbal or

physical menace of imminent physical injury to a person.”

A.R.S. § 13-1901(4) (2001). “‘Force’ means any physical act

directed against a person as a means of gaining control of

property.” A.R.S. § 13-1901(1).

¶83 In California, “[r]obbery is the felonious taking of

personal property in the possession of another, from his person

or immediate presence, and against his will, accomplished by

means of force or fear.” Cal. Penal Code § 211 (West, Westlaw

through 2006). “Fear” is defined as:

- 42 -
 1. The fear of an unlawful injury to the person or
property of the person robbed, or of any relative
of his or member of his family; or,
2. The fear of an immediate and unlawful injury to
the person or property of anyone in the company
of the person robbed at the time of the robbery.

Cal. Penal Code § 212 (West, Westlaw through 2006) (emphases

added).

¶84 A comparison of these robbery statutes makes it

evident that one may attempt a robbery in California by acts

that do not constitute an attempted robbery if committed in

Arizona. A robbery in Arizona requires either a threat — a

menace of imminent injury to a person — or force — a physical

act directed against a person. A.R.S. §§ 13-1902(A) & -1901(1),

(4). By contrast, one may attempt robbery in California by

creating a fear of injury to the property of the person robbed

or anyone in his company. Cal. Penal Code §§ 211-12. Thus, on

the face of the statutes, one who attempts to take property from

a victim by means of fear of injury to the victim’s property may

be convicted of attempted robbery in California, but not in

Arizona.

¶85 In addition, the imminent nature of a threat of

physical injury to the victim contained in the Arizona robbery

statute is missing from the California statute. Compare A.R.S.

§ 13-1901(4) with Cal. Penal Code § 212. In Arizona, a verbal

threat includes only a “menace of imminent physical injury.”

- 43 -
A.R.S. § 13-1901(4). Thus, if one attempts a robbery by saying,

“Give me your money or I’ll shoot you next year,” one may again

be convicted of attempted robbery under California’s statutory

language, but not under Arizona’s.

¶86 Accordingly, the California and Arizona robbery

statutes are not coterminous. The trial judge therefore did not

err in concluding that acts constituting attempted robbery under

California law do not necessarily constitute an attempted

robbery under Arizona law. The California attempted robbery

does not qualify as a “serious offense” aggravating factor under

(F)(2).

b. Consideration of the 1983 Complaint

¶87 In contravention of the rule established in Henry, 176

Ariz. at 587, 863 P.2d at 879, and Schaaf, 169 Ariz. at 333-34,

819 P.2d at 919-20, the State asks us to look beyond the

language of the statutes to the Complaint filed in the 1983

attempted robbery conviction. In a deviation from the statutory

language defining robbery, the Complaint alleges that Roque

attempted to take personal property by means of “force and fear”

instead of “force or fear.” Because force was included in that

allegation, the State argues, Roque’s conviction qualifies as

attempted robbery in Arizona. The State therefore asks that we

find the existence of the (F)(2) aggravating factor here.

¶88 The State cites State v. Thompson, for the proposition

- 44 -
that a sentencing court may rely on facts set forth in the

information of a prior offense committed outside Arizona to find

that the prior offense would constitute a felony in Arizona for

purposes of sentence enhancement, if the information is

incorporated by reference in the judgment of conviction. 186

Ariz. 529, 532-33, 924 P.2d 1048, 1051-52 (App. 1996). In

Thompson, however, the court used the charge contained in the

information only to narrow the foreign conviction to a

particular subsection of the statute that served as the basis of

the foreign conviction. Id. at 532, 924 P.2d at 1051. In this

case, the State asks us to infer from the Complaint the factual

nature of the prior conviction. We decline to do so. Because

the acts constituting attempted robbery under California law do

not necessarily constitute an attempted robbery under Arizona

law, the trial court did not err in dismissing the (F)(2)

aggravating factor based on Roque’s 1983 attempted robbery

conviction.

2. Validity of (F)(3) Aggravating Factor

¶89 Roque argues that applying the A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(3)

aggravating factor — knowingly creating a grave risk of death to

Louis Ledesma while shooting Balbir Sodhi — renders him eligible

for death when those of greater culpability would not be death

eligible. Thus, he claims, the factor does not serve to

appropriately narrow the class of persons eligible for the death

- 45 -
penalty, rendering it capricious and arbitrary. This claim

raises a matter of statutory interpretation and constitutional

law, which we review de novo. State v. Christian, 205 Ariz. 64,

66, ¶ 6, 66 P.3d 1241, 1243 (2003) (interpreting statutory

provision); Moody, 208 Ariz. at 445, ¶ 62, 94 P.3d at 1140

(interpreting constitutional provision).

¶90 Roque bases his claim on our cases holding that the

(F)(3) factor does not apply when the defendant creates a risk

to an intended victim of the crime. State v. Fierro, 166 Ariz.

539, 550, 804 P.2d 72, 83 (1990); State v. Tison, 129 Ariz. 526,

542, 633 P.2d 335, 351 (1981). While an additional homicide may

trigger the A.R.S. § 13-703(F)(8) aggravating factor (multiple

homicides), a crime against an intended victim not resulting in

death (attempted murder or assault, for example) does not

trigger any aggravating factor.9 See State v. Gretzler, 135

Ariz. 42, 57 & n.2, 659 P.2d 1, 16 & n.2 (1983) (confirming that

crimes occurring in the same series of events do not trigger

(F)(2), the prior serious offense aggravator). Thus, despite

the fact that our criminal statutes generally penalize

intentional acts more harshly than unintentional ones, Roque

faces the death penalty precisely because he did not intend to

9
Of course, that crime might warrant an additional sentence
upon a conviction for attempted murder (or another offense), but
the crime could not be used as an aggravating factor to render
the defendant eligible for the death penalty.

- 46 -
harm Ledesma. This, Roque claims, violates the fundamental

“precept of justice that punishment for crime should be

graduated and proportioned to the offense.” Roper v. Simmons,

543 U.S. 551, 560 (2005) (quoting Weems v. United States, 217

U.S. 349, 367 (1910)); accord Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304,

311 (2002). Roque contends that our statutes do not “permit the

sentencer to make a principled distinction between those who

deserve the death penalty and those who do not.” Lewis v.

Jeffers, 497 U.S. 764, 776 (1990) (collecting cases).

¶91 We disagree with Roque’s assertion that the (F)(3)

aggravating factor does not rationally distinguish between a

defendant who deserves the death penalty and one who does not.

This court recently confirmed that the (F)(3) factor applies

only if the defendant knowingly engaged in conduct that created

a real and substantial risk of death to another person who,

while not an intended target, was also not an unaffected

bystander. State v. Johnson, 212 Ariz. 425, 438, ¶ 52, 133 P.2d

735, 748 (2006) (citing State v. Wood, 180 Ariz. 53, 69, 881

P.2d 1158, 1174 (1994)). The fact that the legislature has not

also established an aggravating factor based on endangerment to

an intended victim does not render the (F)(3) factor arbitrary

or capricious. The (F)(3) factor still requires a defendant to

have put a third party at grave risk of death in the commission

of a murder, and, by distinguishing that act from murders in

- 47 -
which no third parties are endangered, the (F)(3) factor

adequately narrows the class of defendants eligible for the

death penalty.

¶92 Moreover, the jury instructions clarified the meaning

of the (F)(3) factor. The instructions given in Roque’s case

not only tracked the statutory language, but also informed the

jury that the “mere presence of Ledesma near Mr. Sodhi during

the shooting” was not enough to support the (F)(3) factor.

