Martin v. Stewart

PUBLISHED

UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT

JIMMY MARTIN; LUCKY STRIKE LLC, 
Plaintiffs-Appellants,
v.
ROBERT STEWART, as Chief of the
South Carolina Law Enforcement
Division; HENRY MCMASTER, as  No. 06-1829
Attorney General of the State of
South Carolina; RALPH HOISINGTON,
as Solicitor of the Ninth Judicial
Circuit,
Defendants-Appellees.

Appeal from the United States District Court
for the District of South Carolina, at Charleston.
David C. Norton, District Judge.
(2:06-cv-00400-DCN)

Argued: May 24, 2007

Decided: August 29, 2007

Before WILKINSON, MOTZ, and TRAXLER, Circuit Judges.

Reversed and remanded by published opinion. Judge Motz wrote the
majority opinion, in which Judge Traxler joined. Judge Wilkinson
wrote a dissenting opinion.

COUNSEL

ARGUED: James Mixon Griffin, Columbia, South Carolina, for
Appellants. Clyde Havird Jones, Jr., Senior Assistant Attorney Gen-
2 MARTIN v. STEWART
eral, OFFICE OF THE ATTORNEY GENERAL OF SOUTH CAR-
OLINA, Columbia, South Carolina, for Appellees. ON BRIEF:
Richard A. Harpootlian, Columbia, South Carolina, for Appellants.
Henry Dargan McMaster, Attorney General, John W. McIntosh, Chief
Deputy Attorney General, Robert D. Cook, Assistant Deputy Attor-
ney General, OFFICE OF THE ATTORNEY GENERAL OF
SOUTH CAROLINA, Columbia, South Carolina, for Appellees.

OPINION

DIANA GRIBBON MOTZ, Circuit Judge:

In this case, the district court dismissed federal constitutional chal-
lenges to two South Carolina statutes regulating video poker, on the
ground that Burford v. Sun Oil Co., 319 U.S. 315 (1943), mandated
abstention. Because resolution of these challenges neither requires a
court to adjudicate difficult questions of state law, nor disrupts state
efforts to establish through a complex regulatory process a coherent
policy on a matter of substantial public concern, this case falls well
outside the narrow category of cases to which Burford abstention may
apply. Accordingly, we reverse the judgment of the district court and
remand the case for further proceedings consistent with this opinion.

I.

The parties do not dispute the material facts. Jimmy Martin and
Lucky Strike, LLC (collectively Martin), brought this action against
three South Carolina officials in their official capacities: Robert Stew-
art, Chief of the State Law Enforcement Division; Henry McMaster,
Attorney General; and Ralph Hoisington, Solicitor of the Ninth Judi-
cial Circuit (collectively the State). Martin sought to enjoin enforce-
ment of two South Carolina statutes criminalizing certain "device[s]
pertaining to games of chance." S.C. Code Ann. §§ 12-21-2710 &
-2712 (2006). Like all statutes regulating "gambling enterprises," such
legislation lies well within "the state’s police power." Johnson v. Col-
lins Entm’t Co., 199 F.3d 710, 720 (4th Cir. 1999). Martin does not
contend to the contrary, nor does he assert that the South Carolina
statutes violate any state law or policy. Rather, Martin maintains that
the challenged statutes violate the Constitution of the United States.
 MARTIN v. STEWART 3
The South Carolina legislature enacted the provisions at issue in a
1999 amendment to South Carolina’s gambling laws. See 1999 S.C.
Acts 1319-23. The first provision, section 12-21-2710,1 makes it
unlawful for a person to "keep on his premises or operate" certain
gaming machines, including "device[s] pertaining to games of
chance." S.C. Code Ann. § 12-21-2710. A violation of this statute
constitutes a misdemeanor, punishable by a fine not to exceed $500,
imprisonment for no more than a year, or both. Id.

The second challenged provision, section 12-21-2712, directs law
enforcement officers to seize machines prohibited by section 12-21-
2710 and bring them before a county magistrate. S.C. Code Ann.
§ 12-21-2712. The magistrate must determine whether the machine
1
Section 12-21-2710 provides in full:
It is unlawful for any person to keep on his premises or oper-
ate or permit to be kept on his premises or operated within this
State any vending or slot machine, or any video game machine
with a free play feature operated by a slot in which is deposited
a coin or thing of value, or other device operated by a slot in
which is deposited a coin or thing of value for the play of poker,
blackjack, keno, lotto, bingo, or craps, or any machine or device
licensed pursuant to Section 12-21-2720 and used for gambling
or any punch board, pull board, or other device pertaining to
games of chance of whatever name or kind, including those
machines, boards, or other devices that display different pictures,
words, or symbols, at different plays or different numbers,
whether in words or figures or, which deposit tokens or coins at
regular intervals or in varying numbers to the player or in the
machine, but the provisions of this section do not extend to coin-
operated nonpayout pin tables, in-line pin games, or to automatic
weighing, measuring, musical, and vending machines which are
constructed as to give a certain uniform and fair return in value
for each coin deposited and in which there is no element of
chance.
Any person violating the provisions of this section is guilty of
a misdemeanor and, upon conviction, must be fined not more
than five hundred dollars or imprisoned for a period of not more
than one year, or both.
S.C. Code Ann. § 12-21-2710 (2006).
4 MARTIN v. STEWART
violates any law and, if it does, order its destruction. Id.2 South Caro-
lina law entitles a machine owner to a post-seizure hearing before a
magistrate to determine the machine’s legality and to an appeal of that
decision to higher courts. See Mims Amusement Co. v. S.C. Law
Enforcement Div., 621 S.E.2d 344, 351 (S.C. 2005). No pre-
enforcement mechanism exists for testing a particular machine’s
legality.

Martin filed this action in federal court in the District of South Car-
olina, asserting that sections 12-21-2710 and 12-21-2712 violate the
Equal Protection and Due Process Clauses of the Fourteenth Amend-
ment. Although the district court had federal question jurisdiction to
consider these constitutional claims, see 28 U.S.C. § 1331 (2000), the
State moved to dismiss. Believing the Burford doctrine required
abstention, the district court granted the motion. Martin v. Stewart,
438 F. Supp. 2d 603, 608-09 (D.S.C. 2006). Martin noted a timely
appeal and we have jurisdiction to consider this appeal under 28
U.S.C. § 1291 (2000).

We review a district court’s decision to abstain under Burford for
abuse of discretion. Harper v. Pub. Serv. Comm’n, 396 F.3d 348, 357-
58 (4th Cir. 2005). A district court abuses its discretion whenever "its
decision is guided by erroneous legal principles." United States v.
Under Seal (In re Grand Jury), 478 F.3d 581, 584 (4th Cir. 2007)
(internal quotation marks omitted); see also Koon v. United States,
518 U.S. 81, 100 (1996) ("A district court by definition abuses its dis-
cretion when it makes an error of law."). Consequently, "there is little
or no discretion to abstain in a case which does not meet traditional
abstention requirements." Dittmer v. County of Suffolk, 146 F.3d 113,
116 (2d Cir. 1998) (internal quotation marks omitted).
2
Section 2712 reads in full:
Any machine, board, or other device prohibited by Section 12-
21-2710 must be seized by any law enforcement officer and at
once taken before any magistrate of the county in which the
machine, board, or device is seized who shall immediately exam-
ine it, and if satisfied that it is in violation of Section 12-21-2710
or any other law of this State, direct that it be immediately
destroyed.
S.C. Code Ann. § 12-21-2712 (2006).
 MARTIN v. STEWART 5
II.

The Supreme Court has repeatedly instructed that "federal courts
have a strict duty to exercise the jurisdiction that is conferred upon
them by Congress." Quackenbush v. Allstate Ins. Co., 517 U.S. 706,
716 (1996); see, e.g., Deakins v. Monaghan, 484 U.S. 193, 203 (1988)
("[T]he federal courts have a virtually unflagging obligation to exer-
cise their jurisdiction . . . ." (internal quotation marks omitted));
England v. La. State Bd. of Med. Exam’rs, 375 U.S. 411, 415 (1964)
("‘When a Federal court is properly appealed to in a case over which
it has by law jurisdiction, it is its duty to take such jurisdiction.’"
(quoting Willcox v. Consol. Gas Co., 212 U.S. 19, 40 (1909)));
Cohens v. Virginia, 19 U.S. (6 Wheat.) 264, 404 (1821) ("[The
Supreme Court] ha[s] no more right to decline the exercise of juris-
diction which is given, than to usurp that which is not given.").

