United States Court of Appeals
Fifth Circuit
F I L E D
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FIFTH CIRCUIT September 22, 2004
Charles R. Fulbruge III
Clerk
No. 03-41260
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellee,
versus
FELIPE de JESUS DOMINGUEZ-OCHOA,
Defendant-Appellant.
Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Southern District of Texas
Before BARKSDALE and PICKERING, Circuit Judges, and LYNN,
District Judge*.
RHESA HAWKINS BARKSDALE, Circuit Judge:
Primarily at issue is whether, for Sentencing Guidelines
purposes, criminally negligent homicide under Texas law is
equivalent to manslaughter and, therefore, an enumerated crime of
violence under Guidelines § 2L1.2, permitting the 16-level
enhancement imposed against Felipe de Jesus Dominguez-Ochoa. See
U.S.S.G. § 2L1.2 cmt. n.1(B)(ii)(II) (2002). Criminally negligent
homicide has a mens rea of negligence; generic, contemporary
manslaughter, of recklessness. Therefore, the two offenses are not
*
District Judge of the Northern District of Texas,
sitting by designation.
equivalent. The enhancement is VACATED; the case is REMANDED for
resentencing.
I.
After a criminal information charged Dominguez with murder,
the State moved to reduce the charge. He pleaded guilty in April
2002 to criminally negligent homicide and was sentenced to 14
months’ imprisonment. Dominguez (a Mexican citizen) was released
in November 2002 and deported to Mexico in January 2003.
Within a few days, he was found by Border Patrol Agents near
Alamo, Texas. Dominguez pleaded guilty to being found in the
United States after deportation without having obtained the consent
of the Attorney General to reapply for admission. 8 U.S.C. §§
1326(a) and (b).
The presentence investigation report (PSR) recommended a 16-
level enhancement under U.S.S.G. § 2L1.2(b)(1)(A)(ii), taking the
position that Dominguez’ deportation had followed a conviction for
a crime of violence — the criminally negligent homicide to which he
had pleaded guilty. Dominguez objected to the enhancement,
claiming that offense was not a crime of violence. The district
court overruled the objection and sentenced Dominguez, inter alia,
to 57 months’ imprisonment.
II.
In addition to contesting the enhancement, Dominguez claims
the “felony” and “aggravated felony” provisions of 8 U.S.C. §§
2
1326(b)(1) and (b)(2) are unconstitutional but acknowledges the
issue is foreclosed by Almendarez-Torres v. United States, 523 U.S.
224, 226-27 (1998). The issue is raised only to preserve it for
possible review by the Supreme Court.
Accordingly, the remaining issue to address concerns the
enhancement. For that issue, the district court’s guidelines
interpretation is reviewed de novo; its factual findings, only for
clear error. E.g., United States v. Washington, 340 F.3d 222, 231
(5th Cir.), cert. denied, 124 S. Ct. 942 (2003).
Section 2L1.2’s commentary defines a “crime of violence” in
two ways (subparts I and II). It
(I) means an offense under federal, state, or
local law that has as an element the use,
attempted use, or threatened use of physical
force against the person of another; and
(II) includes murder, manslaughter,
kidnapping, aggravated assault, forcible sex
offenses (including sexual abuse of a minor),
robbery, arson, extortion, extortionate
extension of credit, and burglary of a
dwelling.
U.S.S.G. § 2L1.2 cmt. n.1(B)(ii)(I) and (II) (emphasis added).
Texas criminally negligent homicide occurs when a person
“causes the death of an individual by criminal negligence”. TEX.
PEN. CODE § 19.05. “Criminal negligence” is defined by statute.
A person acts with criminal negligence, or is
criminally negligent, with respect to
circumstances surrounding his conduct or the
result of his conduct when he ought to be
aware of a substantial and unjustifiable risk
that the circumstances exist or the result
3
will occur. The risk must be of such a nature
and degree that the failure to perceive it
constitutes a gross deviation from the
standard of care that an ordinary person would
exercise under all the circumstances as viewed
from the actor’s standpoint.