These instructions substantially reflected instructions

requested by Roque. With appropriate instructions such as those

given here, the (F)(3) factor adequately channels the jurors’

discretion to impose the death penalty. Accordingly, we

conclude that the (F)(3) aggravating factor is not

unconstitutionally capricious or arbitrary.10

3. Sufficiency of Evidence of (F)(3) Aggravating Factor

¶93 Roque next claims that the State failed to prove the

(F)(3) aggravating factor beyond a reasonable doubt. In

reviewing a sufficiency of the evidence claim, this court

reviews the record to determine whether substantial evidence

supports the jury’s finding, viewing the facts in the light most

10
To the extent that Roque’s argument can be construed as
raising a proportionality argument, we note that the Fourteenth
Amendment requires only appropriate narrowing of the class of
offenders eligible for the death penalty. Lewis, 497 U.S. at
776. It does not require proportionality.

- 48 -
favorable to sustaining the jury verdict. State v. Roseberry,

210 Ariz. 360, 368-69, ¶ 45, 111 P.3d 402, 410-11 (2005).

Substantial evidence is “such proof that ‘reasonable persons

could accept as adequate and sufficient to support a conclusion

of defendant’s guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.’” Id. at 369,

111 P.3d at 411 (quoting State v. Mathers, 165 Ariz. 64, 67, 796

P.2d 866, 869 (1990)).

¶94 The “grave risk of death” aggravating factor requires

proof that a person who was not the intended victim was within

the zone of danger created by the defendant’s criminal acts.

Fierro, 166 Ariz. at 550, 804 P.2d at 83. The “inquiry is

whether, during the course of the killing, the defendant

knowingly engaged in conduct that created a real and substantial

likelihood that a specific third person might suffer fatal

injury.” Wood, 180 Ariz. at 69, 881 P.2d at 1174. For example,

we have upheld the (F)(3) aggravating factor when the defendant

shot a gun in a crowded area, State v. McMurtrey, 151 Ariz. 105,

108, 726 P.2d 202, 205 (1986), or when another person was in the

line of fire, Fierro, 166 Ariz. at 550, 804 P.2d at 83.

Threatening others with a gun during the altercation that

ultimately caused the murder victim’s death may also trigger the

aggravating factor. Wood, 180 Ariz. at 69-70, 881 P.2d at 1174-

75; State v. Nash, 143 Ariz. 392, 405, 694 P.2d 222, 235 (1985).

¶95 On the other hand, a focused assault on a particular

- 49 -
target may not trigger the (F)(3) aggravating factor, even if

others are nearby. In State v. Smith, for example, the

defendant shot a convenience store clerk to get the money in the

cash register. 146 Ariz. 491, 502, 707 P.2d 289, 300 (1985).

Although other customers were in the store, we concluded that

the prosecution failed to prove the (F)(3) factor because the

shooting of the clerk “was not random and indiscriminate, but

purposeful.” Id. The situation thus differed from those in

McMurtrey and Fierro, in which the defendants’ actions “only

fortuitously failed to cause another person’s death.” Id.

¶96 Although Roque’s acts could be argued to be a targeted

assault like that in Smith, substantial evidence supports the

jury’s conclusion that Ledesma was within the zone of danger and

could have been killed during the assault on Sodhi. Roque fired

five or six shots toward Sodhi and Ledesma from a distance of

approximately twenty feet. Ledesma was not in the direct line

of fire, but reported being within two feet of Sodhi and hearing

bullets whizzing over his shoulders. Had Roque not been an

accurate shot, Ledesma could have been hit or killed. Because

substantial evidence supports the jury’s finding of the (F)(3)

aggravating factor, we affirm that verdict.

4. Use of Facts for Both (F)(3) Aggravating Factor and
Reckless Endangerment Charge

¶97 For shooting Sodhi while Ledesma knelt near him, the

- 50 -
jury convicted Roque of endangering Ledesma. See A.R.S. § 13-

1201 (2001). Roque now claims that the “same act or

transaction” served as a basis for both the conviction of

endangerment and the establishment of the (F)(3) aggravating

factor. Roque maintains that this constitutes impermissible

“double counting.” See State v. Rutledge, 206 Ariz. 172, 178,

¶ 25, 76 P.3d 443, 449 (2003). We review de novo this question

of statutory interpretation. Christian, 205 Ariz. at 66, ¶ 6,

66 P.3d at 1243.

¶98 The language of the pre-2003 version of the (F)(2)

“prior serious offense” aggravating factor applicable to Roque’s

case precludes us from considering a conviction arising out of

the same series of events as the murder to be a previous

conviction.11 Rutledge, 206 Ariz. at 178, ¶ 25, 76 P.3d at 449.

But Rutledge does not speak to the use of facts underlying a

simultaneous conviction for other aggravating factors, such as

(F)(3) or (F)(8). Roque’s position that Rutledge creates a

blanket rule against the use of simultaneous convictions or

underlying facts is rebutted by the plain language of the (F)(8)

aggravating factor, which expressly permits consideration of

11
In 2003, after Roque committed his crimes, the legislature
revised (F)(2) to add the following: “Convictions for serious
offenses committed on the same occasion as the homicide, or not
committed on the same occasion but consolidated for trial with
the homicide, shall be treated as a serious offense under this
paragraph.” 2003 Ariz. Sess. Laws, ch. 255, § 1.

- 51 -
homicides “committed during the commission of the offense” to

render a defendant eligible for the death penalty. Likewise,

nothing in the language of the (F)(3) aggravating factor

indicates the legislature’s intent to prohibit the use of facts

underlying an endangerment conviction arising from the same

series of events as the murder to help establish the “grave risk

of death to another person.”

¶99 Furthermore, the (F)(3) aggravating factor requires

proof of more than just the endangerment conviction. While

endangerment requires a mental state of recklessness and the

creation of a risk of physical injury, A.R.S. § 13-1201, the

(F)(3) factor requires a mental state of knowing and the

creation of a grave risk of death. Thus the crime of

endangerment by itself does not satisfy the (F)(3) aggravating

factor. Roque’s “double counting” claim therefore fails.

5. Norm of First Degree Murders

¶100 Roque claims that this murder was not so beyond the

norm of first degree murders as to deserve the death penalty,

and he asks this court to overturn his death sentence because

his crime is no worse than the crimes of other defendants who

have received life sentences. Although this court did at one

time engage in proportionality reviews, we no longer do so.

State v. Salazar, 173 Ariz. 399, 417, 844 P.2d 566, 584 (1992).

We instead independently review the aggravating and mitigating

- 52 -
factors to assess the propriety of the death sentence. A.R.S.

§ 13-703.04; see infra ¶¶ 166-70.

6. Lack of Aggravating Factors in Indictment

¶101 Roque contends that the State’s failure to allege the

aggravating factors specified in A.R.S. § 13-703(F) in the

indictment constitutes fundamental error. We considered and

rejected this argument in McKaney v. Foreman ex rel. County of

Maricopa, 209 Ariz. 268, 100 P.3d 18 (2004).

7. Refusal to Replace Juror who had been Approached by
the Media

¶102 Roque claims that the trial judge abused his

discretion in not replacing a juror with an alternate after a

movie producer handed the juror a business card. We review for

abuse of discretion, see Glassel, 211 Ariz. at 47, ¶ 46, 116

P.3d at 1207, deferring to the trial judge’s superior

opportunity to assess the juror’s demeanor and credibility, see

Wainwright, 469 U.S. at 428-29; accord Glassel, 211 Ariz. at 48,

¶ 50, 116 P.3d at 1208.

¶103 “In a criminal case, any private communication,

contact or tampering[,] directly or indirectly, with a juror

during a trial about the matter pending before the jury is, for

obvious reasons, deemed presumptively prejudicial.” State v.

Miller, 178 Ariz. 555, 558-59, 875 P.2d 788, 791-92 (1994)

(quoting Remmer v. United States, 347 U.S. 227, 229 (1954)).

- 53 -
But the “presumption is rebuttable, and the burden rests with

the government to show that the third party communication did

not taint the verdict.” Id. at 559, 875 P.2d at 792.