Abstention doctrines constitute "extraordinary and narrow excep-
tion[s]" to a federal court’s duty to exercise the jurisdiction conferred
on it. Quackenbush, 517 U.S. at 716, 728 (internal quotation marks
omitted). These exceptions require the denial of discretionary relief
when "principles of federalism and comity" outweigh the federal
interest in deciding a case. See id. at 716, 728. To cabin that discre-
tion and ensure that abstention "remains the exception, not the rule,"
the Supreme Court has "carefully defined . . . the areas in which such
abstention is permissible." New Orleans Pub. Serv., Inc. v. Council of
New Orleans, 491 U.S. 350, 359 (1989) (NOPSI) (internal quotation
marks omitted).

For example, Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S. 37 (1971), permits fed-
eral courts to abstain from hearing cases that would interfere with a
pending state criminal proceeding. Pursuant to Railroad Commission
v. Pullman Co., 312 U.S. 496 (1941), courts may abstain when the
need to decide a federal constitutional question might be avoided if
state courts are given the opportunity to construe ambiguous state
law. Another doctrine, articulated in Louisiana Power & Light Co. v.
City of Thibodaux, 360 U.S. 25 (1959), allows abstention in cases
raising issues "intimately involved with [the State’s] sovereign pre-
rogative," where proper adjudication might be impaired by unsettled
questions of state law. And in Burford, the Court recognized that
courts may abstain when the availability of an alternative, federal
6 MARTIN v. STEWART
forum threatened to frustrate the purpose of a state’s complex admin-
istrative system. Burford, 319 U.S. at 331-32; see also Quackenbush,
517 U.S. at 725; Ala. Pub. Serv. Comm’n v. S. Ry. Co., 341 U.S. 341
(1951).

To be sure, these discrete abstention doctrines "are not rigid
pigeonholes into which federal courts must try to fit cases." Pennzoil
Co. v. Texaco Inc., 481 U.S. 1, 11 n.9 (1987). Overlapping rationales
motivate these doctrines and considerations that support abstaining
under one will often support abstaining under another. Id. But at the
same time, the Supreme Court has never allowed abstention to be a
license for free-form ad hoc judicial balancing of the totality of state
and federal interests in a case. The Court has instead defined specific
doctrines that apply in particular classes of cases. See NOPSI, 491
U.S. at 359. In this case, the district court relied solely on Burford absten-
tion.3

The Burford doctrine "justif[ies] the dismissal of a federal action"
in a "narrow range of circumstances." Quackenbush, 517 U.S. at 726.
Burford permits abstention when federal adjudication would "unduly
intrude" upon "complex state administrative processes" because
either: (1) "there are difficult questions of state law . . . whose impor-
tance transcends the result in the case then at bar"; or (2) federal
review would disrupt "state efforts to establish a coherent policy with
respect to a matter of substantial public concern." NOPSI, 491 U.S.
at 361-63 (internal quotation marks omitted). Moreover, the Supreme
Court has directed that "Burford allows a federal court to dismiss a
case only" when presented with these "extraordinary circumstances."
Quackenbush, 517 U.S. at 726-27. Courts must balance the state and
federal interests to determine whether the importance of difficult state
3
The State also moved to abstain on the basis of Younger, 401 U.S. 37.
The district court did not reach this contention and so, although Younger
abstention would seem not to apply here, we do not reach the issue
either. Moreover, the State has expressly conceded the inapplicability of
Pullman abstention. See Defs.’ Reply Br. Supp. Mot. Dismiss 11 ("We
are not arguing abstention under [Pullman,] which authorizes a federal
court to abstain when construction of a state statute may alleviate a con-
stitutional concern. No construction of the State’s forfeiture of gambling
devices statutes is necessary . . . .").
 MARTIN v. STEWART 7
law questions or the state interest in uniform regulation outweighs the
federal interest in adjudicating the case at bar. NOPSI, 491 U.S. at
362. "This balance only rarely favors abstention." Quackenbush, 517
U.S. at 728.

The Supreme Court has consistently refused to abstain under Bur-
ford when neither of these criteria were met. See, e.g., NOPSI, 491
U.S. at 361-62 (holding district court abused its discretion in abstain-
ing when no "state-law claim" is involved and adjudication of pre-
emption claim "would not disrupt the State’s attempt to ensure
uniformity"); Colo. River Water Conserv. Dist. v. United States, 424
U.S. 800, 815 (1976) (holding district court abused its discretion in
abstaining under Burford when "state law to be applied appear[ed] to
be settled" and federal adjudication would not "impair efforts to
implement state policy"); McNeese v. Bd. of Educ., 373 U.S. 668, 674
(1963) (declining to abstain when "no underlying issue of state law
control[s]" and "[t]he right alleged is . . . plainly federal in origin and
nature").

We too have limited Burford abstention to cases in which these
criteria were met. Compare First Penn-Pacific Life Ins. Co. v. Evans,
304 F.3d 345, 350 (4th Cir. 2002) (holding abstention proper when
federal adjudication would interfere with state receivership proceed-
ings and "disrupt[ ] the state’s efforts to provide a unified method" for
liquidation of debtor’s assets) (internal quotation marks omitted), and
Collins, 199 F.3d at 720, 723-24 (holding abstention proper when fed-
eral adjudication would require federal court to "answer disputed
questions of state gaming law that . . . powerfully impact the welfare
of [state] citizens" and requested relief would "effectively establish[ ]
parallel federal and state oversight of the [state] video poker indus-
try"), with Harper, 396 F.3d at 358 (holding district court abused its
discretion in abstaining when case "involves [the] vital federal ques-
tion" of whether state law is constitutional and "federal jurisdiction
[would not] impede the formation of core state policies"), Gross v.
Weingarten, 217 F.3d 208, 224 (4th Cir. 2000) (holding abstention
improper when case involved no "difficult questions of state law . . .
whose importance transcends the result in the case at bar" and federal
adjudication "would not [disrupt] state efforts to establish a coherent
policy") (internal quotation marks omitted), and Neufeld v. City of
Baltimore, 964 F.2d 347, 350-51 (4th Cir. 1992) (holding district
8 MARTIN v. STEWART
court abused its discretion in abstaining when case presented no "dif-
ficult questions of state law" and a "federal decision [would not] dis-
rupt the efficacy of an important and coherent state policy").

In sum, a federal court may abstain under Burford from its "strict
duty to exercise" congressionally conferred jurisdiction, Quacken-
bush, 517 U.S. at 716, only when the importance of difficult questions
of state law or the state’s interest in uniform regulation outweighs the
federal interest in adjudicating the case at bar. The State recognizes
that these principles control the abstention inquiry here and, with
them in mind, we turn to the case at hand.

III.

Martin seeks a single remedy: an injunction against the enforce-
ment of sections 12-21-2710 and 12-21-2712. He maintains that these
statutes violate his Due Process and Equal Protection rights under the
Fourteenth Amendment of the United States Constitution. Specifi-
cally, Martin argues that section 12-21-2710, which provides for
criminal penalties, is void for vagueness because it fails to give fair
notice of forbidden conduct and allows arbitrary enforcement, thus
violating the Due Process Clause. He also contends that the failure of
both statutes to provide a pre-enforcement mechanism for determin-
ing the legality of an amusement device and the State’s discriminatory
enforcement of these statutes violates the Equal Protection Clause.

These claims present no difficult questions of state law whose
importance outweighs the federal interest in adjudicating Martin’s
constitutional case. Nor do these claims threaten a state interest in
uniform regulation that outweighs the federal interest in adjudicating
the case. Accordingly, Burford does not permit abstention here.

A.

The Due Process challenge to section 12-21-2710 involves no diffi-
cult question of state law because, as the State itself recognizes, and
in fact argues, section 12-21-2710 is "well defined by the [Supreme
Court of South Carolina’s] many interpretations." Brief of Appellees
at 37. See, e.g., Sun Light Prepaid Phonecard Co. v. State, 600 S.E.2d
 MARTIN v. STEWART 9
61, 64 & n.6 (S.C. 2004) (holding that a device "pertain[s] to [a]
game[ ] of chance" because it contains an "element of chance" and is
not "part of a legitimate promotion" to sell a product).