TEX. PEN. CODE § 6.03(d) (emphasis added).
Dominguez contends Texas criminally negligent homicide is not
a § 2L1.2 crime of violence. He maintains: concerning subpart
(I), and as he urged in district court, it does not include as an
element the intentional “use, attempted use, or threatened use” of
force; and, concerning subpart (II), it is not one of the
enumerated offenses.
The district court appears to have considered the underlying
facts of Dominguez’ criminally negligent homicide conviction in
concluding that the offense was a crime of violence under subpart
(I). Several months after Dominguez was sentenced, however, our
court decided United States v. Vargus-Duran, 356 F.3d 598 (5th Cir.
2004) (en banc) (use of force required for 16-level enhancement
under subpart (I) must be intentional). In the light of that
decision, the Government does not claim criminally negligent
homicide is a crime of violence under subpart (I).
Instead, it claims the enhancement was proper under subpart
(II): Texas criminally negligent homicide is equivalent to the
enumerated crime of “manslaughter”. See U.S.S.G. § 2L1.2 cmt.
n.1(B)(ii)(II). Our court may uphold the district court’s ruling
on any basis presented in district court and established by the
4
record. See, e.g., United States v. Flores, 135 F.3d 1000, 1002
(5th Cir.) (may affirm on any ground urged in district court),
cert. denied, 525 U.S. 1091 (1998). Although the Government did
not specifically contend at sentencing that criminally negligent
homicide was a crime of violence under subpart (II), the PSR
recommended the 16-level enhancement because “Dominguez was
convicted of criminally negligent homicide, a crime of violence,
pursuant to Commentary Application Note (B)(ii)(I) and (II)”.
(Emphasis added.)
According to the Government, although “criminally negligent
homicide” is not one of subpart (II)’s enumerated crimes of
violence, the offense is the equivalent of the enumerated offense
of manslaughter. Relying principally on Taylor v. United States,
495 U.S. 575 (1990) (holding “burglary” within the meaning of the
sentence enhancement statute refers to any crime, regardless of its
exact definition or label, having the basic elements of generic,
contemporary burglary), the Government maintains the elements of
Texas criminally negligent homicide are included in those of
manslaughter.
The parties agree on several points: manslaughter in subpart
(II) includes both voluntary and involuntary manslaughter; only the
elements of involuntary manslaughter are relevant for this
analysis, because voluntary manslaughter and criminally negligent
homicide require different levels of intent; all formulations of
5
involuntary manslaughter and Texas criminally negligent homicide
share the element of one person’s causing the death of another;
and, therefore, at issue are the proper mens rea for involuntary
manslaughter and whether it is the same as that for criminally
negligent homicide. Essentially, the Government claims involuntary
manslaughter includes both a “reckless” and “criminally negligent”
mens rea; Dominguez, that “recklessness” is the only relevant
manslaughter mens rea for this enhancement analysis.
The Texas Penal Code defines manslaughter as “recklessly”
causing the death of another, TEX. PEN. CODE § 19.04; on the other
hand, as stated, criminally negligent homicide is defined as
causing the death of another “by criminal negligence” (“ought to be
aware”), TEX. PEN. CODE § 19.05. For our equivalence analysis,
however, Taylor precludes use of the specific definition of
manslaughter applied by the state of conviction. Taylor, 495 U.S.
at 590-91.
Relying on Taylor, the Government describes at length the
common law history of manslaughter and its inclusion of various
forms of mens rea, including criminal negligence. See United
States v. Browner, 889 F.2d 549, 551-53 (1989)(same). As Taylor
demonstrates with respect to burglary, however, the common law is
not the source for defining the enumerated offense of manslaughter
for this sentence enhancement analysis.
