Florida Department of Revenue v. Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc.

(Slip Opinion) OCTOBER TERM, 2007 1

Syllabus

NOTE: Where it is feasible, a syllabus (headnote) will be released, as is
being done in connection with this case, at the time the opinion is issued.
The syllabus constitutes no part of the opinion of the Court but has been
prepared by the Reporter of Decisions for the convenience of the reader.
See United States v. Detroit Timber & Lumber Co., 200 U. S. 321, 337.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES

Syllabus

FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF REVENUE v. PICCA-
DILLY CAFETERIAS, INC.

CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS FOR
THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT

No. 07–312. Argued March 26, 2008—Decided June 16, 2008
After respondent (Piccadilly) declared bankruptcy under Chapter 11,
but before its plan was submitted to the Bankruptcy Court, that
court authorized Piccadilly to sell its assets, approved its settlement
agreement with creditors, and granted it an exemption under 11
U. S. C. §1146(a), which provides a tax-stamp exemption for any as-
set transfer “under a plan confirmed under section 1129.” After the
sale, Piccadilly filed its Chapter 11 plan, but before the plan could be
confirmed, petitioner Florida Department of Revenue (Florida) ob-
jected, arguing that the stamp taxes it had assessed on certain of the
transferred assets fell outside §1146(a)’s exemption because the
transfer had not been under a confirmed plan. The court granted
Piccadilly summary judgment. The Eleventh Circuit affirmed, hold-
ing that §1146(a)’s exemption applies to preconfirmation transfers
necessary to the consummation of a confirmed Chapter 11 plan, pro-
vided there is some nexus between such transfers and the plan; that
§1146(a)’s text was ambiguous and should be interpreted consistent
with the principle that a remedial statute should be construed liber-
ally; and that this interpretation better accounted for the practicali-
ties of Chapter 11 cases because a debtor may need to transfer assets
to induce relevant parties to endorse a proposed plan’s confirmation.
Held: Because §1146(a) affords a stamp-tax exemption only to transfers
made pursuant to a Chapter 11 plan that has been confirmed, Picca-
dilly may not rely on that provision to avoid Florida’s stamp taxes.
The most natural reading of §1146(a)’s text, the provision’s place-
ment within the Bankruptcy Code, and applicable canons of statutory
construction lead to this conclusion. Pp. 4–19.
(a) Florida’s reading of §1146(a) is the most natural. Contending
2 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Syllabus

that the text unambiguously limits stamp-tax exemptions to postcon-
firmation transfers made under the authority of a confirmed plan,
Florida argues that “plan confirmed” denotes a plan confirmed in the
past, and that “under” should be read to mean “with the authoriza-
tion of” or “inferior or subordinate” to its referent, here the confirmed
plan, see Ardestani v. INS, 502 U. S. 129, 135. Piccadilly counters
that the provision does not unambiguously impose a temporal re-
quirement, contending that had Congress intended “plan confirmed”
to mean “confirmed plan,” it would have used that language, and that
“under” is as easily read to mean “in accordance with.” While both
sides present credible interpretations, Florida’s is the better one.
Congress could have used more precise language and thus removed
all ambiguity, but the two readings are not equally plausible. Picca-
dilly’s interpretation places greater strain on the statutory text than
Florida’s simpler construction. And Piccadilly’s emphasis on the dis-
tinction between “plan confirmed” and “confirmed plan” is unavailing
because §1146(a) specifies not only that a transfer be “under a plan,”
but also that the plan be confirmed pursuant to §1129. Ultimately
this Court need not decide whether §1146(a) is unambiguous on its
face, for, based on the parties’ other arguments, any ambiguity must
be resolved in Florida’s favor. Pp. 4–7.
(b) Even on the assumption that §1146(a)’s text is ambiguous, read-
ing it in context with other relevant Code provisions reveals nothing
justifying Piccadilly’s claims that had Congress intended §1146(a) to
apply exclusively to postconfirmation transfers, it would have made
its intent plain with an express temporal limitation, and that “under”
should be construed broadly to mean in “in accordance with.” If
statutory context suggests anything, it is that §1146(a) is inapplica-
ble to preconfirmation transfers. The provision’s placement in a sub-
chapter entitled “POSTCONFIRMATION MATTERS” undermines
Piccadilly’s view that it extends to preconfirmation transfers. Picca-
dilly’s textual and contextual arguments, even if fully accepted,
would establish at most that the statutory language is ambiguous,
not that the purported ambiguity should be resolved in Piccadilly’s
favor. Pp. 7–13.
(c) The federalism canon articulated in California State Bd. of
Equalization v. Sierra Summit, Inc., 490 U. S. 844, 851–852—that
courts should “proceed carefully when asked to recognize an exemp-
tion from state taxation that Congress has not clearly expressed ”—
obliges the Court to construe §1146(a)’s exemption narrowly. Picca-
dilly’s interpretation would require the Court to do exactly what the
canon counsels against: recognize an exemption that Congress has
not clearly expressed, namely, an exemption for preconfirmation
transfers. The various substantive canons on which Piccadilly relies
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 3