Indeed, in State v. DeAngelis, 183 S.E.2d 906, 908 (S.C. 1971), the
state court rejected a vagueness challenge to precisely the same lan-
guage — "games of chance of whatever name or kind" — that Martin
targets, holding that "[a]n analysis of [the statute’s] wording con-
vinces us that a man of reasonable intelligence is given fair notice of
the machines proscribed [and that] the statute cannot be used in a
capricious or discriminatory manner."4 Thus, the state law component
of a vagueness challenge — whether limiting constructions apply to
the language — is settled: the State’s highest court has expressly held
that the statutory text is to be given its ordinary meaning. The remain-
ing question — whether the statute’s ordinary meaning is unconstitu-
tionally vague — is a matter of federal law. Thus, because state law
is now "clear and certain," Burford abstention is inappropriate.
County of Allegheny v. Frank Mashuda Co., 360 U.S. 185, 196
4
The dissent makes the exceedingly odd argument that the DeAngelis
holding that the term "games of chance" must be given its ordinary
meaning somehow renders the statute more difficult to interpret and that
we engage in "circular" reasoning in holding to the contrary. See post at
25. In fact, DeAngelis resolves any possible difficult state law question
and directs a long recognized mode of statutory construction that federal
courts are well equipped to undertake. Equally unavailing is the dissent’s
suggestion that advances in gambling technology have lessened DeAn-
gelis’s significance. See post at 24-27. The Supreme Court of South Car-
olina has specifically rejected an argument that technological changes
lessen the force of its prior interpretations of gambling statutes. See State
v. 192 Coin-Operated Video Game Machs., 525 S.E.2d 872, 878-79 (S.C.
2000) ("Although slot machines have changed since the 1960s, the sub-
stance of [section 12-21-2710] has not. The relevant portions of the cur-
rent version outlaw the same conduct as its predecessor."). That the
South Carolina legislature has revised its gambling statutes without fur-
ther defining "games of chance," provides additional support for finding
DeAngelis continues to be authoritative. Id. at 879 ("The legislature is
presumed to be aware of [the South Carolina Supreme] Court’s interpre-
tation of its statutes. If the General Assembly considered [the Court’s
interpretations] outdated, it could have changed the statute . . . .") (cita-
tions omitted).
10 MARTIN v. STEWART
(1959); see also Colo. River, 424 U.S. at 815 (holding case "does not
fall within" Burford doctrine when state law "appears to be settled").

For similar reasons, Martin’s discriminatory enforcement claim
presents no difficult question of state law. To prevail on that claim,
Martin must demonstrate that (1) he was similarly situated to persons
not prosecuted; and (2) a discriminatory purpose motivated this dif-
ferent treatment. See United States v. Armstrong, 517 U.S. 456, 465-
66 (1996). The first inquiry requires a court to determine which video
poker machines are prohibited by statute, but such an inquiry hardly
involves a difficult state law question given that DeAngelis held that
"a [person] of reasonable intelligence is given fair notice of the
machines proscribed." 183 S.E.2d at 908. If the district court should
determine that state law enforcement treats parties similarly situated
under the statute differently, the remaining question is purely federal
— whether an impermissible purpose motivated this different treat-
ment.

Finally, Martin’s claim regarding the lack of a pre-enforcement
mechanism for determining a machine’s legality presents no state law
question at all because indisputably South Carolina provides no pre-
enforcement mechanism. Thus, resolving this claim involves no inter-
pretation of any state law, but only the determination of whether set-
tled South Carolina law violates federal constitutional rights.
Therefore, none of Martin’s challenges presents difficult questions of
state law, let alone difficult questions whose importance outweighs
the federal interest in adjudicating Martin’s claims.5

B.

Nor do any of Martin’s claims threaten a state interest in uniform
regulation. Martin launches a facial attack on the state statutes as a
5
Martin presses, perhaps without having pled, a claim that the lack of
a preenforcement mechanism violates the Due Process Clause under Ex
Parte Young, 209 U.S. 123 (1908). In any event, this claim neither pre-
sents a difficult question of state law (the statute indisputably lacks such
a mechanism) nor threatens the State’s interest in uniformity (if success-
ful, all enforcement will be enjoined). Consequently, the district court
erred by applying Burford abstention to this claim.
 MARTIN v. STEWART 11
whole — precisely the sort of case federal courts often and expertly
entertain. See Alliance of Am. Insurers v. Cuomo, 854 F.2d 591, 601
(2d Cir. 1988) (declining to abstain under Burford when "case is a
direct challenge to the constitutionality of a state statute, a contro-
versy federal courts are particularly suited to adjudicate"). If Martin
should succeed, the district court would enjoin all enforcement of the
statutes at issue; such relief could not possibly threaten their uniform
application.6

Moreover, contrary to the State’s suggestion, Brief of Appellees at
20, "there is, of course, no doctrine requiring abstention merely
because resolution of a federal question may result in the overturning
of a state policy." Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374, 379-80 n.5
(1978). Therefore, "the threat that the federal courts might decide the
entire state system unconstitutional is not a valid justification for Bur-
ford abstention." Neufeld, 964 F.2d at 351. Rather, this "sort of risk
is present whenever one attacks a state law on constitutional grounds
in a federal court." Bath Mem. Hosp. v. Me. Health Care Fin.
Comm’n, 853 F.2d 1007, 1013 (1st Cir. 1988).

As then-Judge Breyer explained in refusing to abstain from decid-
ing similar constitutional challenges to several state statutes:

The plaintiffs do not seek individualized review of fact- (or
cost-) specific regulatory decision making. To the contrary,
they attack the statute as it is written. Permitting a federal
court to decide this kind of constitutional claim would not
interfere significantly with the workings of a lawful state
system, as such intervention threatened in Burford . . . .
6
The dissent frets that litigation of Martin’s discriminatory enforce-
ment claim will require "discovery [that] would put South Carolina’s
regulatory regime through the wringer," post at 28, but cites no authority
for the proposition that normal discovery burdens can justify Burford
abstention. Moreover, Martin cannot obtain any discovery on his dis-
criminatory enforcement claim unless he makes a "credible showing"
that no "legitimate prosecutorial factor" separates his operations from
those not prosecuted, United States v. Khan, 461 F.3d 477, 498 (4th Cir.
2006).
12 MARTIN v. STEWART
Id. at 1014.

Justice Breyer’s words reflect an important distinction, which the
State fails to recognize, between federal claims that rest on an alleged
predicate violation of state law and those that do not. Federal claims
that rest on allegations that a state agency or private actors violated
state law can sometimes undermine a state’s efforts to regulate uni-
formly — if the federal court interprets state law differently than the
state enforcement agency or the state forum that would otherwise hear
the dispute. When a "federal" claim rests on a violation of state law,
we consider it a "state law [claim] in federal law clothing." Collins,
199 F.3d at 721 (internal quotation marks omitted). Because of the
diminished federal interest in adjudicating such claims and the height-
ened threat they pose to uniform state regulation, federal courts have
less interest at stake in adjudicating such claims and often abstain in
such cases. Id.; see, e.g., Burford, 319 U.S. at 317 (due process claim
that state agency unreasonably applied state law); Collins, 199 F.3d
at 722 (civil RICO claim dependent on violations of state law for
predicate acts).

But federal claims, like those at issue here, which do not rest on
finding a violation of state law, are federal not only in "clothing," but
also in fact. Such claims are "plainly federal in origin and nature," are
independent of any state law violation, and do not threaten uniform
state regulation. McNeese, 373 U.S. at 674. The Burford doctrine does
not permit a federal court to abstain from deciding them. See, e.g., id.;
NOPSI, 491 U.S. at 362, 364 (holding "Burford abstention is not justi-
fied" when "primary claim" is that state body violated "federal law");
Harper, 396 F.3d at 358 (holding that "[a]pplying Burford here was
inappropriate" because, unlike Collins, 199 F.3d at 719, case "in-
volves a vital federal question" — the constitutionality of a state stat-
ute); Neufeld, 964 F.2d at 350 (holding Burford did not apply to
claims challenging state statute on federal constitutional grounds).

Because Martin’s claims neither involve difficult questions of state
law nor threaten a state interest in uniform regulation, the Burford
doctrine does not justify abstention here.

IV.

Notwithstanding the State’s agreement as to the undisputed mate-
rial facts and its acknowledgment of controlling legal principles, it
 MARTIN v. STEWART 13
insists that Burford does require abstention in this case. The State’s
position rests on two fundamental errors: (1) a serious mischaracter-
ization of Martin’s claims and (2) an equally serious misreading of
our opinion in Collins.

A.

First, the State iterates and reiterates that Martin seeks to have
"classes and categories of machines declared ‘legal’ under South Car-
olina law" or to have a federal court "replace [South Carolina’s forfei-
ture system] with a method of [Martin’s] own choosing." Brief of
Appellees at 3. These assertions, repeated at oral argument and at
least ten times in the State’s brief, see id. at 2, 3, 9, 10, 14, 21, 50,
53, are simply not accurate. Martin seeks only "injunctive relief pro-
hibiting the enforcement of" two state statutes, which he claims vio-
late the United States Constitution.