¶104 In this case, while the movie producer’s contact with

the juror was presumptively prejudicial, the judge properly

heard testimony from the producer and the juror to determine

whether the juror could still render a fair and impartial

decision. The hearing revealed that, when the producer handed

the business card to the juror, the juror simply put it in his

pocket. He said nothing to the producer and was unsure of the

producer’s profession. The juror stated unequivocally that the

producer’s contact would not affect his ability to fairly and

impartially decide the case. The judge concluded that the State

had met its burden of overcoming the presumption of prejudice.

On this record, we cannot conclude that the judge abused his

discretion in allowing the juror to remain on the panel.

E. Evidentiary Rulings during the Penalty Phase

1. Relevance of State’s Rebuttal Evidence

¶105 Roque disputes the admission of four pieces of

evidence during the penalty phase of his trial: (1) the 1983

attempted robbery conviction; (2) the conviction for the

attempted murder of Anwar Khalil; (3) a history of domestic

violence; and (4) a history of racism. We “give deference to

the trial court’s decision as to the relevance of evidence

- 54 -
offered pursuant to section 13-703.C” in the penalty phase.

State v. McGill, ___ Ariz. ___, ___, ¶ 40, ___ P.3d ___, ___

(2006).

¶106 In the penalty phase, the defendant has the burden to

prove the existence of mitigating circumstances by a

preponderance of the evidence, and the state may rebut the

defendant’s mitigating evidence. A.R.S. § 13-703(C), (D).

“[T]he prosecution or the defendant may present any information

that is relevant to any of the mitigating circumstances . . .

regardless of its admissibility under the rules governing

admission of evidence at criminal trials.” A.R.S. § 13-703(C).

In addition, “the state may present any evidence that

demonstrates that the defendant should not be shown leniency.”

A.R.S. § 13-703.01(G) (Supp. 2003).

¶107 Roque contends that the judge erred in admitting much

of the State’s rebuttal evidence because it was irrelevant,

unfairly prejudicial, or hearsay. But A.R.S. § 13-703(C)

provides that rebuttal evidence is admissible if relevant,

without regard to its admissibility under the rules of evidence.

Within constitutional limits, the sole inquiry is therefore

whether the evidence the State offered was relevant to rebut

Roque’s mitigating evidence. Relevance for this purpose is

defined as “evidence tending to prove or disprove the matter at

issue,” a standard virtually identical to that employed in Rule

- 55 -
401 of the Arizona Rules of Evidence. See McGill, ___ Ariz. at

___, ¶ 40, ___ P.3d at ___ (quoting MERRIAM-WEBSTER’S COLLEGIATE

DICTIONARY 1051 (11th ed. 2003)).

a. 1983 Attempted Robbery Conviction

¶108 The defense called only one witness, Dr. Jack Potts,

to offer mitigating evidence in the penalty phase. On direct

examination, Dr. Potts said, “[Roque’s] lack of prior

violence . . . like the shootings, clearly argues against this

occurring again.” On cross-examination, the prosecutor asked

Dr. Potts if he was aware of Roque’s 1983 attempted robbery

conviction. The judge overruled the defense’s relevance

objection.

¶109 Roque’s prior conviction was relevant to rebut Dr.

Potts’ assertion that Roque did not have a history of violence

and did not pose a threat. The threshold for relevance is a low

one, and the evidence did tend to prove a matter at issue. See

id. The judge therefore did not err in allowing the jury to

hear that evidence.

b. Conviction for Attempted Murder of Khalil

¶110 Roque also argues that the judge improperly authorized

the jury to consider the attempted murder of Khalil as rebuttal

to the mitigating evidence. But A.R.S. § 13-703.01(G) provides

that the state may introduce any evidence demonstrating that a

defendant should not be shown leniency. We have held that the

- 56 -
jury’s assessment of mitigation “must be made in light of the

facts of each case.” State ex rel. Thomas v. Granville, 211

Ariz. 468, 472, ¶ 17, 123 P.3d 662, 666 (2005). Roque’s attempt

to murder Khalil was a fact of the case relevant to the jury’s

assessment of whether Roque should be shown leniency. The trial

court did not err in permitting the jury to consider this fact

of the case.

c. History of Racism

¶111 In cross-examining Dr. Potts, the prosecutor asked him

whether, instead of mental illness, Roque’s alleged racism could

explain his crimes. Roque now argues that this was irrelevant

to the mitigating evidence. But Roque’s alleged racist behavior

was relevant to rebut Dr. Potts’ assertion that Roque suffered

from a mental illness that caused him to commit the crimes.

Testimony regarding Roque’s alleged mental illness was the

thrust of the mitigating evidence offered by the defense.

Because the testimony regarding racism was relevant to rebut

asserted mitigation evidence, the judge did not err in allowing

that testimony.

d. History of Domestic Violence

¶112 Roque also challenges the admission of evidence that

he committed acts of domestic violence. A history of domestic

violence was relevant to rebut Dr. Potts’ assertion that Roque

did not have a history of violence and thus did not pose a

- 57 -
threat to the public. See State v. Lavers, 168 Ariz. 376, 395,

814 P.2d 333, 352 (1991). The judge therefore did not err in

allowing the jury to hear that evidence.

2. Admissibility of Victim Impact Statements

¶113 Roque contends that the victim impact statements were

irrelevant and inadmissible under Blakely v. Washington, 542

U.S. 296 (2004), Crawford, 541 U.S. at 36, and the Arizona

Constitution. Because he did not object on any of these grounds

at trial, however, we review only for fundamental error. See

Henderson, 210 Ariz. at 567, ¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607.

¶114 Victim impact evidence that focuses on the effect of

the crime on the victim and the victim’s family is relevant and

admissible in the penalty phase of a capital trial to show the

harm caused by the defendant’s conduct. State v. Roscoe, 184

Ariz. 484, 502, 910 P.2d 635, 653 (1996). Its admission does

not violate the Eighth Amendment. Lynn v. Reinstein, 205 Ariz.

186, 191, ¶ 16, 68 P.2d 412, 417 (2003) (citing Payne v.

Tennessee, 501 U.S. 808, 827 (1991)). Because the victims here

testified regarding the impact of Mr. Sodhi’s death on their

families, Roque’s relevance argument fails.

¶115 His other arguments are equally unavailing. Because

the victim impact statements neither were aggravating factors

nor acted to increase Roque’s sentence, his Blakely claim fails.

Crawford is also inapposite. Because the victims made their

- 58 -
statements in court and stood subject to cross-examination, no

confrontation issues arose. See Crawford, 541 U.S. at 68.

¶116 Finally, Roque asks this court to diverge from Payne

and our precedents to find the use of victim impact statements

fundamentally unfair in the imposition of the death penalty and

therefore violative of the Arizona Constitution. But as the

Supreme Court observed in Payne, “[v]ictim impact evidence is

simply another form or method of informing the sentencing

authority about the specific harm caused by the crime in

question, evidence of a general type long considered by

sentencing authorities.” 501 U.S. at 825. Roque provides no

compelling argument for us to stray from our prior course. We

therefore decline to do so.

3. Exclusion of Mitigating Evidence

¶117 Roque argues that the judge improperly excluded a

portion of a letter from his sister, Sylvia, who was unable to

testify during the penalty phase of the trial. Because Roque

raised this argument at trial, we review the judge’s evidentiary

ruling for an abuse of discretion. See Aguilar, 209 Ariz. at

49, ¶ 29, 97 P.3d at 874. To warrant reversal, any error must

also have prejudiced Roque. Salazar, 173 Ariz. at 405, 844 P.2d

at 572.

¶118 Roque first contends that the trial judge abused his

discretion in excluding a statement in Sylvia’s letter that the

- 59 -
“tragedy was not fueled by hate.” This statement, he argues,

was relevant because it implied that mental illness, not racism,

caused Roque’s crimes. Even assuming arguendo that the judge

abused his discretion in excluding this statement, Roque

suffered no prejudice. The admitted portion of Sylvia’s letter

explained Roque’s mental illness. Because the redacted

statement reiterated a point already made in the admitted

portion, any error in excluding the statement was harmless.

