United States v. Coulter

Appellate Case: 21-6118 Document: 010110799195 Date Filed: 01/18/2023 Page: 1
FILED
United States Court of Appeals
PUBLISH Tenth Circuit

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS January 18, 2023

Christopher M. Wolpert
FOR THE TENTH CIRCUIT Clerk of Court
_________________________________

UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,

Plaintiff - Appellee,
No. 21-6118
v.

GERMAINE COULTER, SR., a/k/a Slim,

Defendant - Appellant.
_________________________________

Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Western District of Oklahoma
(D.C. No. 5:18-CR-00156-D-1)
_________________________________

Bill Zuhdi, The Zuhdi Law Firm, Oklahoma City, OK, for Defendant-Appellant.

Tiffany Noble, Assistant United States Attorney (Robert J. Troester, United States
Attorney, with her on the brief), Oklahoma City, OK, for Plaintiff-Appellee.
_________________________________

Before MATHESON, CARSON, and ROSSMAN, Circuit Judges.
_________________________________

MATHESON, Circuit Judge.
_________________________________

Defendant-Appellant Germaine Coulter, Sr., appeals his convictions for child

sex trafficking and conspiracy to commit child sex trafficking. Exercising

jurisdiction under 28 U.S.C. § 1291, we affirm.
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I. BACKGROUND

A. Factual History1

For many years, Mr. Coulter was a pimp in the Oklahoma City area. Upon

release from a five-year state prison term in 2017, he conscripted an underage girl,

“Doe 2,” to recruit a schoolmate, “Doe 1,” to perform sex work for him. He gave

Doe 1 a ride home from school, proposed that she work for him, and promised her

money and gifts in return. After Doe 1 expressed interest, Elizabeth Andrade, one of

Mr. Coulter’s longtime sex workers, took pictures of Doe 1 in various stages of

undress and sent them to Mr. Coulter. He forwarded the photos to potential clients

with messages suggesting that Doe 1 would perform sex acts for money. Ms.

Andrade also sent the photos to potential clients and used one of the photos to

advertise Doe 1’s services online.

Doe 1 had sexual encounters with clients for money. Mr. Coulter gave her

detailed instructions about how much she should charge and when to collect the

money. He also told Ms. Andrade to teach Doe 1 how to perform various sex acts.

Ms. Andrade took Doe 1 on a “call” with her, and both of them had sex with the

client.

Around the same time, Mr. Coulter attempted to recruit another underage girl,

“Doe 3.” He gave Doe 3 a ride home from school and asked whether she wanted to

1
This factual summary derives from the evidence presented at trial, stated in
the light most favorable to the jury’s verdict. See United States v. Kaspereit,
994 F.3d 1202, 1207 (10th Cir. 2021).

2
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earn money by “prostitut[ing] [her]self with the other girls.” ROA, Vol. III at 864.

Doe 3 told Mr. Coulter she would “think about it,” but she had no interest in working

for him and never did. Id. at 867.

B. Procedural History

A grand jury indicted Mr. Coulter and later issued a superseding indictment

charging him with (1) conspiring with Ms. Andrade to commit child sex trafficking,

(2) child sex trafficking with respect to Doe 1, and (3) child sex trafficking with

respect to Doe 3. The grand jury also indicted Ms. Andrade for conspiracy to commit

child sex trafficking. She pled guilty.

The case against Mr. Coulter proceeded to a jury trial. The Government

introduced testimony from (1) law enforcement agents who investigated Mr. Coulter;

(2) Ms. Andrade and other women who had worked for Mr. Coulter; (3) Does 1, 2,

and 3; and (4) the client who had the sexual encounter with Ms. Andrade and Doe 1.

The Government also introduced into evidence Mr. Coulter’s cell phone records,

which corroborated these witnesses’ testimony.

We note three occurrences during trial that are relevant to this appeal. First,

the Government elicited testimony from two witnesses about the deaths of two

women associated with Mr. Coulter—Elizabeth Diaz and Jamie Biggers. Defense

counsel objected to some questions about Ms. Diaz’s death, arguing they implied that

Mr. Coulter was responsible.2 The district court sustained the objection and forbade

2
For example, Ms. Andrade testified on direct examination that Ms. Diaz died
after being “given a hotshot”—a cocktail of drugs designed to induce an overdose.
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the Government from “rais[ing] an inference that [Mr. Coulter is] responsible for

th[e] girl’s death.” ROA, Vol. III at 427. During closing arguments, the Government

briefly mentioned Ms. Diaz, but did not suggest that Mr. Coulter had killed her.

Second, the district court appointed a guardian ad litem for each of the minors

involved in the case. At one point during Doe 1’s testimony, defense counsel

requested a bench conference and asserted that Doe 1’s guardian ad litem had

mouthed “[y]ou’re doing a good job” to Doe 1 while she was on the stand.

ROA, Vol. III at 690. The district court had not observed this conduct, but at defense

counsel’s request, the court told the guardian ad litem to avoid signaling Doe 1

during her testimony. The court also delivered a curative instruction to the jury.

Third, the jury deliberated for about six hours before reporting it had reached a

verdict. It filled out verdict forms finding Mr. Coulter guilty on Counts 1 and 2—the

conspiracy charge and the child sex trafficking charge related to Doe 1—but said it

was deadlocked on Count 3—the child sex trafficking charge related to Doe 3. When

the district court polled the jury, one juror, Ms. Noland, said the verdict did not

reflect her opinion and expressed that she did not want to return to the deliberations.

ROA, Vol. III at 425. The Government asked Ms. Andrade, “[W]ho gave her a
hotshot?” Id. Mr. Coulter objected on relevance grounds. Id. at 425-26. During a
bench conference, the Government said it expected Ms. Andrade to testify that “Mr.
Coulter was responsible for Ms. Diaz being given a hotshot.” Id. at 427.

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The district court recessed for the weekend. On Monday morning, Mr. Coulter

moved for a mistrial based on these events with the jury. The district court denied

the motion.

The judge then spoke with Ms. Noland in chambers. She said that she was

willing to continue deliberating. The court next convened the jury and delivered an

Allen instruction encouraging the jury to try to reach unanimity.3 After several more

hours of deliberation, the jury again returned a guilty verdict on Counts 1 and 2 but

reported it could not reach agreement on Count 3.4 All jurors confirmed their assent

to the published verdict.

Mr. Coulter later moved for a new trial under Federal Rule of Criminal

Procedure 33(a), asserting that (1) the evidence against him was insufficient to

support the jury verdict and (2) the district court erred in admitting testimony about

3
An Allen instruction is a “supplemental instruction given to a divided jury to
encourage it to agree on a verdict.” United States v. Cornelius, 696 F.3d 1307, 1313
n.1 (10th Cir. 2012) (quotations omitted). It is thus distinct from the standard
instruction a court delivers at the close of evidence informing the jury how to
deliberate and encouraging it to try to reach a unanimous verdict. United States v.
Arrowgarp, 253 F. App’x 790, 795 (10th Cir. 2007) (unpublished) (“an explanation
of the duty to deliberate and the unanim[ity] requirement” delivered with other jury
instructions is “not a typical Allen charge” (quotations omitted)).
Although not precedential, we find the reasoning of the unpublished cases
cited in this opinion instructive. See 10th Cir. R. 32.1 (“Unpublished decisions are
not precedential, but may be cited for their persuasive value.”); see also Fed. R. App.
P. 32.1.
4
The district court therefore declared a mistrial as to Count 3 and dismissed
that count.