This would be a different case if Martin had, in fact, sought a fed-
eral declaration that specific machines were lawful under South Caro-
lina law or a federal injunction seeking replacement of the State’s
forfeiture mechanism with one of the court’s design. In such circum-
stances, adjudication of Martin’s claims might lead a federal court to
"effectively commandeer[ ] South Carolina’s enforcement efforts."
Collins, 199 F.3d at 723. But, like the plaintiffs in a case in which the
Second Circuit recently reversed a district court’s dismissal on Bur-
ford grounds, Martin does not "collateral[ly] attack . . . a final deter-
mination" made by any state administrative agency "or seek to
influence a state administrative proceeding." Dittmer, 146 F.3d at
117. Rather, like those plaintiffs, Martin presents only "a direct facial
attack on the constitutionality of a state statute," the kind of "contro-
versy federal courts are particularly suited to adjudicate." Id. (internal
quotation marks omitted); see also Baran v. Port of Beaumont Navig.
Dist., 57 F.3d 436, 442 (5th Cir. 1995) (holding "facial challenge" to
state statute on federal constitutional grounds does not implicate "the
policy concerns of Burford" and so "abstention under that doctrine
would be inappropriate"). In sum, Martin’s actual claims, unlike the
fictional ones described by the State, are not proper candidates for
Burford abstention.
14 MARTIN v. STEWART
B.

Moreover, and just as significantly, the State misreads Collins. To
be sure, in Collins we properly recognized that "[t]he regulation of
gambling enterprises lies at the heart of the state’s police power," 199
F.3d at 720, and the case at hand, like Collins, involves state regula-
tion of gambling.

But we did not abstain in Collins because it involved the regulation
of that important state interest. Abstention on that basis would be
improper. Neither Collins nor any other case holds that Burford
abstention is appropriate whenever federal litigation affects an impor-
tant state interest. Indeed, both the Supreme Court and this court have
specifically rejected the view that a strong state interest alone could
justify Burford abstention. See County of Allegheny, 360 U.S. at 191-
92 (rejecting the suggestion that "abstention is justified . . . any time
a District Court is called on to adjudicate a case involving the State’s
power of eminent domain"); Educ. Servs., Inc. v. Md. State Bd. for
Higher Educ., 710 F.2d 170, 173 (4th Cir. 1983) (acknowledging "the
important and sensitive nature of state educational regulation," but
holding "Burford abstention rests on additional concerns beyond the
mere presence of an important state administrative regime, concerns
not present here"); see also Hachamovitch v. De Buono, 159 F.3d
687, 698 (2d Cir. 1998) (noting "numerous cases have indicated that
Burford abstention is not required even in cases where the state has
a substantial interest if the state’s regulations violate the federal con-
stitution").

Instead, we abstained in Collins because we concluded that the
criteria for Burford abstention were met. That is, (1) federal adjudica-
tion there would require a federal court to "answer disputed questions
of state gaming law that . . . powerfully impact the welfare of [state]
citizens" and (2) the relief sought would "effectively establish[ ] par-
allel federal and state oversight of the [state] video poker industry."
Collins, 199 F.3d at 720, 723-24.7
7
We concluded that the district court order reviewed in Collins "effec-
tively commandeered [the State’s] enforcement efforts" by "impos[ing]
on [the defendant video poker operators] an extensive set of require-
ments." Id. at 718, 723. We noted as an example that "the district court
mandated that defendants post a designated ‘clarifying sign’ on each
video poker machine" and required detailed record keeping. Id. at 718.
 MARTIN v. STEWART 15
In contrast, federal adjudication in this case would not require a
federal court to "answer disputed questions of state law," nor would
the relief sought establish "parallel federal and state oversight."
Although the statutes challenged here regulate gambling, unlike Col-
lins, issues of federal law — the constitutionality of those statutes
under the Fourteenth Amendment — dominate this action. As we rec-
ognized in Harper, 396 F.3d at 358, Burford abstention is "inappro-
priate" in such a situation. In Harper we contrasted Collins, in which
"issues of state law . . . dominated," with a case involving precisely
the same kind of "vital federal question" as that at issue here — a
challenge to the constitutionality of a state statute. Id. (internal quota-
tion marks omitted). We concluded that the district court had abused
its discretion in abstaining in such a case. Id. So it is here.

Contrary to the State’s apparent belief, Collins did not create a
"video-poker abstention" doctrine that forever insulates South Caro-
lina statutes regulating gambling from federal constitutional chal-
lenge. The district court abused its discretion in abstaining here under
Burford because adjudication of Martin’s claims, unlike the claims
advanced in Collins, neither presents difficult questions of state law
whose importance transcends the case at bar, nor threatens the State’s
interest in uniform regulation.

V.

Although the dissent concedes that "abstention must be carefully
cabined," post at 32, and takes no issue with our statement of the Bur-
ford doctrine, it would hold that the district court properly abstained
here. It relies on factors totally irrelevant to the "extraordinary and
narrow" Burford doctrine, e.g., the absence of a federal gambling stat-
ute, the effect of the Fourteenth Amendment and 42 U.S.C. § 1983
(2000) on federal-state relations, the history of gambling regulation,
the burdens of discovery, and the alleged federalization of gambling
policy. The dissent fails to apply the actual Burford doctrine because
it cannot — if it did so it would have to hold that the district court
abused its discretion in abstaining here.

The dissent’s analysis appears to be motivated by its preference
that cases like Martin’s be brought in state court. See, e.g., post at 18
("I see no indication in this case that the South Carolina state courts
16 MARTIN v. STEWART
have defaulted in any fashion on their obligation to entertain federal
constitutional challenges to the operation of state gambling laws.");
id. at 31 ("[T]he sky will not fall whenever state courts resolve a fed-
eral question."). Although we share the dissent’s respect for our state
colleagues, "‘[w]hen a Federal court is properly appealed to in a case
over which it has by law jurisdiction, it is its duty to take such juris-
diction . . . . The right of a party plaintiff to choose a Federal court
where there is a choice cannot be properly denied.’" England, 375
U.S. at 415 (quoting Willcox, 212 U.S. at 40) (omission in original).
Martin chose to file his claims in a federal forum created by Congress
— we cannot deny him that choice even if we disagree with it.

Because Martin’s claims do not meet the "extraordinary and nar-
row" criteria for Burford abstention, the judgment of the district court
is

REVERSED AND REMANDED.

WILKINSON, Circuit Judge, dissenting:

There are few decisions more central to state authority than
whether to allow legalized gambling, how extensively, and under
what terms. Plaintiffs’ lawsuit calls for both the interpretation of state
law at the heart of the state’s regulatory scheme and an extensive
inquiry into the state’s enforcement practices. While plaintiffs may
certainly challenge South Carolina’s exercise of its police powers as
unconstitutional, the district court was within its authority to conclude
that plaintiffs’ constitutional challenge would be most properly heard
in state court.

Congress has given no indication that it wishes to sweep most fed-
eral challenges to state gambling policy into federal court. I do not
believe that the general grant of federal concurrent jurisdiction in 42
U.S.C. § 1983 manifests any congressional intention to abrogate the
discretion of federal district courts to defer under Burford to the com-
plex state administrative and judicial mechanisms involved in regulat-
ing gambling enterprises.

And it is not only congressional intent that I believe has been
offended. In holding that the district court abused its discretion by
 MARTIN v. STEWART 17
abstaining, the majority diminishes the capacity of trial courts to per-
form the judicious balancing that lies at the heart of any exercise of
equitable discretion. The majority also disrespects the role of state
courts: while we properly defer to federal administrative agencies
under Chevron Step Two, somehow the federal courts are now to be
prohibited from showing even a lessened deference to state adminis-
trative and judicial systems operating in their own areas of expertise.
Further, because federal courts will make an understandable effort to
avoid inconsistency and interference with the states, the majority
approach will also in time shortchange litigants. Finally, the majority
diminishes the values of our federal system, which can hardly be
served in this most traditional area of state competence by having the
federal appellate courts call the shots. I am at a loss to understand
what aims of law are furthered when the federal circuit courts under-
cut the legitimate institutional interests of so many other actors within
our legal system.