¶119 Roque also contends that the trial judge improperly

excluded the section of Sylvia’s letter addressing the suffering

of Roque’s family. We have held that a sister’s testimony

expressing concern for the defendant’s family’s well-being is

“altogether unrelated to defendant, to his character, or to the

circumstance of the offense” and is therefore not relevant

mitigating evidence. Williams, 183 Ariz. at 385, 904 P.2d at

454. Accordingly, the judge did not abuse his discretion in

excluding Sylvia’s statements about the suffering of Roque’s

family.

¶120 To the extent that Sylvia’s letter asked the jury to

impose a “compassionate” sentence, that portion of the letter

was also properly excluded. We have held that “[v]ictims’

recommendations to the jury regarding the appropriate sentence a

capital defendant should receive are not constitutionally

relevant.” Lynn, 205 Ariz. at 191, ¶ 17, 68 P.3d at 417. If

- 60 -
such recommendations from the victim and victim’s family are not

relevant, neither are they from the defendant’s family.

4. Exclusion of Expert’s Statement

¶121 During the State’s cross-examination of Dr. Potts, the

following exchange took place:

[State]: And you’re saying that [psychiatry] is a
science as opposed to an art?
[Potts]: It’s both. Just like all medicine should
be, it’s both.
[State]: And you can be wrong, correct?
[Potts]: Of course, I can be wrong.
[State]: And you might be wrong in this case?
[Potts]: And I might have been wrong on the insanity
issue, too . . . .

In response to the State’s motion, the court struck the final

statement as non-responsive. Roque now challenges that ruling.

Because he did not challenge the court’s ruling at trial,

however, we review only for fundamental error. See Henderson,

210 Ariz. at 567, ¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607.

¶122 Because the prosecutor asked Dr. Potts whether he

might be wrong “in this case,” as opposed to “in the penalty

phase of the trial,” the answer was in fact responsive to the

question asked, though perhaps not to the question intended.

But it matters little whether the judge’s ruling was correct

because, for two reasons, Roque cannot establish that any error

was fundamental. First, Dr. Potts’ statement addressed whether

he might have erred in concluding that Roque was not legally

insane at the time of the offense, which was not at issue in the

- 61 -
penalty phase of the trial. The defense had the opportunity to

offer all of Dr. Potts’ testimony regarding his assessment of

Roque’s mental illness as mitigating evidence, which was at

issue in the penalty phase, and the jury had heard such evidence

in the guilt phase of the case. Second, the judge’s striking of

this one statement, even if error, did not go to the foundation

of the case. We therefore conclude that any error was not

fundamental.

F. State’s Arguments during the Penalty Phase

1. Mitigating Evidence as an “Excuse” for Conduct

¶123 Citing Brown v. Payton (Brown II), 544 U.S. 133

(2005), and Tennard v. Dretke, 542 U.S. 274 (2004), Roque

contends that the following comments made by the prosecutor

improperly narrowed the jury’s consideration of mitigating

evidence:

Ask yourselves if [Roque’s] low IQ affected his life.
Did his low IQ cause this murder? No.

Does [Roque’s family history of mental illness] excuse
his conduct? Is that why he killed Mr. Sodhi, because
of his mother’s illness? Of course not.

The judge overruled the defense objection to these statements on

the ground that the legal standard for consideration of

mitigating evidence would be explained to the jury in the final

jury instructions. We review for abuse of discretion. See

Aguilar, 209 Ariz. at 49, ¶ 29, 97 P.3d at 874.

- 62 -
¶124 The Supreme Court has held it improper to require that

evidence of a defendant’s low IQ score bear a nexus to the crime

or show a “uniquely severe permanent handicap with which the

defendant was burdened through no fault of his own” to be

considered in mitigation. Tennard, 542 U.S. at 283, 289.

Instead, the Court said that mitigating evidence should be

evaluated in the “most expansive terms.” Id. at 284. In

Tennard, the prosecutor had argued that the defendant’s low IQ

score was irrelevant to the mitigation because the defendant’s

low intelligence did not cause him to commit the crime. See id.

at 278. The Court concluded that, in light of the prosecutor’s

statements, the jury instructions given had been insufficient to

direct the jury to consider and give effect to all relevant

mitigating evidence, including the defendant’s low IQ. See id.

at 288-89.

¶125 In Brown II, the Supreme Court considered whether a

prosecutor’s argument misled the jury to believe that it could

not consider the defendant’s mitigating evidence. 544 U.S. at

135-36. The prosecutor told the jurors that the defendant had

not actually produced any mitigating evidence and that, in any

event, they should not consider any mitigation that concerned

post-crime conduct by the defendant. Id. at 144. The jury

instruction given in Brown II, however, directed jurors to

consider “[a]ny other circumstance which extenuates the gravity

- 63 -
of the crime even though it is not a legal excuse for the

crime.” Id. at 137 (quoting Cal. Penal Code § 190.3 (1988)).

The instructions directed the jury, in evaluating mitigation, to

consider all of the evidence presented “during any part of the

trial in this case.” Id. While the Court recognized that the

trial judge could have done more to advise the jury of the law,

it concluded that “[t]he jury was not left without any judicial

direction,” id. at 146, and that the jury was adequately

instructed as to mitigation, id. at 147.

¶126 Likewise, the instructions in Roque’s trial properly

instructed the jury to consider in mitigation “anything offered

by the defense or the State before or during this phase of the

trial.” Roque takes issue with the prosecutor’s arguments that

mitigation should “excuse” the crime, contending that these

arguments violated Tennard by requiring a nexus between

mitigating evidence and the crime. But the jury instructions

served to cure any such implication by directing the jury to

consider “anything” as mitigation and by specifically

enumerating twelve mitigating factors, including low IQ and a

family history of mental illness. As in Brown II, the

instructions adequately informed the jurors that they were to

consider any mitigating circumstance about Roque that might

warrant the imposition of a sentence less than death. The trial

judge therefore did not abuse his discretion in allowing the

- 64 -
prosecutor’s arguments here.

2. Use of the Phrase “Under the Guise of Our Flag and
Patriotism”

¶127 Roque asserts that the following statement by the

prosecutor impermissibly encouraged the jury to impose death

based on passion and patriotism:

But what this country does with regard to the
decisions that this country makes, the decisions that
the criminal justice system makes, with respect to the
kind of crimes that this defendant committed, under
the guise of our flag and patriotism, will — speaks
volumes about us.

Because Roque did not object to those statements at trial, we

review only for fundamental error. See Henderson, 210 Ariz. at

567, ¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607.

¶128 In evaluating the propriety of a prosecutor’s

argument, this court analyzes whether the remarks called to the

jurors’ attention matters that they should not consider, and

whether, “under the circumstances of the particular case, [the

remarks] probably influenced” the jurors. Sullivan v. State, 47

Ariz. 224, 238, 55 P.2d 312, 317 (1936); see also State v.

Hansen, 156 Ariz. 291, 297, 751 P.2d 951, 957 (1988).

¶129 Roque committed his crimes in response to the

terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, and he targeted people

he thought to be of Arab descent. When arrested, Roque

immediately stated, “I’m a patriot and American. I’m American.

I’m a damn American.” In this respect, the prosecutor’s

- 65 -
comments simply referred to the circumstances of Roque’s crimes

and responded to a theme the defense introduced.

¶130 In State v. Hansen, we observed that “the trial court

is in a better position to judge whether the prosecutor is

unduly sarcastic, his tone of voice[] [and] facial expressions,

and [to ascertain] their effect on the jury, if any.” 156 Ariz.

at 297, 751 P.2d at 957. Because Roque’s counsel did not

object, the trial judge had no opportunity to determine whether

the prosecutor’s comment constituted error and, if so, whether

the error was prejudicial. Nor did the judge have the

opportunity to redress any error by instructions to the jury.