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the deaths of Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers. The court denied the motion. It sentenced

Mr. Coulter to 360 months in prison. This appeal followed.

We set out additional facts and procedural history as needed in reviewing the

issues Mr. Coulter raises.

II. DISCUSSION

On appeal, Mr. Coulter argues:

A. The evidence was insufficient to support the guilty verdict;

B. The district court improperly admitted testimony about the deaths of
Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers;

C. The behavior by Doe 1’s guardian ad litem was improper bolstering;

D. The district court erred in its post-trial interactions with the jury; and

E. The convictions should be reversed based on cumulative error.5

As discussed below, Mr. Coulter failed to raise a contemporaneous objection

to preserve several of these issues. When a party fails to preserve an issue, we

review only for plain error. United States v. Mullins, 613 F.3d 1273, 1283

(10th Cir. 2010). “A plain error that affects substantial rights may be considered

even though it was not brought to the court’s attention.” Fed. R. Crim. P. 52(b). We

provide a brief overview of plain error here.

Under plain error review, the appellant bears the burden to “show the district

court committed (1) error (2) that is clear or obvious under current law, and which

5
Mr. Coulter lists seven issues in his brief, Aplt. Br. at 2, but after eliminating
duplication, we identify the five issues presented above.

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both (3) affected [his] substantial rights and (4) undermined the fairness, integrity, or

public reputation of judicial proceedings.” Mullins, 613 F.3d at 1283.

“In general, for an error to be [clear or obvious and] contrary to well-settled

law”—the second prong of plain error—“either the Supreme Court or this court must

have addressed the issue.” United States v. DeChristopher, 695 F.3d 1082, 1091

(10th Cir. 2012) (quotations omitted).

To establish that an error affects a defendant’s “substantial rights”—the third

prong—the appellant must show “there is a reasonable probability that, but for the

error claimed, the result of the proceeding would have been different.” United States

v. Bustamante-Conchas, 850 F.3d 1130, 1138 (10th Cir. 2017) (en banc) (quotations

omitted). An appellant facing “overwhelming evidence of his guilt” usually “cannot

establish a reasonable probability” that an alleged error “affected the outcome of the

trial.” See United States v. Ibarra-Diaz, 805 F.3d 908, 926 (10th Cir. 2015).

Finally, the fourth prong of plain error review—whether an error “seriously

affects the fairness, integrity or public reputation of judicial proceedings”—is a

“case-specific and fact-intensive” inquiry. Bustamante-Conchas, 750 F.3d at 1141

(quotations omitted). Generally, “the seriousness of the error must be examined in

the context of the case as a whole,” and the error must be “the kind [] that

undermines the fairness of the judicial process.” Id. at 1141-42 (quotations omitted).

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A. Sufficiency of the Evidence

Mr. Coulter argues that the evidence was insufficient to support his

convictions. In particular, he contends that Ms. Andrade and Doe 1 were not credible

witnesses. Aplt. Br. at 38-39. We reject his argument and affirm.

Standard of Review

“We review [an] insufficiency-of-the-evidence claim de novo.” United States

v. Benford, 875 F.3d 1007, 1014 (10th Cir. 2017) (quotations omitted). “Evidence is

sufficient to support a conviction if, viewing the evidence and the reasonable

inferences therefrom in the light most favorable to the government, a reasonable jury

could have found the defendant guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.” Id. “In

reviewing the evidence, we do not weigh conflicting evidence or consider witness

credibility, as these duties are delegated exclusively to the jury.” United States v.

Evans, 318 F.3d 1011, 1018 (10th Cir. 2003).

Analysis

The Government presented more than sufficient evidence to support Mr.

Coulter’s two convictions.

a. Child sex trafficking

To convict Mr. Coulter of child sex trafficking, the jury had to find that Mr.

Coulter:

(1) “by means affecting interstate commerce,

(2) knowingly recruited, enticed, harbored, transported, provided, obtained,
or maintained [a minor] or benefitted in a venture which involved [a
minor], and

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(3) knew or recklessly disregarded the fact that [the minor] was younger
than 18, and

(4) knew or recklessly disregarded the fact that [the minor] would engage
in a commercial sex act.”

United States v. Brinson, 772 F.3d 1314, 1325 (10th Cir. 2014) (numbers added)

(citing 18 U.S.C. § 1591(a)).

Elements (1), (2), and (4) - In addition to the testimony of Doe 1 and Ms.

Andrade about the recruitment and preparation of Doe 1 for sex work, the

Government introduced Mr. Coulter’s phone records, which contained (1) explicit

pictures of Doe 1, (2) text messages soliciting clients for Doe 1, and (3) instructions

directing Doe 1 to take money from clients in exchange for sex. Suppl. ROA, Vol. II

at 16, 19-21 [Redacted]; ROA, Vol. III at 453-56. The Government also presented a

client who had a sexual encounter with Doe 1 and Ms. Andrade in exchange for

money. ROA, Vol. III at 731-32. This evidence was sufficient to establish that Mr.

Coulter used means affecting interstate commerce to knowingly recruit Doe 1 to

perform commercial sexual transactions and facilitated those transactions. A

reasonable jury could find elements (1), (2), and (4) of child sex trafficking beyond a

reasonable doubt.

Element (3) - According to both Ms. Andrade and Doe 1, Mr. Coulter first

suggested that Doe 1 perform sex work for him while driving her home from high

school. ROA, Vol. III at 443. Ms. Andrade also testified that she told Mr. Coulter

that Doe 1 was a minor. Id. at 456. And Doe 1 testified that Mr. Coulter promised

her “a place to stay when she’s old enough.” Id. at 446. A reasonable jury could find

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beyond a reasonable doubt that Mr. Coulter knew or recklessly disregarded the fact

that Doe 1 was a minor—element (3) of child sex trafficking.

b. Conspiring to commit child sex trafficking

To convict Mr. Coulter on the conspiracy count, the jury had to find:

(1) “that ‘two or more persons agreed to violate’ the child-sex-trafficking
laws;

(2) that [Mr. Coulter] ‘knew at least the essential objectives of the
conspiracy’;

(3) that he ‘knowingly and voluntarily became part of it’; and

(4) that the ‘alleged coconspirators were interdependent.’”

United States v. Anthony, 942 F.3d 955, 971 (10th Cir. 2019) (numbers added)

(quoting United States v. Serrato, 742 F.3d 461, 467 (10th Cir. 2014)).

In addition to the evidence discussed above, Ms. Andrade testified that she and

Mr. Coulter worked together to recruit Doe 1 and that they both facilitated her

participation in commercial sex transactions. For example, Ms. Andrade took

explicit pictures of Doe 1, and Mr. Coulter used those pictures to entice potential

clients. ROA, Vol. III at 608-09. The evidence was sufficient for a reasonable jury

to find beyond a reasonable doubt that (1) Mr. Coulter and Ms. Andrade agreed to

violate the child sex-trafficking laws, (2) Mr. Coulter knew the objective of the

conspiracy with Ms. Andrade was to traffic Doe 1, (3) he knowingly and voluntarily

participated in the conspiracy, and (4) he worked interdependently with Ms. Andrade

to implement their agreement.