Syllabus

for its interpretation—most notably, that a remedial statute should
be construed liberally—are inapposite in this case. Pp. 13–19.
484 F. 3d 1299, reversed and remanded.

THOMAS, J., delivered the opinion of the Court, in which ROBERTS,
C. J., and SCALIA, KENNEDY, SOUTER, GINSBURG, and ALITO, JJ., joined.
BREYER, J., filed a dissenting opinion, in which STEVENS, J., joined.
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 1

Opinion of the Court

NOTICE: This opinion is subject to formal revision before publication in the
preliminary print of the United States Reports. Readers are requested to
notify the Reporter of Decisions, Supreme Court of the United States, Wash-
ington, D. C. 20543, of any typographical or other formal errors, in order
that corrections may be made before the preliminary print goes to press.

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
_________________

No. 07–312
_________________

FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF REVENUE, PETITIONER
v. PICCADILLY CAFETERIAS, INC.
ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
APPEALS FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT
[June 16, 2008]

JUSTICE THOMAS delivered the opinion of the Court.
The Bankruptcy Code provides a stamp-tax exemption
for any asset transfer “under a plan confirmed under
[Chapter 11]” of the Code. 11 U. S. C. §1146(a) (2000 ed.,
Supp. V). Respondent Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc., was
granted an exemption for assets transferred after it had
filed for bankruptcy but before its Chapter 11 plan was
submitted to, and confirmed by, the Bankruptcy Court.
Petitioner, the Florida Department of Revenue, seeks
reversal of the decision of the Court of Appeals upholding
the exemption for Piccadilly’s asset transfer. Because we
hold that §1146(a)’s stamp-tax exemption does not apply
to transfers made before a plan is confirmed under Chap-
ter 11, we reverse the judgment below.
I
Piccadilly was founded in 1944 and was one of the Na-
tion’s most successful cafeteria chains until it began ex-
periencing financial difficulties in the last decade. On
October 29, 2003, Piccadilly declared bankruptcy under
Chapter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code, §1101 et seq. (2000 ed.
and Supp. V), and requested court authorization to sell
2 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

substantially all its assets outside the ordinary course of
business pursuant to §363(b)(1) (2000 ed., Supp. V). Pic-
cadilly prepared to sell its assets as a going concern and
sought an exemption from any stamp taxes on the even-
tual transfer under §1146(a) of the Code.1 The Bank-
ruptcy Court conducted an auction in which the winning
bidder agreed to purchase Piccadilly’s assets for $80
million.
On January 26, 2004, as a precondition to the sale,
Piccadilly entered into a global settlement agreement with
committees of senior secured noteholders and unsecured
creditors. The settlement agreement dictated the priority
of distribution of the sale proceeds among Piccadilly’s
creditors. On February 13, 2004, the Bankruptcy Court
approved the proposed sale and settlement agreement.
The court also ruled that the transfer of assets was ex-
empt from stamp taxes under §1146(a). The sale closed on
March 16, 2004.
Piccadilly filed its initial Chapter 11 plan in the Bank-
ruptcy Court on March 26, 2004, and filed an amended
plan on July 31, 2004.2 The plan provided for distribution
——————
1 When litigation commenced in the lower courts, the stamp-tax ex-