6
The problem with [looking to the common law]
is that the contemporary understanding of
“burglary” has diverged a long way from its
commonlaw roots.... The arcane distinctions
embedded in the common-law definition have
little relevance to modern law enforcement
concerns.... In the absence of any specific
indication that Congress meant to incorporate
the common-law meaning of burglary, we shall
not read into the statute a definition of
“burglary” so obviously ill suited to its
purposes.
Taylor, 495 U.S. at 593-94; see Browner, 889 F.2d at 551-53.
Taylor instructs that where, as here, the enhancement provision
does not specifically define the enumerated offense, we must define
it according to its “generic, contemporary meaning”, 495 U.S. at
598, and should rely on a uniform definition, regardless of the
“labels employed by the various States’ criminal codes”, id. at
592. After observing that the enhancement statute did not define
burglary, Taylor looked to other sources of authority (the Model
Penal Code and W. LaFave & A. Scott, SUBSTANTIVE CRIMINAL LAW (1986))
in order to determine its generic meaning.
A.
As discussed, § 2L1.1 does not define manslaughter (or
involuntary manslaughter). Likewise, elsewhere in the guidelines,
§ 2A1.4, entitled “Involuntary Manslaughter”, does not define the
offense. Section 2A1.4 concerns, inter alia, the federal crime of
manslaughter, 18 U.S.C. § 1112, discussed infra, when it is
involuntary, as defined in § 1112. Although § 2A1.4 does not
7
define involuntary manslaughter, it does provide different base
offense levels for different types of mens rea: 10, if the conduct
was “criminally negligent”; 14, if it was “reckless”. U.S.S.G. §
2A1.4(a)(1) and (2) (emphasis omitted). The Government claims this
implies that, for enhancement purposes under § 2L1.1, the
Sentencing Commission considered criminal negligence a sufficient
mens rea for an involuntary manslaughter conviction.
Indeed, consistent with § 2A1.4’s different base offense
levels for criminally negligent and reckless conduct, that
section’s commentary defines criminally negligent conduct as
involving “a gross deviation from the standard of care that a
reasonable person would exercise under the circumstances, but which
is not reckless”. U.S.S.G. § 2A1.4 cmt. 2 (emphasis added). This
is similar to the Texas definition of criminal negligence: when a
person “ought to be aware ... of a substantial and unjustifiable
risk”, which “must be of such a nature and degree that the failure
to perceive it constitutes a gross deviation from the standard of
care that an ordinary person would exercise under all the
circumstances as viewed from the actor’s standpoint”. TEX. PEN. CODE
§ 6.03(d) (emphasis added).
We reject this transfer of § 2A1.4 to § 2L1.2 for enhancement
purposes under subpart (II). The guidelines’ “principal purpose”
is to “establish sentencing policies and practices for the federal
criminal justice system”. U.S.S.G. Ch.1 Pt.A n.1. Toward that
8
end, the Sentencing Commission “drafted the initial guidelines with
considerable caution[, after] examin[ing] the many hundreds of
criminal statutes in the United States Code”. U.S.S.G. Ch.1 Pt.A
n.5. The guidelines’ base offense levels for various offenses
reflect the requirements of those federal statutes, see, e.g., 18
U.S.C. § 1112 and 10 U.S.C. § 919(b), discussed infra, as well as
many state offenses that come into play for sentence enhancements;
they are not an attempt to define a generic offense or to provide,
per se, an implied definition for cross-reference to other
guidelines’ sections. Rather, the Sentencing Commission attempted
to be responsive to the federal and state offenses and provide,
inter alia, offense levels appropriate for diverse federal and
state offenses. As discussed infra, a minority of States employ a
criminally negligent mens rea for involuntary manslaughter; a
larger number, one of recklessness.