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c. Mr. Coulter’s arguments against sufficiency

Mr. Coulter’s arguments are unavailing. He focuses primarily on the

credibility of Ms. Andrade and Doe 1. But on review of the sufficiency of the

evidence, we do not “consider witness credibility,” a task “delegated exclusively to

the jury.” Evans, 318 F.3d at 1018. And as discussed above, the Government

corroborated both witnesses’ testimony with ample supporting evidence.

Mr. Coulter also claims he “had nothing to do with [a] sexual transaction

between [a client] and Doe 2.” Aplt. Br. at 39. But his convictions stem from his

conduct toward Doe 1, not Doe 2. He also disputes a law enforcement officer’s

testimony that Mr. Coulter was a member of the “Crip” gang. Aplt. Br. at 40. This

testimony was not relevant to the child sex trafficking offense.

B. Testimony about the Deaths of Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers

Mr. Coulter contends that the admission of testimony about the deaths of Ms.

Diaz and Ms. Biggers violated the Sixth Amendment’s Confrontation Clause,

Aplt. Br. at 16, or constituted inadmissible hearsay, id. at 33-34. He also suggests

the Government engaged in prosecutorial misconduct by eliciting this testimony and

referencing Ms. Diaz’s death in its closing argument. Id. at 28.

The Challenged Testimony and Closing Argument

Two witnesses testified about the deaths of Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers: Megan

Mullins, who formerly worked for Mr. Coulter, and Ms. Andrade, his alleged

co-conspirator.

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a. Ms. Mullins’s testimony

During the direct examination of Ms. Mullins, the Government asked about how

Mr. Coulter disciplined women when they disobeyed him. In response, Ms. Mullins said

that when “Lizzy”—Elizabeth Diaz—refused to turn over her earnings, Mr. Coulter

physically abused Ms. Diaz and locked her in a closet. ROA, Vol. III at 169.

On cross-examination, Mr. Coulter’s attorney asked, “[H]ave you seen that girl

since?” Id. at 200. Ms. Mullins replied, “She’s dead.” Id. Mr. Coulter’s attorney asked

when Ms. Diaz died. Id. Ms. Mullins responded, “I think 2011, 2012.” Id.

On redirect, the Government and Ms. Mullins had the following exchange:

Q: You mentioned that Elizabeth Diaz passed away.

A: Yes.

Q: What happened to her?

A: I was incarcerated. From my understanding, she went on
a call and she was --

Defense counsel: Objection. Hearsay.

District court: Overruled. You opened the door to this . . . so
I’m going to let her follow up. Go ahead.

A: She was found fully clothed like ten days later. They said
it was a drug overdose.

Q: All right. What do you believe happened to her?

Defense counsel: Objection. Speculation.

District court: Overruled. I’ll listen to the answer first.

A: I mean, she was killed.

Q: Do you know who killed her?

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A: I don’t know.

Q: Do you have someone in mind that you believe was
responsible?

A: I don’t know.

...

Q: What did Mr. Coulter say about Ms. Diaz dying?

...

A: We shouldn’t let bad things happen to daddy.6

ROA, Vol. III at 204-06.

Later in the redirect examination of Ms. Mullins, while discussing other women

who were associated with Mr. Coulter, the Government asked about Jamie Biggers. Ms.

Mullins said that Ms. Biggers had “passed away.” Id. at 210. When the Government

asked how this occurred, Ms. Mullins stated that Ms. Biggers “got pushed out of a car on

the highway and got hit head on.” Id. at 210. The Government asked, “Who pushed

her?” Id. Ms. Mullins responded, “I don’t know.” Id. Defense counsel did not object to

the questions regarding Ms. Biggers’s death. Id.

b. Ms. Andrade’s testimony

During direct examination, the Government asked Ms. Andrade about several

women associated with Mr. Coulter, including Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers.

Ms. Andrade said Ms. Diaz “passed away” because “[s]he was given a hotshot,”

ROA, Vol. III at 425, a cocktail of drugs designed to induce an overdose. Id. at 427.

6
“[D]addy” is a reference to Mr. Coulter.

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The Government asked, “[W]ho gave [Ms. Diaz] a hotshot?” Id. at 425-26. Defense

counsel objected on relevance grounds. Id. The district court sustained the objection

and forbade the Government from eliciting any testimony that “might raise an

inference that [Mr. Coulter is] responsible for this girl’s death.” Id. at 427.

Ms. Andrade also testified that Ms. Biggers had “passed away,” but Mr. Coulter did

not object to that testimony. Id. at 425.

c. The Government’s closing argument

During the closing argument, the prosecutor briefly referenced Ms. Diaz’s

death, saying “Lizzie Diaz died while [Mr. Coulter] was in jail, and Mr. Coulter told

Ms. Mullins, according to her, ‘We shouldn’t let bad things happen to daddy.’”

ROA, Vol. III at 928. Mr. Coulter did not object to this statement. Id. at 928-29.

Analysis

a. Confrontation Clause

Mr. Coulter contends that the testimony from Ms. Mullins and Ms. Andrade

about Ms. Diaz’s and Ms. Biggers’s deaths violated the Confrontation Clause.

Aplt. Br. at 16. Mr. Coulter has waived this argument.

i. Standard of review and waiver

“[W]here a Confrontation Clause objection is not explicitly made below we

will not address the constitutional issue in the absence of a conclusion that it was

plain error for the district court to fail to raise the constitutional issue sua sponte

. . . .” United States v. Perez, 989 F.2d 1574, 1582 (10th Cir. 1993) (en banc);

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see also Ibarra-Diaz, 805 F.3d at 919-20 (applying plain error review to an

unpreserved Confrontation Clause argument).

When a defendant fails to preserve a Confrontation Clause challenge in the

district court and also fails to “argue for the plain error standard in his opening

brief,” he has generally waived the issue. United States v. MacKay, 715 F.3d 807,

834 (10th Cir. 2013); see also United States v. Leffler, 942 F.3d 1192, 1196

(10th Cir. 2019) (“When an appellant fails to preserve an issue and also fails to make

a plain-error argument on appeal, we ordinarily deem the issue waived (rather than

merely forfeited) and decline to review the issue at all—for plain error or

otherwise.”). We have exercised our discretion to consider plain error arguments

raised for the first time in an appellant’s reply brief, but seldom do so if (1) the

appellant clearly forfeited the issue below and (2) the appellant’s failure to argue for

plain error review in the opening brief appears to be intentional. Leffler, 942 F.3d

at 1198.

ii. Application

Mr. Coulter did not make a Confrontation Clause objection in district court.

Instead, he objected to Ms. Mullins’s testimony on hearsay and speculation grounds

and to Ms. Andrade’s testimony on relevance grounds. See ROA, Vol. III at 204-06;

425-26. Because “a Confrontation Clause objection [was] not explicitly made

below,” we review for plain error. Perez, 989 F.2d at 1582.

Mr. Coulter makes no plain error arguments in his opening brief. He instead

asserts that we should review his Confrontation Clause claim de novo. Aplt. Br.