Moreover, the jurors had already heard evidence that Roque’s

crimes were motivated by patriotism and committed in reaction to

terrorist attacks on American soil. Under a fundamental error

analysis, the prosecutor’s comment was not of such magnitude

that it deprived the defendant of a fair trial. See Henderson,

210 Ariz. at 567, ¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607 (defining fundamental

error).

3. Comparison of Defendant and Victim

¶131 Roque asserts that the following comments by the

prosecutor improperly compared the value of Roque’s life to that

of the murder victim:

Defendant worked numerous years in the American
aircraft industry. That’s true. That’s true. Balbir
Singh Sodhi worked a number of years in this country

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 driving a cab [and] working behind the counter of a
store. The defendant is married. Balbir Singh Sodhi
was married.

Because Roque moved for a mistrial, we review for an abuse of

discretion, recognizing that “[t]he trial court is in the best

position to determine whether an attorney’s remarks require a

mistrial.” Hansen, 156 Ariz. at 297, 751 P.2d at 957. We also

recognize that the declaration of a mistrial is the most

dramatic remedy for a trial error and should be granted only if

the interests of justice will be thwarted otherwise. Moody, 208

Ariz. at 456, ¶ 126, 94 P.3d at 1151 (citation omitted).

¶132 When the Supreme Court removed the bar to admission of

victims’ statements, the point was not to permit “a jury to find

that defendants whose victims were assets to their communities

are more deserving of punishment than those whose victims are

perceived to be less worthy,” Payne, 501 U.S. at 823, or to

permit a comparison of the lives of the victim and the

defendant. A statement from a victim “is not offered to

encourage comparative judgments of this kind . . . [but] is

designed to show instead each victim’s ‘uniqueness as an

individual human being.’” Id. at 823. Because the jury may

consider victims’ statements in making its sentencing decision,

the prosecutor may discuss them in his closing argument. See

State v. Prince, 204 Ariz. 156, 161, ¶ 23, 61 P.3d 450, 455

(2003).

- 67 -
¶133 We need not decide whether a prosecutor’s statement

comparing the value of the life of the defendant with that of

the victim is proper because in this case the prosecutor stopped

before making a value argument. He summarized evidence that

both Roque and Sodhi worked and were married. This was a

comparison of the two, but not a valuation of the two. The

prosecutor did not continue the comparison after the defense

objected, and the judge properly and immediately instructed the

jury on the law. Because the prosecutor’s comments did not call

the jury’s attention to a matter it could not consider, there

was no error.

G. Jury Instructions in the Penalty Phase

1. Influence of “Sympathy or Prejudice”

¶134 Roque contends that the instruction to the jurors that

they “should not be influenced by sympathy or prejudice,” in

combination with the prosecutor’s arguments, impermissibly

limited the jury’s consideration of mitigating evidence.

Because Roque did not object at trial, we review only for

fundamental error. See Henderson, 210 Ariz. at 567, ¶ 19, 115

P.3d at 607.

¶135 We approved the “sympathy” instruction in State v.

Carreon, explaining that it promotes “reliability and

nonarbitrariness by requiring that the jury consider and give

effect to the defendant’s mitigating evidence in the form of a

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‘reasoned moral response’ rather than an emotional one.” 210

Ariz. 54, 71, ¶ 86, 107 P.3d 900, 917 (2005) (quoting Saffle v.

Parks, 494 U.S. 484, 493 (1990)). The trial court thus did not

err in its jury instruction on the proper role of sympathy.

2. “Significant” Impairment and “Substantial” Duress as
Mitigating Evidence

¶136 Roque submitted to the trial court a list of

mitigating circumstances to be included in the jury

instructions, one of which was a reference to A.R.S. § 13-

703(G)(1), and the court gave an instruction tracking the

language of that statute. The instruction provided, as a

mitigating circumstance for the jury to consider, that “[t]he

defendant’s capacity to appreciate the wrongfulness of his

conduct or to conform his conduct to the requirements of law was

significantly impaired, but not so impaired as to constitute a

defense to prosecution.” Jury Instruction (emphasis added)

(quoting A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(1)). Roque also requested by

reference an instruction that was based upon the language of

A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(2), and that instruction was given. That

instruction allowed the jurors to consider as a mitigating

circumstance, that “the defendant was under unusual and

substantial duress, although not such as to constitute a defense

to prosecution.” Jury Instruction (emphasis added) (quoting

A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(2)).

- 69 -
¶137 Roque now asserts that the jury instructions failed to

direct the jury to consider the non-statutory mitigating

evidence of “simple” (as opposed to significant) impairment and

“simple” (as opposed to substantial) duress. But Roque

requested the instructions given, and therefore “invited any

error and waived his right to challenge the instruction[s] on

appeal.” Roseberry, 210 Ariz. at 369, ¶ 53, 111 P.3d at 411.

Moreover, the jury was properly instructed to consider all non-

statutory mitigating evidence.

3. Lack of Burdens of Proof

¶138 Citing Ring v. Arizona (Ring II), 536 U.S. 584 (2002),

Roque contends that the court erred in failing to instruct the

jury regarding the burden of proof for weighing mitigation and

aggravation. Roque further asserts that failing to instruct the

jury on a burden of proof regarding the State’s rebuttal to

mitigation facilitated the State’s impermissible “end run”

around Ring II’s requirement that the jury find aggravating

factors beyond a reasonable doubt, because the State’s rebuttal

to mitigation acted, in effect, to aggravate Roque’s sentence.

Roque asks us to determine whether the jury instructions

correctly stated the law, a question we review de novo.

Glassel, 211 Ariz. at 53, ¶ 74, 116 P.3d at 1213.

¶139 Under Arizona’s capital sentencing statutes, neither

party bears a burden of proof as to weighing aggravation and

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mitigation in the penalty phase of a capital trial. Granville,

211 Ariz. at 472, ¶ 17, 123 P.3d at 666. “[W]hether mitigation

is sufficiently substantial to warrant leniency is not a fact

question to be decided based on the weight of the evidence, but

rather is a sentencing decision to be made by each juror based

upon the juror’s assessment of the quality and significance of

the mitigating evidence that the juror has found to exist.” Id.

at 473, ¶ 21, 123 P.3d at 667. In Roque’s case, the trial judge

properly refrained from assigning a burden of proof to the

“juror’s assessment of the quality and significance of the

mitigating evidence.” Id.

¶140 Moreover, the jury instructions did not provide the

State an “end run” around the Ring II requirement that it prove

aggravating factors to a jury beyond a reasonable doubt. The

State had already proven the (F)(3) aggravating factor to the

jury beyond a reasonable doubt in the aggravation phase of the

trial, which made Roque “death eligible.” See id. at 472, ¶ 17,

123 P.3d at 666. In the penalty phase of the trial, the State

was permitted to present any relevant information to rebut the

mitigating evidence presented by the defendant to help the

jurors assess the quality of the mitigating evidence in deciding

whether to impose the death penalty. A.R.S. § 13-703(C).

Therefore, the jury instructions in Roque’s case correctly

stated the law regarding the State’s rebuttal of Roque’s

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mitigating evidence. There was no error.

4. Lack of Special Verdict Forms for Mitigation Findings

¶141 Roque asserts that this court cannot conduct a

meaningful review of aggravating and mitigating factors under

A.R.S. § 13-703.04 unless the jury uses special verdict forms

indicating which mitigating factors the jurors found. We

considered and rejected this argument in Roseberry, 210 Ariz. at

373, ¶ 74 & n.12, 111 P.3d at 415 & n.12.

H. Other Penalty Phase Issues

1. Seeking the Death Penalty Based on the Race, Ethnic
Background, or Religion of the Victim

¶142 Roque’s murder victim, Balbir Sodhi, was a Sikh of

Indian descent, and the State consulted with representatives of

the Indian government in deciding whether to seek the death

penalty in Roque’s case. Roque now asserts that the State’s

decision to seek the death penalty against him based on the

race, ethnic background, and religion of the victim violates the

Eighth and Fourteenth Amendments. We review this matter of

constitutional law de novo. Moody, 208 Ariz. at 445, ¶ 62, 94

P.3d at 1140.