Although Guidelines § 2A1.4(a)(1) provides a base offense
level of 10 if conduct causing involuntary manslaughter was
“criminally negligent”, and is consistent with the minority form of
the offense in some States, the purpose of this guidelines section
is to provide base offense levels for federal offenses against the
person, not to define those offenses. Indeed, none of the various
offenses against the person are defined by § 2A1, but all are
provided a base offense level. See U.S.S.G. §§ 2A1.1 (43 for first
degree murder); 2A1.2 (33 for second degree murder); 2A1.3 (25 for
9
voluntary manslaughter); 2A1.4 (involuntary manslaughter: 10 for
criminally negligent conduct; 14 for reckless conduct). Again,
none of these offenses is defined.
Obviously, the Sentencing Commission is aware of involuntary
manslaughter. Had it desired to do so, it would have incorporated
§ 2A1.4 for the enumerated manslaughter offense in subpart (II).
Under these circumstances, cross-referencing guidelines sections
does not provide the answer. See United States v. Sarmiento-Funes,
374 F.3d 336 (5th Cir. 2004). In Sarmiento, the Government claimed
“sexual assault” under Missouri law was a crime of violence,
asserting it was equivalent to subpart (II)’s enumerated offense of
“forcible sex offenses”. The Government noted that the commentary
to Guidelines § 2A3.1 (“Criminal Sexual Abuse”) states: “Sexual
offenses addressed in this section are crimes of violence”.
U.S.S.G. § 2A3.1 cmt. bkgrd. (emphasis omitted). Id. at 343. When
that guideline was promulgated in 1987, there was only one
definition of crime of violence, provided in § 4B1.2; the 1987
commentary to that section stated its definition of crime of
violence encompassed, inter alia, “forcible sex offenses”. Id.
The Government maintained that sexual abuse crimes (such as sexual
assault under Missouri law) must be forcible sex offenses and,
therefore, crimes of violence. Id. Sarmiento rejected this
syllogism:
The government’s argument on this score is
logically faulty. From the propositions (1)
10
that certain “sexual abuse crimes” are “crimes
of violence,” and (2) that “forcible sex
offenses” are also “crimes of violence,” it
does not follow that the specified “sexual
abuse crimes” are “forcible sex offenses.”
Sarmiento, 374 F.3d at 343-44.
Similarly, as noted, § 2A1.4 does not define the offense of
involuntary manslaughter; rather, it provides alternative base
offense levels that vary according to different mens rea
requirements. This is merely an acknowledgment of different mens
rea requirements in, inter alia, the federal manslaughter statute,
18 U.S.C. § 1112. But simply because § 2A1.4 includes criminal
negligence as a mens rea for federal involuntary manslaughter, it
does not follow that, for enhancement purposes concerning a state
offense, subpart (II)’s enumerated offense of manslaughter must
also include a negligence mens rea.
B.
Because the guidelines do not define manslaughter (or
involuntary manslaughter) for subpart (II) purposes, we must
examine other authorities to determine its generic, contemporary
definition. Taylor, 495 U.S. at 598-99. These authorities
demonstrate the requisite generic, contemporary definition utilizes
a reckless, but not criminally negligent, mens rea.
For involuntary manslaughter, the Model Penal Code requires
consciousness of risk:
11
Under the Model Penal Code, liability for
manslaughter cannot be premised on negligence.
Statutes derived from the common law classify
unintentional homicide as involuntary
manslaughter without any attempt to
distinguish conscious disregard of homicidal
risk from inadvertent risk creation. This
failure to differentiate across a broad
spectrum of culpability raises serious grading
difficulties. On the one hand, involuntary
manslaughter may be graded as its voluntary
counterpart, in which case disproportionately
severe sanctions are assigned to conduct that
is merely negligent. On the other hand,
reduced penalties may be authorized for
involuntary manslaughter, in which case
persons guilty of serious wrongdoing benefit
from formal categorization with less culpable
homicides. Section 210.3(1)(a) refines the
traditional definition of manslaughter by
demanding proof of conscious disregard of
perceived homicidal risk.... Negligent
homicide is relegated to a separate provision
carrying lesser sanctions.