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at 15. In his reply brief, Mr. Coulter states that “reviewing the testimony . . . under

the plain error standard” entitles him to relief, Aplt. Reply Br. at 8, but he does not

address the elements of plain error. Because Mr. Coulter fails to argue for plain error

in his opening brief or discuss the elements of the standard in his reply brief, he has

waived the issue. MacKay, 715 F.3d at 834.7

b. Hearsay

Mr. Coulter argues that the testimony about Ms. Diaz’s and Ms. Biggers’s

deaths was inadmissible hearsay. Aplt. Br. at 33-36. Mr. Coulter preserved only one

hearsay argument: the overruling of his objection to the Government’s redirect

examination of Ms. Mullins about the manner of Ms. Diaz’s death. ROA, Vol. III

at 204-06.

i. Waiver

Mr. Coulter forfeited any hearsay challenge to the remaining portions of Ms.

Mullins’s and Ms. Andrade’s testimony about Ms. Diaz’s and Ms. Biggers’s deaths.

Mr. Coulter objected to Ms. Andrade’s testimony on relevance, not hearsay grounds.

ROA, Vol. III at 425-26. The district court also sustained his objection and

prevented the testimony from continuing. Id. Mr. Coulter failed to object to Ms.

7
The argument also fails on the merits because Mr. Coulter concedes in his
reply brief that he “never claimed the hearsay testimony regarding the killing/deaths
of Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers were testimonial statements.” Aplt. Reply Br. at 6. The
Confrontation Clause applies only to “testimonial” statements by out-of-court
declarants. Michigan v. Bryant, 562 U.S. 344, 354 (2011); see also Hemphill v. New
York, 142 S. Ct. 681, 690 (2022).

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Mullins’s and Ms. Andrade’s testimony about Ms. Biggers’s death. ROA, Vol. III at

210, 425.

On appeal, Mr. Coulter fails to argue plain error in his opening brief.

See Aplt. Br. at 35-36. In his reply brief, he asserts that “[e]ven reviewing the

testimony about Ms. Bigger’s [sic] death . . . under the plain error standard,” he is

entitled to relief. Aplt. Reply Br. at 8. But he still fails to show how he has satisfied

the four elements of plain error review. See id. at 8-9. Thus, he waived the issue.

Leffler, 942 F.3d at 1198. This leaves only Mr. Coulter’s hearsay challenge to

Ms. Mullins’s testimony on redirect about the manner of Ms. Diaz’s death.

ii. Ms. Mullins’s testimony about Ms. Diaz

1) Standard of review

“We review the district court’s evidentiary rulings”—including decisions

about hearsay—“for an abuse of discretion, considering the record as a whole.”

United States v. Lovato, 950 F.3d 1337, 1341 (10th Cir. 2020) (quotations omitted).

“Any error, defect, irregularity, or variance that does not affect substantial

rights must be disregarded.” Fed. R. Crim. P. 52(a); see United States v. Jones,

818 F.3d 1091, 1101 (10th Cir. 2016). Under this standard, “[a]n error is harmless

unless it had a substantial influence on the outcome or leaves one in grave doubt as to

whether it had such effect.” Jones, 818 F.3d at 1101 (quotations omitted).

“We ‘review[] the record as a whole de novo to evaluate whether the error

[was] harmless, examining the context, timing, and use of the erroneously admitted

evidence at trial and how it compares to properly admitted evidence.’” United States

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v. Blechman, 657 F.3d 1052, 1067 (10th Cir. 2011) (quoting United States v.

Hanzlicek, 187 F.3d 1228, 1237 (10th Cir. 1999)). “A nonconstitutional error is

reversible unless the Government can prove harmlessness by a preponderance of the

evidence.” Jones, 818 F.3d at 1101.

2) Legal background

“A witness may testify to a matter only if evidence is introduced sufficient to

support a finding that the witness has personal knowledge of the matter.” Fed. R.

Evid. 602. “If, however, the witness merely has personal knowledge of an out-of-

court statement offered to prove the fact asserted in that statement—but not the

underlying fact—then his or her testimony must comply with the hearsay rule.”

United States v. Gutierrez de Lopez, 761 F.3d 1123, 1132 (10th Cir. 2014).

“‘Hearsay’ means a statement that: (1) the declarant does not make while

testifying at the current trial or hearing; and (2) a party offers in evidence to prove

the truth of the matter asserted in the statement.” Fed. R. Evid. 801(c). Hearsay is

generally inadmissible. Fed. R. Evid. 802.

3) Application

Ms. Mullins’s testimony about Ms. Diaz’s death was hearsay. First, there was

no “evidence [] sufficient to support a finding that” she “ha[d] personal knowledge

of” Ms. Diaz’s death. Gutierrez de Lopez, 761 F.3d at 1132 (citation omitted).8

8
In his brief, Mr. Coulter mostly refers to the testimony about Ms. Diaz’s
death as “hearsay,” but occasionally refers to it as “speculation.” See, e.g., Aplt.
Br. at 16. Ms. Mullins’s testimony about Ms. Diaz’s death was hearsay rather than
speculation because it was based on out-of-court statements rather than mere
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Instead, Ms. Mullins “merely ha[d] personal knowledge of [] out-of-court

statement[s]” about Ms. Diaz’s death. Id. Second, in context, the Government

elicited this testimony to “prove the fact of the matter asserted in th[e]

statement[s]”—namely, that Ms. Diaz had died due to a drug overdose. Id. Her

testimony was therefore hearsay. See id.

The district court overruled Mr. Coulter’s hearsay objection, concluding that

defense counsel “opened the door” on cross-examination of Ms. Mullins to rebuttal

testimony about the manner of Ms. Diaz’s death. ROA, Vol. III at 204-06. Mr.

Coulter disagrees. Aplt. Br. at 16. On appeal, the Government argues that Mr. Coulter

opened the door, but that even if he did not, any error was harmless. See Aplee. Br.

at 18-19; id. at 37-38.

We agree with the Government that it can prove by a preponderance that any

hearsay error was harmless. We thus need not decide whether Mr. Coulter’s counsel

opened the door to testimony about Ms. Diaz’s death. Based on the overwhelming

evidence of Mr. Coulter’s guilt, we are not “in grave doubt as to whether” any such

error “ha[d] a substantial influence on the outcome of the trial.” Blechman, 657 F.3d

at 1067 (quotations omitted). We make that determination in light of “the record as a

whole,” considering “the context, timing, and use of the erroneously admitted

evidence.” Id. (quotations omitted). The testimony from Doe 1, Ms. Andrade, the

guesswork: she testified that “[t]hey said” Ms. Diaz died of “a drug overdose.”
ROA, Vol. III at 204-06. See Hayes v. SkyWest Airlines, Inc., 12 F.4th 1186, 1208
(10th Cir. 2021).

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former client, and other witnesses, as well as the cell phone records, showed that Mr.

Coulter solicited clients for Doe 1 and instructed her on how to perform commercial

sex transactions. No part of the Government’s case depended on Ms. Diaz’s death.

In light of this evidence, any prejudice resulting from Ms. Mullins’s and

Ms. Andrade’s references to Ms. Diaz’s death was comparatively insignificant.

Ms. Mullins’s discussion of Ms. Diaz was a small fraction of her testimony.

Moreover, when the Government attempted to connect Ms. Diaz’s death to

Mr. Coulter during Ms. Andrade’s testimony later in the trial, the district court

prevented the Government from eliciting testimony that Mr. Coulter was involved.