¶143 In McCleskey v. Kemp, the Supreme Court explained

that, to make a claim under the Equal Protection Clause of the

Fourteenth Amendment, the defendant must show purposeful

discrimination that had a discriminatory effect on him in his

- 72 -
particular case. 481 U.S. 279, 292 (1987) (citations omitted).

Moreover, the Court observed, because the criminal justice

system functions best if prosecutors have “wide discretion” in

deciding whether to seek the death penalty, a defendant must

show “exceptionally clear proof” of discrimination for the Court

to infer discriminatory purpose. Id. at 296-97. Any legitimate

explanation for a state’s decision to seek the death penalty

precludes a finding of a Fourteenth Amendment violation. Id. at

297. The Court further explained that, to avoid arbitrary and

capricious sentencing in violation of the Eighth Amendment, a

state must narrow the class of murderers subject to capital

punishment to allow the sentencer to make a principled

distinction between those who deserve the death penalty and

those who do not, id. at 303, and must not “limit the

sentencer’s consideration of any relevant circumstance that

could cause it to decline to impose the penalty,” id. at 306.

¶144 In Arizona, the state may seek the death penalty if it

can prove beyond a reasonable doubt that a defendant committed

first degree murder and can also prove the existence of at least

one aggravating factor. A.R.S. § 13-703. The State met those

statutory requirements in this case. Roque cites no case in

which a defendant similarly situated was not made subject to the

death penalty, and he makes no effective argument that a state

may not consider the views of the government of a foreign

- 73 -
country with respect to the murder of someone born there.

Because the State has wide discretion in deciding whether to

seek a death sentence and had a legitimate reason to seek the

penalty in this case, the State did not violate the Eighth

Amendment or the Fourteenth Amendment by consulting with the

Indian government.

2. Seeking the Death Penalty for the Mentally Retarded

¶145 Before trial, Roque had the opportunity to attempt to

prove that mental retardation should bar the imposition of death

as a penalty in his case, but he declined to submit to the

required testing. See A.R.S. § 13-703.02 (Supp. 2002)

(providing pretrial procedure for establishing mental

retardation). At trial, a defense expert testified that Roque’s

full-scale IQ is 80, with individual intelligence indices

ranging from 71 to 95. Roque now claims that he is mentally

retarded and thus not subject to execution. See Atkins, 536

U.S. at 321. Because he failed to raise this claim below, we

review for fundamental error. See Henderson, 210 Ariz. at 567,

¶ 19, 115 P.3d at 607.

¶146 Execution of the mentally retarded constitutes cruel

and unusual punishment and thus is prohibited. Atkins, 536 U.S.

at 321. Rather than defining precisely what mental retardation

means, the Supreme Court “le[ft] to the State[s] the task of

developing appropriate ways to enforce the constitutional

- 74 -
restriction.” Id. at 317. Arizona has prohibited execution of

the mentally retarded since before Atkins, using a procedure

detailed in A.R.S. § 13-703.02. See State v. Grell (Grell II),

212 Ariz. 516, 520, ¶ 15 & n.5, 135 P.3d 696, 700 & n.5 (2006).

¶147 Under the statutory procedure, the court appoints a

prescreening psychological expert to determine a defendant’s IQ.

A.R.S. § 13-703.02(A).12 If that test returns a full-scale IQ

result of 75 or below, the court appoints additional experts to

test the defendant again. A.R.S. § 13-703.02(C). If any of

those full-scale IQ test results are 70 or below, the court must

hold a hearing on the issue of mental retardation. A.R.S. § 13-

703.02(F). To establish mental retardation, the defendant must

then prove that he also has adaptive deficits and that onset of

the condition occurred before age 18. A.R.S. § 13-703.02(I)(2).

¶148 Roque admits that he has a full-scale IQ of 80, but

asks us to look to his “processing speed index” of 71. Given

the test’s five point margin of error, he argues, this score

could be below 70. Roque therefore argues that he cannot be

executed.

¶149 This analysis is flawed for two reasons. First, in

leaving the definition of mental retardation to the states, the

12
In 2002, after Roque began this process, the legislature
modified A.R.S. § 13-703.02 by adding a new subsection (A) and
redesignating sections A to J as B to K. 2002 Ariz. Sess. Laws,
5th Spec. Sess., ch. 1.

- 75 -
Supreme Court did not require that execution be prohibited for

all who could score below a certain number on an IQ test or a

portion of such a test. Rather, the prohibition depends on the

state’s definition of mental retardation. See Grell II, 212

Ariz. at 525, ¶ 37, 135 P.3d at 705 (citing Atkins, 536 U.S. at

317). Applying accepted medical definitions, the Arizona

statute makes IQ one of three prongs in the definition of mental

retardation. A.R.S. § 13-703.02(I)(2). A low IQ score,

standing alone, does not automatically mean the defendant has

mental retardation or that he cannot be executed.

¶150 Second, Roque misinterprets the statute. The statute

does not refer to individual IQ sub-tests or indices, but rather

employs a single “intelligence quotient” as an initial measure

of “significantly subaverage general intellectual functioning.”

A.R.S. § 13-703.02(A), (I)(2). This number refers to the full-

scale IQ, which for Roque is 80. In addition, the statute

accounts for margin of error by requiring multiple tests. If

the defendant achieves a full-scale score of 70 or below on any

one of the tests, then the court proceeds to a hearing. Even

were we to consider the six sub-test numbers presented in the

defense expert’s testimony, not one of them is 70 or below, and

all but the processing speed index are above 75. Roque has

presented no evidence indicating that he has mental retardation

as defined under Arizona law, and thus the court did not err,

- 76 -
much less commit fundamental error, in not finding Roque to have

mental retardation.

I. Alleged Prosecutorial Misconduct

¶151 Roque asserts that twenty-eight incidents of

prosecutorial misconduct occurring throughout the guilt and

sentencing proceedings denied him a fair trial. We have

addressed fifteen of the alleged incidents elsewhere in this

opinion, and, of those, only the State’s failure to disclose the

scope of Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony warrants inclusion here.

Roque also alleges thirteen additional incidents, which we now

address.

¶152 In State v. Hughes, reviewing a case we called a

“masterpiece of misconduct,” we held that the cumulative effect

of seven incidents of prosecutorial misconduct denied the

defendant a fair trial. 193 Ariz. 72, 83, 88, ¶¶ 50 & 74, 969

P.2d 1184, 1195, 1200 (1998). Hughes set forth the test for

reversal based on prosecutorial misconduct as follows:

[A] defendant must demonstrate that the prosecutor’s
misconduct so infected the trial with unfairness as to
make the resulting conviction a denial of due process.
Reversal on the basis of prosecutorial misconduct
requires that the conduct be so pronounced and
persistent that it permeates the entire atmosphere of
the trial. To determine whether prosecutorial
misconduct permeates the entire atmosphere of the
trial, the court necessarily has to recognize the
cumulative effect of the misconduct.

Id. at 79, ¶ 26, 969 P.2d at 1191 (citations and quotations

- 77 -
omitted). “Prosecutorial misconduct is harmless error if we can

find beyond a reasonable doubt that it did not contribute to or

affect the verdict.” Id. at 80, ¶ 32, 969 P.2d at 1192.

¶153 This court is “not eager to reverse a conviction on

grounds of prosecutorial misconduct as a method to deter . . .

future conduct,” id. (citation omitted), but we “emphasize that

the responsibilities of a prosecutor go beyond the duty to

convict defendants,” id. ¶ 33. The prosecutor has a duty as a

“minister of justice” to “see that defendants receive a fair

trial.” Id. (citing Ariz. R. Sup. Ct. 42, ER 3.8).