MODEL PENAL CODE § 210.3 cmt. 4 at 53 (emphasis added). The Model
Penal Code defines recklessness as a person having conscious
disregard for a substantial risk, § 2.02(2)(c); criminal
negligence, as when a person “should be aware of a substantial and
unjustifiable risk”, § 2.02(2)(d) (emphasis added).
Discussing the offense of criminal negligence, LaFave states:
“The Model Penal Code ... sets forth definitions for the terms
‘recklessness’ and ‘negligence’, and in most recent recodifications
[of state criminal negligence offenses] the Model Penal Code
approach has been substantially followed”. 1 W. LAFAVE, SUBSTANTIVE
CRIMINAL LAW § 5.4(b) 372-73 (2d ed. 2003). “The modern view,
evidenced by the position taken in most of the recent comprehensive
12
criminal codes, is to require for involuntary manslaughter a
consciousness of risk — i.e., ‘recklessness,’ as does the Model
Penal Code.” 2 LAFAVE, § 15.4(a) 523 (emphasis added).
Two federal manslaughter statutes fail to provide a precise
definition for the requisite mens rea. Under the earlier-cited 18
U.S.C. § 1112 (voluntary and involuntary manslaughter), involuntary
manslaughter is defined as “the unlawful killing of a human being
without malice”, either “[i]n the commission of an unlawful act not
amounting to a felony, or”, inter alia, in the commission of a
lawful act but “without due caution and circumspection”. 18 U.S.C.
§ 1112(a). This has been interpreted as adopting the common law
approach. Browner, 889 F.2d at 551-53. The offender’s mental
state is “not sufficiently culpable to meet the traditional malice
requirements [for murder]”; instead,
the requisite mental state is reduced to
“gross” or “criminal” negligence, a
culpability that is far more serious than
ordinary tort negligence but still falls short
of that most extreme recklessness and
wantonness required for “depraved heart”
malice.
Id. at 53. For federal involuntary manslaughter, therefore, a jury
must find the defendant
(1) act[ed] with gross negligence, meaning a
wanton or reckless disregard for human life,
and (2) [had] knowledge that his or her
conduct was a threat to the life of another or
knowledge of such circumstances as could
reasonably have enabled the defendant to
foresee the peril to which his or her act
might subject another.
13
Id. (emphasis added) (quoting United States v. Fesler, 781 F.2d
384, 393 (5th Cir.), cert. denied, 476 U.S. 1118 (1986)).
The Uniform Code of Military Justice provides that killing
another by “culpable negligence” constitutes involuntary
manslaughter. 10 U.S.C. § 919(b). Such negligence is an “act or
omission accompanied by a culpable disregard for [its] foreseeable
consequences”. Manual for Courts-Martial, United States, p. IV-65,
¶ 44.c(2)(a)(i)(2002) (Appendix A). A defendant need not be
subjectively aware of the risk posed by his conduct in order to be
guilty of involuntary manslaughter under the statute. See United
States v. Oxendine, 55 M.J. 323, 326 (2001) (quoting United States
v. Brown, 22 M.J. 448, 450 (C.M.A. 1986) (accused need not “be
aware of the substantial risk he is creating, but only that a
reasonable person would have realized the risk”)).
At least 24 state statutes follow the Model Penal Code’s
definitions of recklessness and negligence. See, e.g., ALA. CODE §
13A-2-2; ALASKA STAT. § 11.81.900; ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 13-105; ARK.
CODE ANN. § 5-2-202; COLO. REV. STAT. ANN. § 18-1-501. And at least
20 state criminal codes require a consciousness of risk, or
recklessness, for involuntary manslaughter. 2 LAFAVE, § 15.4(a) 523
n.18; see, e.g., ALA. CODE § 13A-6-3; ALASKA STAT. § 11.41.120; ARIZ.
REV. STAT. ANN. § 13-1103; ARK. CODE ANN. § 5-10-104; COLO. REV. STAT.