ROA, Vol. III at 427. Indeed, Ms. Mullins testified that Mr. Coulter was in jail at the

time of Ms. Diaz’s death. ROA, Vol. III at 204-06. When the Government

referenced Ms. Diaz’s death in its closing argument, it stated that “Lizzie Diaz died

while [Mr. Coulter] was in jail,” ROA, Vol. III at 928, weakening any inference that

Mr. Coulter was involved in her death. Given the “context, timing, and use” of the

evidence about Ms. Diaz’s death, any erroneous admission of the evidence did not

have “a substantial influence on the outcome of the trial.” Blechman, 657 F.3d

at 1067 (quotations omitted).

c. Prosecutorial misconduct

Mr. Coulter argues the prosecution engaged in misconduct by asking about

Ms. Diaz’s and Ms. Biggers’s deaths and referencing Ms. Diaz’s death in closing

argument. Aplt. Br. at 24. We disagree.

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i. Standard of review

Mr. Coulter did not raise a contemporaneous prosecutorial misconduct

objection when the Government asked about Ms. Diaz’s and Ms. Biggers’s deaths,

ROA, Vol. III at 204-06, 210, 425-26, nor when it mentioned Ms. Diaz’s death in

closing argument, ROA, Vol. III at 928, so we “review the district court’s failure to

grant a mistrial sua sponte based on prosecutorial misconduct for plain error.”

United States v. Anaya, 727 F.3d 1043, 1059 (10th Cir. 2013).

ii. Legal background

A prosecutor may commit misconduct by eliciting improper and prejudicial

witness testimony. See, e.g., United States v. Green, 435 F.3d 1265, 1268-69

(10th Cir. 2006). A prosecutor’s questions to witnesses are not improper if the

questions elicit testimony for a “permissible purpose.” United States v. Shamo,

36 F.4th 1067, 1080 (10th Cir. 2022); see also United States v. Lonedog, 929 F.2d

568, 573 (10th Cir. 1991).

A prosecutor may also commit misconduct by making improper comments

during closing argument. United States v. Christy, 916 F.3d 814, 824-25

(10th Cir. 2019). In assessing a misconduct claim on this ground, “(1) the court first

decides whether the prosecutor’s comments were improper, and (2) if so, it examines

their likely effect on the jury’s verdict.” Id. at 824. A prosecutor’s comments are

generally improper if they distort the record or encourage the jury to base its decision

on irrelevant considerations. Id. at 824-25 (summarizing categories of improper

statements).

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If a prosecutor acted improperly, we must then assess “whether the c[onduct]

affected the jury’s verdict” in light of “the trial as a whole.” Id. at 826 (citations

omitted).

iii. Application

Mr. Coulter asserts he has shown plain error stemming from (1) the

Government’s questions about the deaths of Ms. Diaz and Ms. Biggers and (2) the

prosecution’s reference to Ms. Diaz’s death during its closing argument. Aplt. Br.

at 32. His arguments are lacking.

Mr. Coulter has not shown that the Government acted improperly in

questioning Ms. Mullins and Ms. Andrade about the deaths of Ms. Diaz and Ms.

Biggers. The Government argues it asked Ms. Mullins and Ms. Andrade about Ms.

Diaz’s death to “provide[] context to the dynamic of the relationship between Coulter

and the victims he employed.” Aplee. Br. at 35. It contends that Mr. Coulter used

Ms. Diaz’s death to “intimidate[] his victims” by implying that “had [Ms. Diaz]

protected Coulter from going to prison, he might have been able to protect Ms. Diaz

and prevent her death.” Id. As for Ms. Biggers, the Government argues that

testimony about her death provided additional context about Mr. Coulter’s

relationship with the women who worked for him, and points out that none of its

questions about Ms. Biggers suggested that Mr. Coulter was involved in her death.

Id. at 28-29. We find these points persuasive, and Mr. Coulter does not refute them.

He thus has not shown that the Government elicited this testimony for an

impermissible purpose. Shamo, 36 F.4th at 1080.

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Similarly, Mr. Coulter has not shown that the prosecutor’s closing argument

comments about Ms. Diaz were improper. Christy, 916 F.3d at 824-25. The

Government explains that in quoting Mr. Coulter as saying “[w]e shouldn’t let bad

things happen to Daddy,” ROA, Vol. III at 928, it “illustrate[d] his callous treatment

of the women who worked for him,” Aplee. Br. at 35. The Government’s use of

Mr. Coulter’s statement neither distorted the record nor encouraged the jury to base

its decision on irrelevant considerations. Christy, 916 F.3d at 824-25.

And even if the Government acted improperly in examining Ms. Mullins and

Ms. Andrade or referencing Ms. Diaz’s death in closing argument, Mr. Coulter fails

at the second and third prongs of plain error review. He has not demonstrated that

the alleged error was “clear or obvious under current law,” Mullins, 613 F.3d at 1283

(quotations omitted), by citing Tenth Circuit or Supreme Court precedent.

DeChristopher, 695 F.3d at 1091. And he has not shown “a reasonable probability

that, but for the error claimed, the result of the proceeding would have been

different,” Bustamante-Conchas, 850 F.3d at 1138 (quotations omitted), given the

“overwhelming evidence of his guilt,” Ibarra-Diaz, 805 F.3d at 926. Any prejudice

here was minimal because the evidence did not suggest that Mr. Coulter was involved

in the deaths. Ms. Mullins testified that Mr. Coulter was in prison when Ms. Diaz

died, ROA, Vol. III at 205-06, and Ms. Andrade said nothing to indicate that Mr.

Coulter was responsible for Ms. Biggers’s death.

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C. Doe 1’s Guardian Ad Litem

Mr. Coulter argues that the guardian ad litem’s mouthing “you’re doing a good

job” to Doe 1 during her testimony constituted improper bolstering in violation of his

“Sixth Amendment rights to an impartial jury” and his right to a fair trial. Aplt. Br.

at 47. We disagree.

Standard of Review

Mr. Coulter objected to the guardian ad litem’s conduct when it occurred.

ROA, Vol. III at 690. The district court sustained the objection and delivered a

curative jury instruction. Id. at 697-89. Because Mr. Coulter “fail[ed] to object to

the adequacy of the curative action or ask for a mistrial, we review for plain error.”

United States v. Anaya, 727 F.3d 1043, 1052 (10th Cir. 2013).9

Legal Background

“‘Vouching,’ or ‘an assurance by the prosecuting attorney of the credibility of

a government witness through personal knowledge or by other information outside of

the testimony before the jury,’ amounts to improper prosecutorial conduct.”

Littlejohn v. Trammell, 704 F.3d 817, 837 (10th Cir. 2013) (quoting Lam v. Kelchner,

304 F.3d 256, 271 (3d Cir. 2002)). This improper conduct “can result in

constitutional error” in two ways: (1) “prejudice a specific right . . . [so] as to

9
Both Mr. Coulter and the Government agree that plain error review applies
despite Mr. Coulter’s contemporaneous objection to the guardian ad litem’s conduct.
Aplt. Br. at 47; Aplee. Br. at 59.

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amount to a denial of that right” or (2) “render a [defendant’s] trial so fundamentally

unfair as to deny him due process.” Littlejohn, 704 F.3d at 837 (quotations omitted).