¶154 The first step in evaluating Roque’s prosecutorial

misconduct claim is to review each alleged incident to determine

if error occurred. For each alleged incident, our standard of

review depends on whether Roque objected at trial. If he

objected, the issue was preserved. Id. at 85, ¶ 58, 969 P.2d at

1197. If he failed to object, we review only for fundamental

error. Id.

¶155 But even if there was no error or an error was

harmless and so by itself does not warrant reversal, an incident

may nonetheless contribute to a finding of persistent and

pervasive misconduct, id. at 79, ¶ 25, 969 P.2d at 1191, if the

cumulative effect of the incidents shows that the prosecutor

intentionally engaged in improper conduct and “did so with

indifference, if not a specific intent, to prejudice the

- 78 -
defendant,” id. at 80, ¶ 31, 969 P.2d at 1192. After reviewing

each incident for error, we must assess whether the incident

should count toward Roque’s prosecutorial misconduct claim.

Once the incidents contributing to a finding of misconduct are

identified, we must evaluate their cumulative effect on the

trial.

¶156 We address only those allegations of misconduct that

merit extended discussion. See State v. Anderson (Anderson II),

210 Ariz. 327, 341, ¶ 48, 111 P.3d 369, 383 (2005). Eleven of

Roque’s thirteen additional allegations of misconduct do not

merit such discussion; they concern either properly admitted

evidence, questions with a sufficient basis, accurate

statements, or reasonable arguments from the facts. See id.

Those eleven allegations of misconduct are listed in an appendix

to this opinion. We discuss the remaining allegations of

misconduct below.

1. Prosecutor’s Testimony on Validity of Tests

¶157 The second chair prosecutor cross-examined Dr. Barry,

a defense expert. At one point, she said, “Now, when I talked

to you, when you came to our interview, [defense counsel] had

already told you that I thought that the [MMPI-2] test was

invalid, correct?” The court overruled the defense objection to

the prosecutor stating “what she believes is the result of this

test.” We review the court’s ruling for abuse of discretion.

- 79 -
Aguilar, 209 Ariz. at 49, ¶ 29, 97 P.3d at 874.

¶158 This question improperly injected the prosecutor’s

opinion of the validity of a psychiatric test. Even if the

prosecutor believed that the MMPI-2 had been invalidly

administered, she could not testify as such. See In re Zawada,

208 Ariz. 232, 239-40, ¶¶ 26-27, 92 P.3d 862, 869-70 (2004).

The judge therefore should have sustained the objection to this

question.

¶159 Any error, however, was harmless. It was uncontested

that the State had questioned the first administration of the

MMPI-2. While the prosecutor should not have offered her

opinion on the matter, the question, by itself, simply

established the context for the re-administration of the MMPI-2.

Thus, this question did not contribute to or affect the verdict.

We nonetheless consider it as an incident that may contribute to

an overall finding of cumulative prosecutorial misconduct.

2. Harassment of Witness

¶160 The second chair prosecutor also aggressively cross-

examined Dr. Toma, another defense expert. In reference to Dr.

Toma’s education, the prosecutor asked if his school “was

started by a bunch of teachers offering classes to the people in

New York on things like acupuncture and that sort of thing.”

The record provides no basis for such a disparaging remark. She

also attempted to ridicule the doctor’s publications and other

- 80 -
qualifications. Roque did not object to the prosecutor’s

questioning of Dr. Toma at trial, so we review only for

fundamental error. Hughes, 193 Ariz. at 85, ¶ 58, 969 P.2d at

1197.

¶161 With respect to the prosecutor’s questioning of an

expert, we cautioned that “a prosecutor cannot attack the expert

with non-evidence, using irrelevant, insulting cross-examination

and baseless argument designed to mislead the jury and undermine

the very purpose of [Rule 11 of the Arizona Rules of Criminal

Procedure].” Zawada, 208 Ariz. at 237, ¶ 14, 92 P.3d at 867

(citing Ariz. R. Sup. Ct. 42, ER 3.4(c)). In her cross-

examination, the second chair prosecutor appeared to

intentionally raise baseless challenges to Dr. Toma’s

qualifications. While questioning an expert’s qualifications is

proper to assist the jury in assessing the expert’s credibility,

State v. Hummert, 188 Ariz. 119, 126, 933 P.2d 1187, 1194

(1997), Ethical Rule 3.4(e) requires that the questioning have

some factual basis. In this case, the bases of many of the

prosecutor’s questions were, at best, unclear and, at worst,

non-existent. We conclude, however, that the impact of the

prosecutor’s questioning was not of such magnitude that it

denied Roque a fair trial. Dr. Toma handled the questions

effectively, thereby reducing any prejudicial impact. The

prosecutor’s questioning of Dr. Toma nonetheless constitutes an

- 81 -
incident of misconduct that, while not individually reversible,

contributes to our analysis of cumulative prosecutorial

misconduct.

3. Non-Disclosure of Expert Testimony

¶162 We have previously addressed the prosecutors’ failure

to disclose to the defense the scope of Dr. Ben-Porath’s

testimony on the critical issue of Roque’s mental condition.

See supra ¶¶ 21-52. We must also assess whether the State’s

failure constitutes an incident of misconduct.

¶163 The prosecutors had an obligation to disclose, which

they did not fulfill. Although the trial court found that the

prosecution did not intend to mislead the defense, the

prosecutors conceded that they knew they had not disclosed the

extent of Dr. Ben-Porath’s testimony. Because the prosecutors

should have known that their failure to disclose was improper

and was likely to prejudice the defendant, we consider the

failure to disclose in our analysis of cumulative prosecutorial

misconduct.

4. Cumulative Effect

¶164 Three incidents contribute to our overall assessment

of cumulative prosecutorial misconduct. The prosecutors

testified as to the validity of tests, asked a defense expert

harassing and unfounded questions, and failed to disclose the

extent of the State expert’s testimony on the central issue in

- 82 -
this capital case. Even though none of these incidents by

itself warrants reversal, we look to the cumulative effect of

the incidents. Hughes, 193 Ariz. at 79, ¶ 25, 969 P.2d at 1191.

¶165 Under the Hughes test, we cannot say that the

cumulative effect of the misconduct here so permeated the entire

atmosphere of the trial with unfairness that it denied Roque due

process. See id. ¶ 26. We recognize in particular that the

prosecutors’ failure to disclose the scope of Dr. Ben-Porath’s

testimony was improper and potentially prejudicial, but the

defense did not make a good faith effort to resolve that

discovery dispute. As a result, we cannot now assess the

prejudice the defendant may ultimately have suffered. The

cumulative effect of the incidents of misconduct in this case

thus does not warrant reversal. See id. at 80, ¶ 32, 969 P.2d

at 1192.

J. Independent Review

¶166 Because Roque’s crimes were committed before August 1,

2002, we independently review the aggravating circumstances and

the mitigating evidence in this case and assess the propriety of

imposing the death sentence. See A.R.S. § 13-703.04(A); 2002

Ariz. Sess. Laws, 5th Spec. Sess., ch. 1, § 7(B). In our

assessment, “we consider the quality and the strength, not

simply the number, of aggravating and mitigating factors.”

State v. Greene, 192 Ariz. 431, 443, ¶ 60, 967 P.2d 106, 118

- 83 -
(1998).

¶167 Based on our independent review of the record, we

conclude that the (F)(3) aggravating factor was proven beyond a

reasonable doubt. We also conclude that the (F)(2) aggravating

factor based on Roque’s 1983 attempted robbery conviction was

properly dismissed by the trial court and that the State failed

to prove beyond a reasonable doubt the (F)(2) aggravating factor

based on Roque’s conviction for the attempted murder of Khalil.