ANN. § 18-3-104. Fourteen States have codes with a single
manslaughter statute requiring recklessness. See, e.g., ALA. CODE
14
§ 13A-6-3; ALASKA STAT. § 11.41.120; ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 13-1103;
ARK. CODE ANN. § 5-10-104; COLO. REV. STAT. § 18-3-104(1)(a). Nineteen
States have criminal codes with a separate criminally negligent
homicide statute requiring negligence. See, e.g., ALA. CODE § 13A-
6-4; ALASKA STAT. § 11.41.130; ARIZ. REV. STAT. ANN. § 13-1102; ARK. CODE
ANN. § 5-10-105; COLO. REV. STAT. ANN. § 18-3-105. On the other
hand, approximately 13 state criminal codes “provide no clear
definition of the standard or else utilize a standard which at
least appears to be somewhat different than that in the Model Penal
Code”. 2 LAFAVE, § 15.4(a) 523; see, e.g., CAL. PENAL CODE § 192
(“without due caution and circumspection”); MINN. STAT. ANN. §
609.205 (“culpable negligence”, under which it is sufficient that
reasonable person would recognize strong probability of injury);
MISS. CODE ANN. § 97-3-47 (“culpable negligence”); PA. CONS. STAT. ANN.
tit. 18 § 2504 (“reckless or gross negligence”).
The Government cites case law from nine States supporting an
involuntary manslaughter mens rea lower than conscious disregard of
substantial risk, or recklessness. See, e.g., State v. Bennett,
658 A.2d 1058, 1064 (Me. 1995) (permitting conviction for failure
to be aware of risk rises to gross deviation from standard); People
v. Jackson, 364 N.W. 2d 310, 311 (Mich. Ct. App. 1985) (gross
negligence does not require defendant be personally aware of
danger; danger need only be “apparent to the ordinary mind”); State
v. Guilliot, 22 P.3d 1266, 1272-73 & n.5 (Wash. Ct. App. 2001) (for
15
second-degree manslaughter, criminally negligent defendant need not
be subjectively aware of risk).
Although some state codes incorporate common law definitions
of manslaughter, and a small minority of States have embraced a
possible criminal negligence mens rea for involuntary manslaughter,
the modern trend defines involuntary manslaughter as involving
recklessness. Accordingly, we hold that generic, contemporary
manslaughter (including involuntary manslaughter) requires a
recklessness mens rea. Therefore, because criminally negligent
homicide under Texas law does not employ the recklessness mens rea
necessary for generic manslaughter, it is not its equivalent and is
not the subpart (II) enumerated manslaughter crime of violence.
III.
For the foregoing reasons, Dominguez’ conviction is AFFIRMED;
his sentence is VACATED; and this case is REMANDED for
resentencing.
AFFIRMED IN PART; VACATED IN PART; REMANDED
16
CHARLES W. PICKERING, SR., dissenting.
The majority correctly states that the issue in this case is whether for “Sentencing Guidelines
purposes, criminally negligent homicide under Texas law is equivalent to manslaughter and, therefore,
an enumerated crime of violence under Guidelines § 2L1.2.” Because I am persuaded that criminally
negligent homicide under Texas law is equivalent to manslaughter as set forth in Guidelines § 2L1.2,
I respectfully dissent.
The majority concludes that Taylor v. United States, 495 U.S. 575 (1990), compels us to
examine other authorities (including surveying the laws of all 50 states) to determine the generic
contemporary definition of manslaughter. I respectfully disagree. I think all that is necessary for us
to determine is what the drafters of the Guidelines meant when they used the word “manslaughter”
in § 2L1.2.
The Taylor case is distinguishable from this case in two respects. First, Taylor involved a
federal criminal statute, not the Guidelines. Secondly, Taylor involved determining the meaning of
the word “burglary” as used in the federal criminal statute, not the word “manslaughter” as used in
the Guidelines. In Taylor the petitioner’s sentence had been enhanced because of a previous
conviction for burglary. Taylor, 495 U.S. at 579. The petitioner argued that burglary as used in the
federal enhancement statute should be interpreted according to the common law. Id. at 596.