A statement about a witness’s credibility is improper bolstering only if the

prosecutor “explicitly or implicitly guarantee[s] that the witness[’s] statements were

true.” United States v. Brooks, 736 F.3d 921, 935 (10th Cir. 2013). We have applied

the prohibition on bolstering to statements by prosecutors and individuals affiliated

with the prosecution. For example, in Brooks, we considered whether a law

enforcement officer improperly bolstered cooperating witnesses by testifying “about

how [they] conferred with the government on the scope and substance of their

testimony.” Id. at 934.

But we have never applied the doctrine to statements by third parties

unaffiliated with the prosecution. Instead, when a defendant claims a third party

acted inappropriately at trial, we typically assess whether the third party’s behavior

violated the defendant’s Fifth Amendment right to due process. In United States v.

Dixon, for example, a witness mouthed “I am sorry” to the defendant after giving

testimony against him. 268 F. App’x 767, 770 (10th Cir. 2008) (unpublished). The

defendant argued that this violated due process because it unfairly reinforced the

witness’s credibility. Id. We disagreed, holding that “[e]ven if the jury may have

viewed [the witness’s] apology as enhancing her credibility to some degree, it

certainly did not bolster it so much as to warrant a new trial.” Id.; see also United

States v. Encinias, 123 F. App’x 924, 942 (10th Cir. 2005) (unpublished) (rejecting a

defendant’s due process claim based on a victim’s mother’s outburst).

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When the district court issues a curative instruction, “we presume the jury

followed the instruction.” Abuan v. Level 3 Commc’ns, Inc., 353 F.3d 1158, 1175

(10th Cir. 2003).

Application

We discern no error, let alone plain error. We have never held that a statement

by a third party unaffiliated with the prosecution can constitute improper bolstering.

Mr. Coulter presents no argument or authority suggesting that a guardian ad litem or

a similarly situated third party may commit improper bolstering. See Littlejohn,

704 F.3d at 837 (bolstering is “an assurance by the prosecuting attorney of the

credibility of a government witness” (quotations omitted)).

Even if the bolstering doctrine applies to third parties, the guardian ad litem’s

conduct was not improper bolstering, which occurs only with “explicit[] or implicit[]

guarantee[s] that the witness[’s] statements were true.” Brooks, 736 F.3d at 935. In

context, the guardian ad litem’s “doing a good job” message was an attempt to

reassure Doe 1 rather than a guarantee that Doe 1 was telling the truth. See State v.

Smith, 780 N.E.2d 221, 232 (Ohio 2002) (a prosecutor did not bolster a witness by

“telling her she was doing a good job,” because he “was simply reassuring [the

witness] in the midst of her difficult testimony”). The guardian ad litem’s conduct

thus did not violate Mr. Coulter’s Sixth Amendment rights.

Although some of our cases have discussed due process challenges based on a

third party’s inappropriate or distracting conduct during a trial, see Dixon,

268 F. App’x at 770; Encinias, 123 F. App’x at 942, Mr. Coulter does not cite these

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cases, nor does he use the phrase “due process” in connection with the guardian ad

litem. See Aplt. Br. at 46-48. Thus, although Mr. Coulter claims that “the [guardian

ad litem’s] actions . . . caused his trial to be fundamentally unfair,” Aplt. Br. at 47, he

does not develop a due process fairness argument.

But even if he had, the guardian ad litem’s conduct did not render Mr.

Coulter’s trial unfair. It appears that Mr. Coulter’s attorney was the only person who

saw the alleged interaction between the guardian ad litem and Doe 1. ROA, Vol. III

at 690. If any jurors saw the interaction, it is unlikely that it affected the outcome of

the trial. As we held in Dixon, “[e]ven if the jury may have viewed” the guardian’s

conduct “as enhancing [Doe 1’]s credibility to some degree, it certainly did not

bolster it so much as to warrant a new trial.” 268 F. App’x at 770.

Finally, the district court delivered a curative instruction telling the jury to

disregard any communication between the guardian ad litem and Doe 1. We

“presume the jury followed th[at] instruction,” Abuan, 353 F.3d at 1175, and Mr.

Coulter has presented nothing to suggest otherwise.

D. The District Court’s Interactions with the Jury

Mr. Coulter challenges the district court’s post-trial interactions with the jury

on various grounds. Because we find the court did not abuse its discretion, we

affirm.

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Additional Procedural History

After the parties’ closing arguments, the district court delivered the jury

instructions, which included a standard instruction encouraging the jury to try to achieve

unanimity.

The jury retired to deliberate at 12:36 p.m. on Friday, July 19. At 5:21 p.m., the

district court received the following written question from the jury: “[W]hat do we do if

we are unable to vote a unanimous verdict for Count 3?” ROA, Vol. III at 973. The

district court responded in writing that the jury should review the instruction on how to

deliberate, and that “[i]f you cannot reach a unanimous verdict on any particular count

and believe you are hopelessly deadlocked, you may return a partial verdict on other

counts on which you unanimously agree.” Id. at 973-74.

At 6:45 p.m., the jury signaled it had reached a verdict. The foreperson said that

the jury could not reach agreement on Count 3 but found Mr. Coulter guilty on Counts 1

and 2. The district court announced the verdict on the first two counts and asked the

jurors to “indicate by raising [their] hands” whether “the verdict constitute[s] [their]

unanimous verdict.” Id. at 979. One juror, Ms. Noland, did not raise her hand. Id.

When the court questioned her about whether the verdict on Counts 1 and 2 represented

her vote, she responded, “No.” Id. at 979-80.

The district court, after consulting with both parties, told the jury, “I’m going to

give you an instruction fairly quickly with respect to what we’re going to do for the rest

of the evening.” Id. at 980. He then sent the jury back to the jury room to continue its

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deliberations. Ms. Noland, however, became “emotional” and refused to return to the

jury room. Id. at 982. The court decided to send the jury home for the weekend.

On Monday morning, Mr. Coulter filed a motion for a mistrial, arguing that (1) the

jury’s deliberations were no longer secret and (2) the district court pressured the jury to

reach a unanimous verdict when it answered the jury’s written question about deadlock

by directing its attention to the instruction on how to deliberate. ROA, Vol. I at 480-82.

The court denied the motion for a mistrial and decided—over Mr. Coulter’s objection—

to talk with Ms. Noland outside the presence of the remaining jurors to determine

whether she would be willing to continue deliberating. ROA, Vol. III at 1000.

The district court brought Ms. Noland into chambers. The judge assured her that

she “didn’t do anything wrong” and was “not in trouble.” Id. at 1006-07. He also

reminded her that she should not discuss “how anybody is voting in the deliberation

room.” Id. at 1007. Then the judge asked her whether she was “ready, willing, and able

to continue to deliberate with the other jurors” and “able to follow [the court’s]

instructions on the law.” Id. at 1007-08. Ms. Noland said she was. Id. The judge

reminded her that “there is a process for the jury to communicate with me that you can’t

reach a unanimous agreement,” and asked her to return to the courtroom. Id. at 1008. As

she was leaving, Ms. Noland remarked that she “felt like [she] was at the principal’s

office.” Id.