This dispute is not confined simply to the case at hand. It touches
on the basic application of abstention principles to state regulatory
regimes in the most sensitive areas of state sovereignty — an issue
that has been rife with conflicting approaches. "[L]ower courts con-
tinue to disagree as to when [Burford] abstention is appropriate."
Erwin Chemerinsky, Federal Jurisdiction § 12.2, at 784-85 & nn.
108-09 (4th ed. 2004). "Confusion over the scope of Burford abounds
. . . ." Gordon G. Young, Federal Court Abstention and State Admin-
istrative Law from Burford to Ankenbrandt, 42 DePaul L. Rev. 859,
866 (1993).

In the gambling context, specifically, similar confusion reigns, with
some courts refusing to abstain, and others deciding abstention is
appropriate when a federal court is confronted with challenges to state
gambling laws. Compare Hotel & Rest. Employees & Bartenders Int’l
Union Local 54 v. Danziger, 709 F.2d 815 (3d Cir. 1983), judgment
vacated on other grounds by Brown v. Hotel & Rest. Employees &
Bartenders Int’l Union Local 54, 468 U.S. 491 (1984)(refusing to
apply Burford abstention to challenges to portions of state gambling
scheme); Turf Paradise, Inc. v. Ariz. Downs, 670 F.2d 813 (9th Cir.
1982)(same) with Johnson v. Collins Entm’t Co., 199 F.3d 710 (4th
Cir. 1999)(abstaining under Burford from deciding challenges to state
gambling regime); G2, Inc. v. Midwest Gaming, Inc., 485 F.Supp.2d
18 MARTIN v. STEWART
757 (W.D.Tex. 2007) (same); Metro Riverboat Assocs., Inc. v. Bally’s
Louisiana, Inc., 142 F.Supp.2d 765 (E.D.La. 2001)(same); Diamond
Game Enter. v. Howland, 1999 WL 397743 (D.Or. 1999)(same).
While factual differences no doubt exist between these cases, there is
a basic divide between those who believe Burford abstention has
some modest utility in the face of constitutional challenges to state
regulatory regimes and those who do not.1

I see no indication in this case that the South Carolina state courts
have defaulted in any fashion on their obligation to entertain federal
constitutional challenges to the operation of state gambling laws. I see
no way in this case to avoid the interpretation of difficult questions
of state law and interference with state regulatory policies. I see no
sign in this case that interpretation of the terms of any federal statute
involving gambling is at issue or that Congress has done anything to
remove the choice among different approaches to gambling regulation
from its historic venue in the states.

Given the absence of any specific manifestation of congressional
jurisdictional intent in the area of gambling, I remain unconvinced
that the general expression of federal jurisdictional authority pursuant
to § 1983 is enough to divest district courts of their discretion to
accord respect to state regulatory choices regarding gaming policy
and state court review of those choices. While I recognize that the
Fourteenth Amendment and § 1983 re-ordered federal and state rela-
tionships (including the relationships between federal and state
courts) in the most fundamental way, I do not think it re-ordered these
relationships to such an extent as to render Burford abstention virtu-
ally inapplicable to all constitutional challenges in federal court to
1
Lower courts have also abstained from deciding cases involving state
gambling schemes under other abstention doctrines. See Taylor v. Siegel-
man, 230 F.Supp.2d 1284 (N.D. Ala. 2002)(abstaining from plaintiffs’
challenge to state gambling statute under Younger v. Harris, 401 U.S. 37
(1971)); Club Ass’n of W.Va., Inc. v. Wise, 156 F.Supp.2d 599
(S.D.W.Va. 2001) (abstaining from a challenge to state gambling statutes
under R.R. Comm’n of Texas v. Pullman Co., 312 U.S. 496 (1941));
Chun v. State of New York, 807 F.Supp. 288 (S.D.N.Y. 1992)(abstaining
from a challenge to state gambling scheme under both Pullman and Bur-
ford v. Sun Oil Co., 319 U.S. 315 (1943)).
 MARTIN v. STEWART 19
specialized state regulatory regimes. I see nothing to justify the
majority’s holding that no reasonable district court could, in these cir-
cumstances, stay its hand.

I.

Federal courts have reason to tread cautiously in addressing a
state’s regulation of gambling, because such schemes of regulation lie
at "the heart of the state’s police power." Collins, 199 F.3d at 720. In
fact, few activities have been so consistently treated as being at the
core of state sovereignty. Id. South Carolina, in particular, has long
exercised its police power in this area, developing over time a com-
plex and comprehensive system to regulate gambling activity.

A.

The Supreme Court has treated the regulation of gambling as a
quintessential state function for more than a century. See United
States v. Edge Broad. Co., 509 U.S. 418, 426 (1993); Posadas de
Puerto Rico Assocs. v. Tourism Co. of Puerto Rico, 478 U.S. 328, 341
(1986); Marvin v. Trout, 199 U.S. 212, 224 (1905). Our circuit has
recognized police power authority in this area time and again. See,
e.g., Helton v. Hunt, 330 F.3d 242, 246 (4th Cir. 2003); Casino Ven-
tures v. Stewart, 183 F.3d 307, 310 (4th Cir. 1999). The authority of
the states as to gambling is a matter of broad consensus among our
sister circuits. See Gulfstream Park Racing Ass’n v. Tampa Bay
Downs, Inc., 399 F.3d 1276, 1278 (11th Cir. 2005) ("The regulation
of gambling lies at ‘the heart of the state’s police power.’") (quoting
Collins, 199 F.3d at 720); United States v. Washington, 879 F.2d
1400, 1401 (6th Cir. 1989) ("The enactment of gambling laws is
clearly a proper exercise of the state’s police power in an effort to
promote the public welfare."); Medina v. Rudman, 545 F.2d 244, 251
(1st Cir. 1976) (same); Boynton v. Ellis, 57 F.2d 665, 666 (10th Cir.
1932) (same).

State control over gambling has also been reinforced by Congress.
While federal interests may sometimes be affected by gambling — as,
for instance, when casinos are established on Indian reservations or
in United States waters — Congress has generally "sought to extend,
20 MARTIN v. STEWART
not curb, state police power in this field." Casino Ventures, 183 F.3d
at 311.

In exercising their police power, states may reasonably conclude
that gambling brings an "increase in local crime, the fostering of pros-
titution, the development of corruption, and the infiltration of orga-
nized crime." Posadas, 478 U.S. at 341. They may also conclude that
gambling fosters addiction and exploits human weakness, drawing
down the assets of those who can least afford to gamble money away.
See Collins, 199 F.3d at 720; Posadas, 478 U.S. at 341.

At the same time, states often invoke the police power to control
gambling rather than prohibit it. States may well conclude that per-
mitting gambling enhances public welfare by allowing citizens free
choice in their recreational pursuits and by spurring economic growth
through gambling-related business enterprises. In addition, gambling
can generate tax revenue that may fund schools, public works, and
other government programs. See Collins, 199 F.3d at 720. States may
also conclude that legalized gambling is a lesser evil, believing the
activity’s harms can best be harnessed when the activity is subject to
regulation and kept in plain view.

The diversity of views towards gambling has given rise to schemes
of regulation that are nearly as varied as the states establishing them.
Several states — Utah and Hawaii, for example — forbid commercial
gambling altogether. See Utah Const. Art. VI, § 27; Hawaii Rev. Stat.
§ 712-1223 (2006). Many others — more than two-thirds, as of 1999
— allow government-controlled gambling in the form of lotteries.
National Gambling Impact Study Commission Final Report ("NGISC
Report") (1999), available at http://govinfo.library.unt.edu/ngisc/
reports/fullrpt.html, Page 2-1 (last visited July 19, 2007). Some states,
such as Nevada, New Jersey, and Mississippi, have gone further, per-
mitting privately run gambling within their borders. And there are
variations even among these. Nevada, for instance, allows slot
machines virtually anywhere, including at airports and supermarkets.
On the other hand, Mississippi and New Jersey concentrate legalized
gambling in limited areas, the former restricting gambling to coastal
counties and riverboats, and the latter restricting gambling to Atlantic
City alone. NGISC Report 2-4; 2-7; 3-5. Regardless of the particular
scheme, states that allow legalized gambling impose a unique mix of
 MARTIN v. STEWART 21
controls on gambling venues, including licensing requirements, num-
ber, size, and type of site standards, and advertising limitations.

I would be hard-pressed to identify any field of regulation about
which there is broader or deeper consensus on the appropriateness of
state control.

B.