¶168 As mitigation, A.R.S. § 13-703(G)(1) instructs us to

consider whether Roque’s “capacity to appreciate the

wrongfulness of his conduct or to conform his conduct to the

requirements of law was significantly impaired, but not so

impaired as to constitute a defense to prosecution.” On that

issue, the evidence shows that Roque’s mother was a

schizophrenic, leaving Roque predisposed to mental health

problems. All four mental health experts who testified at trial

regarding Roque’s mental condition on the days after September

11, 2001, agreed that his mental condition impaired his capacity

to conform to the law, but varied in their opinions of how

significant that impairment was.13 The defense experts concluded

that Roque was legally insane at the time of the commission of

13
For reasons discussed in this opinion, we give little
weight to Dr. Ben-Porath’s assessment of Roque’s mental health.
In addition, while Dr. Toma also testified, he never gave an
assessment of Roque’s mental condition.

- 84 -
his crimes. The court-appointed expert concluded that Roque

suffered from either a psychotic disorder or an acute stress

disorder that significantly impaired his capacity to conform to

the law at the time of the commission of his crimes. Even the

State’s expert concluded that Roque suffered from an “adjustment

disorder with depressed mood” that caused an emotional and

behavioral reaction to the events of September 11, 2001. We

give this mitigating evidence substantial weight. See State v.

Trostle, 191 Ariz. 4, 21, 951 P.2d 869, 886 (1997) (in setting

aside death sentence, giving serious consideration to

defendant’s mental illness because of its impact on defendant’s

capacity to conform to the law); State v. Doss, 116 Ariz. 156,

163, 568 P.2d 1054, 1061 (1977) (finding defendant’s mental

condition a “substantial factor in causing the death of the

victim” and therefore setting aside sentence of death).

¶169 From the non-statutory mitigating evidence presented

in this case, we also consider Roque’s low IQ as mitigation.

Roque’s IQ was measured at 80. While Roque’s IQ is not, by

itself, low enough for him to be considered to have mental

retardation, his overall score is below average. Although

mitigating evidence need not bear a nexus to the crime, Tennard,

542 U.S. at 289, the relationship between mitigating evidence

and the murder may affect the weight given to the mitigating

evidence, see Anderson II, 210 Ariz. at 357, ¶ 136, 111 P.3d at

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399. We consider the mitigating evidence of Roque’s low IQ and

its likely impact on Roque’s ability to seek help or reason his

way out of committing the crimes.

¶170 The substantial mitigating evidence balanced against a

single (F)(3) aggravating factor causes us to question whether a

sentence of death is warranted in this case. See State v.

Rockwell, 161 Ariz. 5, 16, 775 P.2d 1069, 1080 (1989). We

recognize the serious nature of Roque’s crime; the murder of

Sodhi was part of a shooting spree that targeted victims based

on their assumed ethnicity. As we have noted in the past,

“[o]ur task in evaluating and weighing the proffered mitigation

is difficult at best. There is no scale upon which to measure

what is or is not ‘sufficiently substantial.’” Trostle, 191

Ariz. at 23, 951 P.2d at 888. But taken as a whole, the

mitigating evidence here raises a substantial question whether

death is an appropriate sentence. See id. When “there is a

doubt whether the death sentence should be imposed, we will

resolve that doubt in favor of a life sentence.” State v.

Valencia, 132 Ariz. 248, 250, 645 P.2d 239, 241 (1982). We have

such a doubt in this case, and therefore conclude that the death

penalty should not be imposed. Because of the serious nature of

Roque’s crimes, however, we conclude that he should be

imprisoned for the rest of his natural life and never be

released. See A.R.S. §§ 13-703(A), -703.04(B).

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 III. CONCLUSION

¶171 Defendant’s convictions and non-capital sentences are

affirmed. His sentence of death is reduced to natural life

imprisonment without possibility of release.14

_______________________________________
Rebecca White Berch, Vice Chief Justice

CONCURRING:

_______________________________________
Ruth V. McGregor, Chief Justice

_______________________________________
Andrew D. Hurwitz, Justice

_______________________________________
W. Scott Bales, Justice

_______________________________________
Daniel A. Barker, Judge*

*Pursuant to Article 6, Section 3 of the Arizona Constitution,
the Honorable Daniel A. Barker, Judge of the Arizona Court of
Appeals, Division One, was designated to sit in this matter.

14
Because we vacate Roque’s death sentence, the ten claims he
raised regarding the constitutionality of the death penalty are
moot.

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 Appendix

The eleven allegations of prosecutorial misconduct that do not
merit extended discussion are as follows:

1. The prosecutor’s statement that “there is no
evidence of the defendant saying anything about
voices, except in a report from the Sheriff’s
Department that somebody wrote” was a reasonable
statement of the evidence, unlike the statements in
Hughes. See 193 Ariz. at 85-86, ¶¶ 59-60, 969 P.2d
at 1197-98.

2. The prosecutor’s statement that “some of the
psychiatrists and psychologists . . . are asking you
to try to excuse [Roque’s] conduct to some extent,
because of the impact that a terrorist attack had on
him when that’s exactly what he did” was a
reasonable summary of expert testimony, unlike the
summary in Hughes. See id. ¶¶ 59-61.

3. The prosecutor’s request that “you make your
decision based solely on the facts, the facts of
what occurred and not a distorted version of them as
provided by the defendant in his interviews” was not
calculated to direct the jurors’ attention to
Roque’s exercise of his Fifth Amendment privilege
not to testify, unlike the situation in Hughes. See
id. at 87, ¶¶ 64-66, 969 P.2d at 1199.

4. The prosecutor’s questions, “And you’re saying that
[psychiatry] is a science as opposed to an art?
. . . And you can be wrong, correct? . . . And you
might be wrong in this case?” were proper questions
regarding the reliability of psychiatric
assessments, unlike the questions in Hughes. See
id. at 84-85, ¶ 55, 969 P.2d at 1196-97.

5. The prosecutor’s question that, “in fact, you worked
with defense counsel, Mr. Stein, on a case” was a
proper question regarding the expert’s possible bias
or motive. See State v. Bailey, 132 Ariz. 472, 478,
647 P.2d 170, 176 (1982).

6. The prosecutor’s statement, “what I would say if I
was a juror, I would discount [Dr. Rosengard’s]
opinion,” while inartful and arguably improper, did

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 not clearly insert the prestige of the government
into the jury’s credibility assessment, unlike the
statement in State v. Hill, 109 Ariz. 93, 95, 505
P.2d 553, 555 (1973). Furthermore, Roque did not
object to the statement, so the trial court had no
opportunity to correct any possible improper
implication.

7. The prosecutor’s use of the phrase “so-called
medical experts” was invited by the defense through
its use of the same phrase. See State v. Logan, 200
Ariz. 564, 565-66, ¶ 9, 30 P.3d 631, 632-33 (2001).
While the use of this phrase by both parties was
unprofessional, it did not rise to the level of the
prosecutor’s comments in Hughes. See 193 Ariz. at
86, ¶ 61, 969 P.2d at 1198.

8. Comments by the prosecutor associating Roque with
the 9/11 terrorists were invited, were prompted by
defense counsel’s arguments, and were pertinent to
the circumstances of Roque’s crimes. See Trostle,
191 Ariz. at 16, 951 P.2d at 881.

9. The prosecutor’s statements, “[Y]ou weren’t asked to
consider [the 1983 attempted robbery conviction] and
determine whether it was an aggravating factor.
There are legal reasons for that that don’t matter.
The point is, it’s evidence you can consider [in the
penalty phase].” were not an improper reference to
inadmissible evidence, unlike the reference in State
v. Leon, 190 Ariz. 159, 161-62, 945 P.2d 1290, 1292-
93 (1997).

10. The prosecutor’s question in the penalty phase, “So
you’re aware of the attempted robbery incident in
which [Roque] was involved in 1983, correct?” was
not an attempt to introduce inadmissible evidence to
rebut the defendant’s mitigating evidence. See
A.R.S. § 13-703(C).

11. The prosecutor’s introduction of Sodhi’s autopsy
photos was proper. See State v. Chapple, 135 Ariz.
281, 288, 660 P.2d 1208, 1215 (1983).

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