Back in the courtroom, the district court delivered the following Allen instruction:

Members of the jury, I’m going to ask that you return to the
jury room and deliberate further. I realize that you are having
some difficulty reaching a unanimous agreement but that is

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not unusual. Sometimes, after further discussions, jurors are
able to work out their differences and agree. This is an
important case. If you should fail to agree upon a verdict, the
case is left open and must be tried again. Obviously, another
trial would require the parties to make another large
investment of time and effort, and there is no reason to
believe that the case can be tried again by either side better or
more exhaustively than it has been tried before you . . . . In
the course of your deliberations, do not hesitate to re-examine
your own views and change your opinion if you are
convinced it is erroneous. But do not surrender your honest
conviction as to the weight or effect of the evidence solely
because of the opinion of your fellow jurors or for the mere
purpose of returning a verdict. What I have just said is not
meant to rush or pressure you into agreeing on a verdict.
Take as much time as you need to discuss things. There is no
hurry. I will now ask that you retire once again and continue
your deliberations with these additional comments in mind to
be applied, of course, in conjunction with all of the
instructions I have previously given to you.

ROA, Vol. III at 1012-13. Mr. Coulter did not object to this instruction. See id.

at 1010-11. The jury resumed deliberating at 10:34 a.m.

At 2:07 p.m., the jury again indicated that it had reached a verdict. It reported a

deadlock on Count 3, but said it had reached a unanimous guilty verdict on Counts 1 and

2. The district court declared a mistrial as to Count 3, and announced the verdict on the

first two counts. The court again polled the jury. All jurors, including Ms. Noland,

raised their hands to manifest agreement with the published verdict. Id. at 1016-17.

Standard of Review

We review the district court’s management and decisions about jury

deliberations for abuse of discretion. This includes whether to poll the jury sua

sponte, to declare a mistrial or direct the jury to continue to deliberate, to investigate

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potential problems with jury deliberations, and to deliver an Allen instruction

encouraging the jury to try to reach unanimity. See United States v. Shamo,

36 F.4th 1067, 1080 (10th Cir. 2022); United States v. Cornelius, 696 F.3d 1307,

1321 (10th Cir. 2012); United States v. Zabriskie, 415 F.3d 1139, 1147

(10th Cir. 2005).

Analysis

Mr. Coulter argues that the district court abused its discretion by placing

improper pressure on the jury to reach a unanimous verdict in violation of his Sixth

Amendment right to an impartial jury. Aplt. Br. at 44; see Zabriskie, 415 F.3d

at 1148.10 He contends that the court should instead have granted his motion for a

mistrial. Aplt. Br. at 40. We disagree.

a. Jury poll and numerical inquiry

Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 31(d) provides:

After a verdict is returned but before the jury is
discharged, the court must on a party’s request, or may on
its own, poll the jurors individually. If the poll reveals a
lack of unanimity, the court may direct the jury to
deliberate further or may declare a mistrial and discharge
the jury.

Mr. Coulter suggests on appeal that the district court should not have polled

the jury. See, e.g., Aplt. Br. at 44-45. Specifically, he contends the district court

violated Brasfield v. United States, 272 U.S. 448 (1926), in which the Supreme Court

10
We address challenges to the district court’s post-trial interactions with the
jury that Mr. Coulter appears to raise on appeal.

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held that a trial court may not “inquire[] how [the jury] was divided numerically”

during jury deliberations. Id. at 449.11 The Court reasoned that such numerical

inquiries exert a “coercive . . . [and] improper influence upon the jury” to reach a

unanimous verdict. Id. at 450.

Because the jury poll revealed that only one juror did not acquiesce in the

verdict, Mr. Coulter suggests that the poll was an improper “numerical inquiry”

under Brasfield. Aplt. Br. at 44. We disagree. In Brasfield, after the jury said it was

deadlocked, the trial court inquired about the number of votes for guilt and for

acquittal. 272 U.S. at 449. Here, by contrast, the district court polled the jury only

after it rendered a verdict, and the court had no reason to suspect the verdict was not

unanimous. Once the poll revealed that Ms. Noland did not agree with the verdict,

the court conducted no further inquiries about Ms. Noland’s position or that of other

jurors. As far as the district court was aware, Ms. Noland could have disagreed with

the verdict as to Count 1, Count 2, or both, or could have wished to continue

deliberating on Count 3. The court did not conduct a “numerical inquiry” and thus

did not violate Brasfield.

The Supreme Court and our circuit have repeatedly rejected efforts to expand

the Brasfield principle to standard jury polls. See, e.g., Lowenfield v. Phelps,

11
Mr. Coulter alluded to this argument in his motion for a mistrial, though he
did not cite Brasfield. See ROA, Vol. I at 480-81. He argued that the jury poll
revealed Ms. Noland’s vote, making the jury’s deliberations no longer secret and
imposing pressure on her to assent to the verdict. Id.

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484 U.S. 231, 239-40 (1988) (an Allen charge, combined with non-numerical jury

polling, did not violate the Brasfield rule); Gafford v. Warden, U.S. Penitentiary,

Leavenworth, Kan., 434 F.2d 318, 319 (10th Cir. 1970) (declining to extend Brasfield

to jury polls); United States v. Alvarez-Pasillas, 159 F. App’x 42, 45 (10th Cir. 2005)

(unpublished) (district court has discretion to direct further deliberations after polling

the jury); United States v. Smith, 562 F.2d 619, 622 (10th Cir. 1977) (same). This

precedent is consistent with Federal Rule of Criminal Procedure 31(d), which gives

the district court the discretion to poll the jury and, if the poll reveals a lack of

unanimity, to declare a mistrial or direct further deliberations.12 Mr. Coulter’s

argument based on Brasfield thus lacks merit.

The district court therefore acted within its discretion when it polled the jury.

If a poll shows that the jurors are not unanimous, “Rule 31(d) vests in the trial court

broad discretion whether to declare a mistrial or order the jury to resume

deliberations.” Alvarez-Pasillas, 159 F. App’x at 45. This is because “[t]he trial

judge ‘is in a better position than the appellate court to determine the effect of a

dissenting or uncertain vote upon the likelihood that further deliberations will yield a

freely given verdict.’” Id. (quoting Smith, 562 F.2d at 622).

12
Brasfield “makes no mention of the Due Process Clause or any other
constitutional provision.” Lowenfield, 484 U.S. at 240 n.3. We thus have interpreted
Brasfield as “an exercise of [the appellate court’s] supervisory powers . . . not a
constitutional holding.” Gilbert v. Mullin, 302 F.3d 1166, 1176 (10th Cir. 2002)
(quotations omitted).

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Here, when the poll “reveal[ed] a lack of unanimity,” the court acted within its

discretion by “direct[ing] the jury to deliberate further” rather than declaring a

mistrial. Id. The court was in “a better position” than we are “to determine the effect

of” Ms. Noland’s dissent on the likelihood that the jury could reach a unanimous

verdict. Smith, 562 F.2d at 622. Mr. Coulter presents no argument that the district

court acted unreasonably when it polled the jury and decided that further

deliberations could be productive.

b. Pressure on Ms. Noland from other jurors

Mr. Coulter suggests that when the district court ordered the jury to return to

deliberations after Ms. Noland revealed her dissenting vote, she may have faced

pressure from the other jurors to reach a unanimous verdict. Aplt. Br. at 44

(Ms. Noland’s unwillingness to return to the deliberations “indicates she was feeling

undue pressure from the other jurors”). This argument is speculative. Also, when

addressing arguments that a juror felt pressured to reach a verdict, we typically focus

on the behavior of the trial court—not other jurors. In Crease v. McKune, 189 F.3d

1188 (10th Cir. 1999), for example, a juror reported that she “finally voted to convict

after feeling pressure from other jurors.” Id. at 1194. We nonetheless denied relief

to the defendant because there was no evidence that the juror “felt [] pressure from

the judge to vote to convict.” Id. Mr. Coulter presents no authority suggesting that

the possibility of pressure from other jurors on Ms. Noland, without more, violated

his constitutional rights.