For decades, the South Carolina General Assembly has sought to
balance "the revenue gained from licensing and taxation of [gam-
bling] against the social costs of gambling addiction." Collins, 199
F.3d at 716. In doing so, the General Assembly has tried a number
of plans to determine the appropriate level of gambling control, and
has developed numerous mechanisms to enforce its regulations. The
South Carolina General Assembly initially banned all gambling, with
the exception of "coin operated nonpayout machines with a free play
feature" as long as the machines did not disburse "money or property"
to a player. S.C. Code Ann. § 16-19-60 (Law. Co-op. 1976) (amended
to delete the word "property," see Act effective June 18, 1986, Part
II, § 26(B), S.C. Acts 540). The state later experimented with legal-
ized electronic gambling from 1982 to 2000, exempting "video games
with a free play feature" from prohibition. 1982 S.C. Act No. 466.2
And in State v. Blackmon, 403 S.E.2d 660, 661-62 (S.C. 1991), the
South Carolina Supreme Court held that nonmachine cash payouts
from these video gaming machines were legal under S.C. Code Ann.
§ 16-19-60 (Supp. 1999).3

Such machines are now once again forbidden by South Carolina
law. It is presently "unlawful for any person to keep on his premises
or operate or permit to be kept on his premises or operated within this
State" certain gambling devices. The devices prohibited include "any
vending or slot machine, or any video game machine with a free play
2
Codified as S.C. Code Ann. § 52-15-10 and subsequently recodified
as § 12-21-2710. In 1997, this section was amended to limit the exemp-
tion to those video games "which meet the technical requirements pro-
vided for in Section 12-21-2782 and Section 12-21-2783." 1997 S.C. Act
No. 155, Pt. II, § 54(B).
3
Repealed effective July 1, 2000, by 1999 S.C. Act No. 125, Pt. I, § 8.
22 MARTIN v. STEWART
feature operated by a slot in which is deposited a coin or thing of
value, or other device operated by a slot in which is deposited a coin
or thing of value for the play of poker, blackjack, keno, lotto, bingo,
or craps" as well as "any punch board, pull board, or other device per-
taining to games of chance of whatever name or kind . . . ." S.C. Code
Ann. § 12-21-2710 (2006).

South Carolina has long employed a multi-tiered regulatory struc-
ture — comprised of legislative, executive, administrative, and judi-
cial mechanisms — to enforce its gambling laws. Currently, no fewer
than five different state entities are part of this effort. First, State Law
Enforcement Division (SLED) officers have the authority to enforce
South Carolina’s gaming statutes. See S.C. Code Ann. § 23-3-15
(2006). According to plaintiffs, at least one SLED officer has received
specialized training on whether a particular video game machine qual-
ifies as a "game of chance."

Second, the South Carolina Attorney General issues opinion letters
that construe the statutory scheme and provide guidance to SLED
officers. See, e.g., Letter from Attorney General Charles M. Condon
to South Carolina Law Enforcement Division Chief Robert M. Stew-
art (May 8, 2000), available at www.sctax.org/Publications/vg/
opn5800.pdf (last visited July 19, 2007).

Third, after SLED officers seize machines they consider to be in
violation of state law, the devices are brought before state magistrates.
These magistrates, who have expertise in the particulars of South Car-
olina’s gaming laws,"immediately examine" each machine and make
a determination of their legality as the machines are configured at that
time. See S.C. Code Ann. § 12-21-2712 (2006); Allendale County
Sheriff’s Office v. Two Chess Challenge II, 606 S.E.2d 471 (S.C.
2004). These magistrates provide specialized review of the machines,
determining whether they constitute an illegal "game of chance"
under § 12-21-2710, the very provision a federal court would need to
interpret to evaluate plaintiffs’ claims. Further, the magistrates serve
to place "some restraint" upon law enforcement officers "who repre-
sent the executive authority of the state . . . ." State v. Kizer, 162 S.E.
444, 449 (S.C. 1932), overruled on other grounds by State v. 192
Coin-Operated Video Game Machs., 525 S.E.2d 872 (S.C. 2000).
 MARTIN v. STEWART 23
Fourth, a machine owner may appeal a magistrate’s decision
through the state court system, which has heard scores of cases defin-
ing the contours of the state’s gambling laws. See, e.g., 192 Coin-
Operated Video Game Machs., 525 S.E.2d 872; Westside Quik Shop
Inc. v. Stewart, 534 S.E.2d 270 (S.C. 2000), overruled in part by Byrd
v. City of Hartsville, 620 S.E.2d 76 (S.C. 2005); Joytime Distribs. &
Amusement Co. v. South Carolina, 528 S.E.2d 647 (S.C. 1999); John-
son v. Collins Entm’t Co., 508 S.E.2d 575 (S.C. 1998); Martin v. Con-
don, 478 S.E.2d 272 (S.C. 1996); Blackmon, 403 S.E.2d 660.

Fifth, the South Carolina Department of Revenue issues biannual
licenses to owners of video game machines that remain legal. See S.C.
Code Ann. § 12-21-2720 (2006) (allowing video machines, with a
license, for the playing of music, kiddy rides, "machines for the play-
ing of amusements or video games, without a free play feature, or
machines of the crane type operated by a slot . . . and a machine for
the playing of games or amusements, which has a free play feature,
operated by a slot . . . and the machine is of the nonpayout pin table
type with levers or ‘flippers’ operated by the player in which the
course of the balls may be altered or changed . . . ."). In sum, South
Carolina has established a specialized scheme to interpret and enforce
laws that lie at the center of state sovereignty.

II.

As the district court recognized, abstention was warranted here
because plaintiffs’ lawsuit threatens to trammel South Carolina’s
highly reticulated regulatory regime. Plaintiffs raise three claims.
First, they assert that § 12-21-2710’s prohibition against possessing
any "device pertaining to games of chance of whatever name or kind"
is void for vagueness. Second, plaintiffs challenge South Carolina’s
gambling scheme on equal protection grounds, asserting that they are
"being subjected to discriminatory enforcement of the laws pertaining
to video game machines. . . ." Brief of Appellants at 5. Finally, plain-
tiffs challenge the post-seizure procedure by which South Carolina
determines the legality or illegality of a particular video gaming
device. The district court was entitled to abstain from deciding these
claims, for reasons I shall discuss in turn.
24 MARTIN v. STEWART
A.

Plaintiffs first claim that the provision forbidding "devices pertain-
ing to games of chance of whatever name or kind" is void for vague-
ness on the theory that "its prohibitions are not clearly defined."
Grayned v. City of Rockford, 408 U.S. 104, 108 (1972). Specifically,
plaintiffs contend that this provision could be read to outlaw Monop-
oly, simple card games, and personal computer and cell phone games
such as minesweeper and solitaire. See Brief of Appellants at 5. While
I emphatically do not embrace the proposition that every vagueness
challenge to a state statute in federal court warrants abstention, nei-
ther do I subscribe to the view that every unclear question of state law
forecloses abstention in favor of a federal vagueness challenge. Con-
trary to the majority’s contention that plaintiffs’ challenge "involves
no difficult question of state law," ante at 8, plaintiffs’ claim that
"games of chance" is "not clearly defined" is certainly plausible
enough that the district court’s decision to abstain cannot be consid-
ered an abuse of discretion. Indeed, federal court involvement here
will interfere with the detailed, individualized analysis required to
determine what constitutes a "game of chance" and will inescapably
intrude upon South Carolina’s regulatory system.

In this case, in order to evaluate plaintiffs’ vagueness challenge, the
federal court would have to define "games of chance," a task it cannot
complete without delving into the "meaning, interpretations, and the
general regulatory context" of § 12-21-2710. Martin v. Stewart, 438
F.Supp.2d 603, 607 (D.S.C. 2006). The meaning and precise applica-
tion in any given case of "games of chance" lie at the core of South
Carolina’s regulation of gaming; interpreting this provision would
therefore enmesh the federal court in a question of state law that bears
not simply on a "policy problem[ ] of substantial public import," New
Orleans Pub. Serv., Inc. v. Council of the City of New Orleans
("NOPSI"), 491 U.S. 350, 361 (1989), but arguably on "the most
hotly contested issue in South Carolina in recent years." Collins, 199
F.3d at 715.