Since the common law was developed, the word “burglary” has undergone a much greater
transformation in meaning than has the word “manslaughter.” “Burglary” was defined by the
common law to be “the breaking and entering of the dwelling house of another in the nighttime with
the intent to commit a felony.” Id. at 582 n.3. The common and generic meaning of “burglary” today
is the unlawful entry of any building, whether dwelling or business, whether in the nighttime or
daytime. Id. at 598. Some states have labeled criminal statutes involving illegal entry to automobiles,
boats, booths, tents, vessels, railroad cars, and vending machines as burglary, offenses that
traditionally were never considered as the crime of burglary. Id. at 599. Consequently the definition
of burglary has undergone a tremendous transformation. At common law manslaughter was defined
as the unlawful killing of a human being without malice aforethought. Black’s Law Dictionary still
defines manslaughter as “[t]he unlawful killing of a human being without malice aforethought.”
BLACK’S LAW DICTIONARY 976 (7th ed. 1999).
Over the years manslaughter was divided into involuntary and voluntary manslaughter.
Generally, involuntary manslaughter has covered cases where death was not intended or foreseen, and
voluntary manslaughter has included all other homicides except those that constitute murder.
I perceive the correct solution is to determine what the writers of the Guidelines understood
the word “manslaughter” to mean. This was the approach taken by this court in United States v. Fry,
51 F.3d 543 (5th Cir. 1995). Focusing on the intent of the Guidelines’ drafters, the court wrote that
“the drafters of the guidelines clearly indicated that manslaughter was to be considered a ‘crime of
violence.’ Since the commentary to section 4B1.2 makes no distinction between voluntary and
involuntary manslaughter, we hold that both are included.” Id. at 546. Accordingly, it is not the
court’s responsibility to determine the generic meaning of manslaughter but to determine what the
authors of the Guidelines intended.
Reading other sections of Sentencing Guidelines that deal with manslaughter makes it clear
to me that the writers of the Guidelines understood involuntary manslaughter to include both
18
criminally negligent and reckless conduct. Guidelines § 2A1.3 provides the base offense levels for
voluntary manslaughter. Guidelines § 2A1.4 provides:
Involuntary Manslaughter
(a) Base Offense Level:
(1) 10, if the conduct was criminally negligent; or
(2) 14, if the conduct was reckless.
U.S.S.G.§ 2A1.4 (2002).
When the Guidelines writers included the crime of manslaughter as an enumerated crime in
Guidelines § 2L1.2 subpart II, it did not differentiate between involuntary manslaughter and voluntary
manslaughter. As noted, the Fifth Circuit in Fry concluded that “manslaughter” includes both
“voluntary” and “involuntary manslaughter.” In fact, the parties agree that the term “manslaughter”
includes both “voluntary” and “involuntary manslaughter.” If the Guidelines writers had intended for
manslaughter to be limited, they could easily have inserted the word “voluntary” in front of the word
“manslaughter” or inserted a parenthetical, “ involuntary manslaughter not included.” Instead, they
drew no distinctions. I see no reason for this Court to impose distinctions that the drafters did not.
The Guidelines clearly delineate involuntary manslaughter as including negligent homicide.
Since “manslaught er” includes both “voluntary” and “involuntary manslaughter,” and since
“involuntary manslaughter” is recognized by the Guidelines as including “negligent homicide,” our
inquiry should proceed no further.
The Sentencing Guidelines were intended to make sentencing easier and simpler, not more
complicated and difficult. I know of no other court that has gone to the extent to survey the statutory
laws o f all 50 states in order to arrive at a consensus definition in a Guidelines case. Because I
19
conclude that neither Taylor nor the Guidelines require such a survey, and because I think the
Guidelines themselves disclose the meaning intended by the Guidelines’ writers, I would affirm the
sentence. Accordingly, I respectfully dissent.
20