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c. The district court’s meeting with Ms. Noland

Mr. Coulter contends that the district court’s separate meeting with Ms.

Noland placed “undue coercion and pressure” on her to reach a unanimous verdict.

Aplt. Br. at 43. He points to her statement that she “felt like [she] was at the

principal’s office.” Id. (quoting ROA, Vol. III at 1008). We disagree.

If the district court identifies a potential problem with jury deliberations, it has

“broad discretion in investigating,” including “separately interviewing” jurors.

Zabriskie, 415 F.3d at 1147. But the court must not “impose[] such pressure on the

[members of the] jury such that the accuracy and integrity of their verdict becomes

uncertain.” Id. at 1148.

Here, the district court properly exercised its “broad discretion in

investigating” when it “separately interview[ed]” Ms. Noland. Zabriskie, 415 F.3d

at 1147.13 The judge told Ms. Noland that she was “not in trouble” and cautioned her

not to reveal “how anybody is voting.” ROA, Vol. III at 1006-07. He asked Ms.

Noland only whether she was willing to continue deliberating and follow the law.

Id. at 1007-08. Although Ms. Noland may have felt nervous—hence the “principal’s

office” comment—the record fails to show inappropriate pressure to reach a

unanimous verdict.

13
In Zabriskie, we affirmed the district court’s decision to speak separately
with an individual juror. But we ultimately reversed the conviction because, during
the one-on-one meeting with the juror, the court gave an individualized Allen
instruction just to that juror. See 415 F.3d at 1148.

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d. Allen instruction

Mr. Coulter suggests that the district court’s giving the Allen instruction was

coercive and deprived him of his right to a unanimous verdict. Aplt. Br. at 43-46.14

i. Legal background – Allen instructions

A district court may deliver an Allen instruction to encourage deliberation.

See Allen v. United States, 164 U.S. 492 (1896) (approving an instruction

encouraging a deadlocked jury to continue deliberating). An Allen instruction

“urg[es] deadlocked jurors to review and reconsider the evidence in the light of the

views expressed by other jurors so as to avoid a mistrial.” Cornelius, 696 F.3d

at 1321 (quoting United States v. LaVallee, 439 F.3d 670, 689 (10th Cir. 2006)).

A district court must not deliver an “improperly coercive” Allen instruction.

Cornelius, 696 F.3d at 1321. We consider four factors to assess whether an Allen

instruction is improperly coercive: “(1) the language of the instruction, (2) whether

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In his motion for a mistrial, Mr. Coulter “respectfully submit[ted] his
objection to another giving and/or instructing to go to a modified Allen instruction
and/or an Allen instruction,” which “would be impermissibly coercive.” ROA, Vol. I
at 482 (citation and quotations omitted). In its brief, the Government addresses this
argument, stating “[i]t is not entirely clear that Coulter is challenging the trial court’s
decision to give the modified Allen instruction. However, to the extent that the
coercive nature of Allen instructions was addressed in his motion for mistrial, it
seems necessary to address this issue.” Aplee. Br. at 54; see id. at 54-57. Although
Mr. Coulter agreed with the wording of the instruction, ROA, Vol. III at 1010, we
address his coerciveness objection to the district court’s decision to give it. See
United States v. Ellzey, 936 F.2d 492, 500 (10th Cir. 1991) (noting a distinction
between a “general ‘coercion’ objection to [an] Allen instruction” and a specific
objection to “certain language in the instruction”).

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the instruction is presented with other instructions, (3) the timing of the instruction,

and (4) the length of the jury’s subsequent deliberations.” Id. (quotations omitted).

We elaborated on these factors in Cornelius. The language of an Allen

instruction is not improperly coercive if it “urge[s] all jurors, not just those in favor

of acquittal, to reconsider their views” and “stresse[s] the importance of integrity in

being an impartial, deliberate fact-finder.” Cornelius, 696 F.3d at 1322. When the

district court presents an Allen instruction after other jury instructions, it should

inform the jury “to apply the Allen instruction in conjunction with all of the

instructions the court ha[s] previously given.” Id. If the district court delivers an

“Allen instruction after the jury informed the court that it was unable to reach a

verdict,” this “weighs against a determination of improper coercion.” Id. (quotations

omitted). After the district court delivers the instruction, a “relatively long period of

further deliberation tends to negate an inference of improper coercion.” Id. at 1323.

Relatedly, if the jury remains deadlocked on some issues after receiving an Allen

instruction, that fact “demonstrates that [the jury] was not compelled or coerced to

reach a unanimous verdict.” United States v. Ailsworth, 138 F.3d 843, 852

(10th Cir. 1998) (quotations omitted).

ii. Application

The district court did not abuse its discretion by delivering the Allen

instruction. First, like the Allen instructions we have upheld in other cases, the

court’s instruction “urge[d] all jurors, not just those in favor of acquittal, to

reconsider their views” and “stresse[d] the importance of . . . being an impartial,

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deliberate fact-finder.” Cornelius, 696 F.3d at 1322. And Mr. Coulter agreed to the

language. ROA, Vol. III at 1010. Second, the district court told the jury to apply the

Allen instruction in conjunction with all its previous instructions, which reduces the

likelihood of coercion. Id. at 1322. Third, the court delivered the instruction only

after the jury indicated it was deadlocked, which “weighs against a determination of

improper coercion.” Id. (quotations omitted). Fourth, the jury deliberated for several

hours after the district court delivered the Allen instruction. See ROA, Vol. III

at 1013-14. This “relatively long period” “tends to negate an inference of improper

coercion.” Cornelius, 696 F.3d at 1323; see also LaVallee, 439 F.3d at 689 (“several

hours of deliberation” following an Allen instruction indicates that the instruction did

not coerce the jury to reach a verdict). Finally, although the jury reached a

unanimous verdict on the first two counts, it remained deadlocked on Count 3, which

“demonstrates that it was not compelled or coerced to reach a unanimous verdict.”

Ailsworth, 138 F.3d at 852 (quotations omitted).

* * * *

The district court handled its post-trial jury interactions without abusing its

discretion.

E. Cumulative Error

Mr. Coulter argues that the cumulative effect of the errors he alleges deprived

him of due process. Aplt. Br. at 49. We disagree.

A defendant is entitled to reversal on cumulative error grounds if the cumulative

effect of the errors he identifies rendered “the trial [] so fundamentally unfair as to deny

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[him] due process.” United States v. Christy, 916 F.3d 814, 840 (10th Cir. 2019)

(quotations omitted). “We consider cumulative error only if the appellant has shown at

least two errors that were harmless.” Id. at 827. Then the “question [becomes] whether

the two or more harmless errors together constitute prejudicial error.” Id.

Based on the discussion above, we have identified only one putative error that

we resolved as harmless: the district court’s admission of hearsay testimony from

Ms. Mullins regarding Ms. Diaz’s death. Because Mr. Coulter has failed to show “at

least two errors that were harmless,” Christy, 916 F.3d at 827, we need not progress

further in the cumulative error analysis.

III. CONCLUSION

We affirm the district court.

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