The majority’s conclusion that no "difficult question of state law"
is presented here is astounding, insofar as its basis is the South Caro-
lina Supreme Court’s 1971 holding that "a man of reasonable intelli-
gence is given fair notice of the machines proscribed" by the
 MARTIN v. STEWART 25
provision. Ante at 10 (citing State v. DeAngelis, 183 S.E.2d 906, 908
(1971)). While the majority says that the statutory text is "clear and
certain" because it is given its "ordinary meaning," ante at 9, that cir-
cular formulation begs the question of what its ordinary meaning even
is. Further, such highly generalized formulations of the provision’s
meaning elide every difficult question the state courts must face when
interpreting and applying § 12-21-2710. Far from being "clear and
certain," the provision outlawing "games of chance" is one that South
Carolina state courts must apply, on a machine-by-machine basis, to
a complex and ever-changing cadre of gambling technology. Indeed,
the development of video gaming machine technology and of the state
courts’ application of § 12-21-2710 to that technology demonstrate
that the meaning and treatment of "games of chance" present "diffi-
cult questions of state law" from which the district court legitimately
abstained.

For starters, not even primitive versions of the video gaming
machines involved in this case were in existence at the time of DeAn-
gelis. Such machines did not become commercially viable until the
mid- to late-1970s, when it first became economical to combine a
television-like monitor with a central processing unit. In fact, it was
not until Si Redd’s Coin Machines (SIRCOMA) introduced Draw
Poker in 1979 that such devices gained any measure of popularity.
See Ireck Galecki, "Video Poker History," Dec. 6, 2006, available at
http://onlinecasinopress.co.uk/video-poker-history.html (last visited
July 19, 2007); see also "History of Video Slot Machines," available
at http://www.videoslotmachines.com/history.htm (last visited July
19, 2007); "History of Video Poker," available at http://
www.videopoker247.com/history.html (last visited July 19, 2007).
Although the language "games of chance" can be found in the gaming
statute as of 1971, S.C. Code Ann. § 5-621 (Code 1962), and the cur-
rent statute, S.C. Code Ann. § 12-21-2710, the former was not part of
a larger statutory provision that includes reference to any type of
video gaming device. And although the majority is correct that "slot
machines have changed since the 1960s, [while] the substance of
[section 12-21-2710] has not," the difficult task of distinguishing law-
ful from unlawful games has been complicated dramatically by these
technological developments. Ante at 9, n.4 (citing 192 Coin-Operated
Video Game Machs., 525 S.E.2d at 878-79). In fact, technological
developments in the thirty-six years since DeAngelis bear very
26 MARTIN v. STEWART
directly on the line of demarcation between prohibited "games of
chance" and permitted "games of skill." Indeed, what may have been
clear to a "man of reasonable intelligence" regarding this distinction
in 1971 can simply no longer be so. The legality of a particular
machine must be determined on an individual basis at the time of sei-
zure, because "video machines may be manipulated so as to change
their nature from lawful to unlawful . . . ." Allendale County Sheriff’s
Office, 606 S.E.2d at 474.

Not surprisingly, evaluations of these machines are quite detailed.
For example, after a thorough examination of two Chess Challenge
II game machines, the magistrate judge in Allendale County found the
games lawful, relying in part on a detailed affidavit which explained,
"the Chess Challenge II game operates in a different manner from the
illegal games of chance . . . . Chess Challenge II operates utilizing a
repeating pattern and does not utilize features that would prevent a
player’s skill from determining the outcome of the game. In addition,
a player is able to identify the icons as they appear, and to time the
stopping of the game to increase the chance of winning." Id. at 472,
n.1.

And in Sun Light Prepaid Phonecard Co., Inc. v. State, 600 S.E.2d
61, 64 (S.C. 2004), the South Carolina Supreme Court held that
machines dispensing pre-paid, long distance telephone cards with
attached game pieces constituted illegal gambling devices, because a
detailed evaluation revealed that the machines (1) housed a video
screen with a gambling theme; (2) played celebration music after dis-
pensing a winning game piece; (3) froze if a pre-determined level of
prize money was attained; (4) contained two meters: one which
recorded the amount of money entering the machine and one (labeled
"WON") which "record[ed] the value of the prizes issued by the
machines"; (5) lacked a mechanism for returning change; and (6)
could be linked with other machines. Id. at 63.

My friends in the majority, however, refuse to allow the state
courts to undertake the delicate task of distinguishing between lawful
and unlawful games. Because South Carolina’s gaming statutes justi-
fiably call for a machine-by-machine determination of legality, the
majority’s notion that it somehow can interpret "games of chance" in
bulk, without disrupting South Carolina’s enforcement scheme, rides
 MARTIN v. STEWART 27
roughshod over the scheme itself and the principles of federalism it
purports to observe.

It is thus no simple task for the South Carolina courts to interpret
and apply § 12-21-2710, which is entrenched in a highly reticulated
regulatory scheme, to a range of ever-changing, technologically
advanced devices. The majority’s insistence that the district court
abused its discretion in abstaining, however, will complicate state
tasks immeasurably. It threatens to "disrupt the State’s attempt to
ensure uniformity in the treatment of an ‘essentially local problem.’"
NOPSI, 491 U.S. at 362. Burford abstention exists to "protect[ ] com-
plex state administrative processes from undue federal interference."
Indeed, a case like this one, in which the federal court is called upon
to resolve a "difficult question[ ] of state law bearing on policy prob-
lems of substantial public import whose importance transcends the
result in the case then at bar," provides a paradigmatic example of the
circumstances justifying Burford abstention. NOPSI, 491 U.S. at 361
(quoting Colorado River Water Conservation Dist. v. United States,
424 U.S. 800, 814 (1976)). To say the district court abused its discre-
tion in abstaining is beyond erroneous.

B.

Plaintiffs also mount an equal protection challenge to South Caroli-
na’s gaming laws. Plaintiffs argue that because video gaming machine
owners are unable to obtain pre-enforcement review of the legality of
their business pursuits like other entrepreneurs can, South Carolina
makes use of "an arbitrary, capricious classification that is not ratio-
nally related to the purposes of the statute." Complaint at 10, par. 38.
Further, plaintiffs contend that they are "being subjected to discrimi-
natory enforcement of the laws pertaining to video game machines
. . . in an effort to restrict Plaintiffs’ meaningful participation in the
political process in South Carolina." Id., par. 39.

The majority asserts that plaintiffs merely "launch a facial attack
on the state statutes as a whole," thus presenting a case federal courts
"often and expertly entertain." Ante at 10-11. Such antiseptic treat-
ment of plaintiffs’ claim, however, exalts form over substance and
gives short shrift to the essence of plaintiffs’ challenge — namely that
the statute is being enforced against them in a discriminatory manner.
28 MARTIN v. STEWART
See Complaint at 10, par. 39. Simply describing a challenge as facial
does not necessarily make it so. Instead, courts must look to the
underlying import of the claim, not just to incantation of magic words
and labels. Here, plaintiffs clearly desire to sift through South Caroli-
na’s entire gambling enforcement scheme, to probe all its intricate
details in the name of discovery. See Brief of Appellants at 8-9. Rather
than recognizing the claim for what it actually is, the majority accepts
what it misguidedly purports to be.

By turning a blind eye to this claim’s true character, the majority’s
approach threatens one of two possible consequences, neither of
which is appealing. First, if the district court treats this as a true facial
challenge, rather than what plaintiffs desire it to be — an as-applied
challenge in the guise of a facial attack — plaintiffs’ claim will have
been unfairly decapitated. Under a facial challenge, plaintiffs can only
attack the statutory provision in the abstract, not ascertain whether it
could be enforced, discriminatorily or otherwise, against particular
machines — their true concern. This result leaves plaintiffs in the
unenviable position of wanting to be in federal court one day, but not
the next. At the same time, the majority sends the troubling message
to district courts that they can skirt potential abstention problems by
characterizing claims such as this as mere facial challenges. Thus, in
an effort to avoid interference with state law, federal courts may con-
strue complaints to present less serious challenges than they in fact
do.

The second potential consequence stems from the majority’s failure
to anticipate how plaintiffs intend for this litigation to unfold. Despite
the "facial" label applied to their discriminatory enforcement claim,
plaintiffs’ requested discovery here would put South Carolina’s regu-
latory regime through the wringer. And as the suit moves forward, the
district court will assuredly be forced to confront unsettled areas of
state law — a problem that easily could have been avoided through
adherence to traditional abstention principles.

Indeed, taken for what it truly is, plaintiffs’ equal protection chal-
lenge inevitably requires a detailed probing of South Carolina’s
enforcement scheme. Thus, it was clearly not an abuse of discretion
to abstain from adjudicating this claim. Plaintiffs not only ask a fed-
eral court to pass upon the rationality of South Carolina’s strategy for
 MARTIN v. STEWART 29
enforcing its gambling laws, but also seek to delve into the strategy’s
details. Such an undertaking would inevitably require the federal
court to interpret and apply the state statute to various individualized
decisions made by the state in the enforcement of its gaming laws.
For example, to substantiate claims of "discriminatory enforcement,"
plaintiffs would question which businesses SLED and other law
enforcement officers had previously investigated, how those investi-
gations compared with the investigation of gambling enterprises, and
whether any differences in enforcement methods were adequately jus-
tified. Cf. Willis v. Town of Marshall, 426 F.3d 251, 263 (4th Cir.
2005) (vacating summary judgment on plaintiff’s claims that she was
arbitrarily singled out for punishment under the Equal Protection
Clause because the district court denied discovery and plaintiff "had
no opportunity to demonstrate that others situated similarly in this
regard were not treated similarly").

The majority asserts that discovery burdens imposed upon states in
the course of adjudicating such discriminatory enforcement claims are
of no moment, asserting that normal discovery burdens cannot justify
Burford abstention. See ante at 11, n.6. To the contrary, these burdens
are of moment, and the prospect of them bears legitimately upon the
district court’s discretion in determining whether to abstain. While
discovery burdens do not of course require abstention, a trial judge
may forecast that rounds of federal discovery will draw the federal
court so deeply into the mechanisms of state administrative operations
that avoidance of that friction and interference is a permissible course.
This at least is true in areas such as gambling policy, where the states
— as a theoretical and an historic matter — may lay claim to sover-
eign interests.

I do not for a moment fault plaintiffs for their strategy. Rather I
commend the district court for recognizing that abstention was the
wise and prudent response. It is hard to imagine a greater intrusion
into the processes of state government than use of the federal judicial
process for a top-to-bottom review of the regulatory and enforcement
measures necessary to the implementation of any gambling policy.
The trial court below was justified in its conclusion that this assault
upon the "rightful independence of state governments in carrying out
their domestic policy" would be too much. See Burford, 319 U.S. at
318 (internal quotations omitted).
30 MARTIN v. STEWART
C.

Plaintiffs finally claim that South Carolina’s post-seizure forfeiture
scheme violates due process. To say that the district court abused its
discretion here is to ignore Burford’s counsel that abstention is appro-
priate when federal review would "disrupt state efforts to establish a
coherent policy with respect to a matter of substantial public con-
cern." NOPSI, 491 U.S. at 361-63. The district court was entitled to
leave undisturbed the considered judgment of the South Carolina
Supreme Court that the forfeiture of gaming machines pursuant to
§§ 12-21-2710 and 2712 accords with due process requirements. See
192 Coin-Operated Video Game Machs., 525 S.E.2d. at 883.

In 192 Coin-Operated Video Game Machs., the South Carolina
Supreme Court held that, to comport with the Due Process Clause,
§ 12-21-2712 must be construed to require that an owner of video
gaming machines be given a post-seizure hearing prior to forfeiture
of any seized devices alleged to have violated § 12-21-2710. 525
S.E.2d at 883. In so doing, the court overruled Kizer, 162 S.E. 444,
to the extent it allowed for the destruction of allegedly illegal
machines "without any opportunity for the owner to contest the mag-
istrate’s determination of illegality." 192 Coin-Operated Video Game
Machs., 525 S.E.2d at 883. However, the South Carolina Supreme
Court rejected the argument that § 12-21-2712 required a pre-seizure
hearing, reasoning that "[t]he most due process requires is a post-
seizure opportunity for an innocent owner ‘to come forward and
show, if he can, why the res should not be forfeited and disposed of
as provided by law.’" Id. (quoting Moore v. Timmerman, 276 S.E.2d
290, 293 (S.C. 1981)). The South Carolina Supreme Court has repeat-
edly affirmed this judgment. See, e.g., Mims Amusement Co. v. SLED,
621 S.E.2d 344, 351 (S.C. 2005) ("We conclude an owner’s right to
due process in the civil forfeiture of a video gaming machine under
the state constitution and pertinent statutes is satisfied when he is
given a post-seizure hearing before the magistrate, with the right to
appeal that ruling to circuit and appellate courts."); Westside Quik
Shop, 534 S.E.2d at 273 ("We have already determined that the forfei-
ture of gaming machines pursuant to these statutes accords with due
process requirements.").

The district court did not err in according respect to a series of
well-considered state decisions in such a core area of state preroga-
 MARTIN v. STEWART 31
tive. Though I reiterate that abstention must be circumscribed, the sky
will not fall whenever state courts resolve a federal question. See U.S.
Const. art. VI ("This Constitution and the laws of the United States
. . . shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every
State shall be bound thereby. . . ."). They do so routinely, and the
Supreme Court has encouraged them to do so in matters central to
their sovereignty. In areas of traditional local control, such as land
use, the Court has made clear that "[s]tate courts are fully competent
to adjudicate constitutional challenges to local . . . decisions. Indeed,
state courts undoubtedly have more experience than federal courts do
in resolving the complex factual, technical, and legal questions related
to [such] regulations." San Remo Hotel v. City & County of San Fran-
cisco, 545 U.S. 323, 347 (2005). To think that the inferior federal
courts must pronounce the final word on every federal question
embedded in state law and imbued with attributes of state sovereignty
is to subscribe to misguided and ahistorical notions of federal suprem-
acy. The district court was entitled to take into account the fact that
"[p]laintiffs’ federal claims are secure in state court and are ultimately
subject to review." Martin, 438 F.Supp.2d at 607.

While "there is, of course, no doctrine requiring abstention merely
because resolution of a federal question may result in the overturning
of state policy," Zablocki v. Redhail, 434 U.S. 374, 380 n.5 (1978),
"[t]he adequacy of state court review diminishes plaintiffs’ interest in
a federal forum," and when — as here — a plaintiff’s claims could
also be raised in state court, this "militates in favor of abstention,"
Collins, 199 F.3d at 723 (citing Alabama Pub. Serv. Comm’n v. S. Ry.
Co., 341 U.S. 341, 349 (1951)). Plaintiffs’ true concern is not the
security of their constitutional claims in state court, but rather, the
unlikelihood that the state courts will be amenable to their endeavor
to replace South Carolina’s current scheme with a system of their own
design.

The South Carolina Supreme Court has rendered measured judg-
ment on this issue; all federal intervention can potentially do at this
stage is create a conflict with that judgment and throw South Caroli-
na’s efforts to regulate gambling into confusion. Indeed, for reasons
discussed throughout, the state’s interest in having its rulings pre-
served is uniquely strong here, as "all branches of South Carolina’s
government have spent considerable time and energy shaping and
32 MARTIN v. STEWART
reviewing the statutes being challenged." Martin, 438 F.Supp.2d at
607. I do not suggest the district court was obligated to abstain, but
neither do I think for a moment that its decision to do so was anything
close to an abuse of discretion.

III.

As to the factors the majority accuses me of thinking relevant —
"the absence of a federal gambling statute, the effect of the Fourteenth
Amendment and 42 U.S.C. § 1983 (2000) on federal-state relations,
the history of gambling regulation, the burdens of discovery, and the
alleged federalization of gambling policy," ante at 15 — I plead
totally guilty. I do in fact rely on such things, and I do in fact believe
they bear on the soundness of the exercise of federal district court dis-
cretion in the area of state gambling policy.

In one respect, I agree with the majority — that abstention must be
carefully cabined. Congress controls the jurisdiction of the federal
courts, and declining to exercise that jurisdiction is a decision federal
judges must take only cautiously and infrequently. The abstention
doctrines are not an escape for judges who cannot be bothered with
hard questions. Abstention remains the distinct exception, not the
general rule.

Having said that, Congress has shown no indication to displace the
states’ historic role in this area where no federal interest such as
Indian tribal lands or United States waters is present. Congress could
exercise its enumerated powers at any time to restrain the states’
residual powers over gambling operations, but I cannot find that it has
manifested any such intent. To reverse the considered judgment of a
trial judge in the context of a comprehensive regulatory scheme
backed by the core, historic interests of the state goes much too far.
It leaves our federal system a subject of lip service and not much
more.

The very fact of dual systems of government and dual systems of
courts creates some potential for inefficiencies and confusion.
Abstention is one of those sparingly utilized means necessary to
smooth the roughest edges and produce a more harmonious system.
The majority does more, however, than exacerbate tensions. It autho-
 MARTIN v. STEWART 33
rizes lawsuits that will begin slowly to federalize — in all its aspects
— questions of state gambling policy. It will do what Congress has
declined to do. The majority deprives the state of a significant mea-
sure of control over issues touching not simply the pros and cons of
gambling but the very tone and quality of life within state borders.
This is not federalism. I respectfully dissent.