emption was contained in §1146(c) (2000 ed.). In 2005, Congress
repealed subsections (a) and (b), and the stamp-tax exemption was
recodified as §1146(a). See Bankruptcy Abuse Prevention and Con-
sumer Protection Act of 2005, §719(b)(3), 119 Stat. 133. For simplicity,
we will cite the provision as it is currently codified.
2 Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings ordinarily culminate in the

confirmation of a reorganization plan. But in some cases, as here, a
debtor sells all or substantially all its assets under §363(b)(1) (2000 ed.,
Supp. V) before seeking or receiving plan confirmation. In this sce-
nario, the debtor typically submits for confirmation a plan of liquida-
tion (rather than a traditional plan of reorganization) providing for the
distribution of the proceeds resulting from the sale. Here, Piccadilly
filed a Chapter 11 liquidation plan after selling substantially all its
assets as a going concern. Although the central purpose of Chapter 11
is to facilitate reorganizations rather than liquidations (covered gener-
ally by Chapter 7), Chapter 11 expressly contemplates liquidations.
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 3

Opinion of the Court

of the sale proceeds in a manner consistent with the set-
tlement agreement. Before the Bankruptcy Court con-
firmed the plan, Florida filed an objection, seeking a dec-
laration that the $39,200 in stamp taxes it had assessed
on certain of Piccadilly’s transferred assets fell outside
§1146(a)’s exemption because the transfer had not been
“under a plan confirmed” under Chapter 11. On October
21, 2004, the bankruptcy court confirmed the plan. On
cross-motions for summary judgment on the stamp-tax
issue, the Bankruptcy Court granted summary judgment
in favor of Piccadilly, reasoning that the sale of substan-
tially all Piccadilly’s assets was a transfer “ ‘under’ ” its
confirmed plan because the sale was necessary to con-
summate the plan. App. D to Pet. for Cert. 40a–41a. The
District Court upheld the decision on the ground that
§1146(a), in certain circumstances, affords a stamp-tax
exemption even when a transfer occurs prior to confirma-
tion. In re Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc., 379 B. R. 215, 226
(SD Fla. 2006).
The Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit affirmed,
holding that “§1146[(a)]’s tax exemption may apply to
those pre-confirmation transfers that are necessary to the
consummation of a confirmed plan of reorganization,
which, at the very least, requires that there be some nexus
between the pre-confirmation transfer and the confirmed
plan.” In re Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc., 484 F. 3d 1299,
1304 (2007) (per curiam). Finding the statutory text
ambiguous, the Court of Appeals concluded that §1146(a)
should be interpreted consistent with “the principle that a
remedial statute such as the Bankruptcy Code should be
liberally construed.” Ibid. The court further noted that its

——————
See §1129(a)(11) (2000 ed.) (“Confirmation of the plan is not likely to be
followed by the liquidation, or the need for further financial reorganiza-
tion, of the debtor or any successor to the debtor under the plan, unless
such liquidation or reorganization is proposed in the plan”).
4 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

interpretation of §1146(a) better accounted for “the practi-
cal realities of Chapter 11 reorganization cases” because a
debtor may need to transfer assets to induce relevant
parties to endorse the proposed confirmation of a plan.
Ibid. The Court of Appeals acknowledged that its holding
conflicted with the approach taken by the Courts of Ap-
peals for the Third and Fourth Circuits, id., at 1302, which
have held that §1146(a) “does not apply to . . . transactions
that occur prior to the confirmation of a plan under Chap-
ter 11 of the Bankruptcy Code.” In re Hechinger Inv. Co.
of Del., 335 F. 3d 243, 246 (CA3 2003); see also In re NVR,
LP, 189 F. 3d 442, 458 (CA4 1999) (holding that §1146(a)
“appl[ies] only to transfers under the Plan occurring after
the date of confirmation”).
We granted certiorari, 552 U. S. ___ (2007), to resolve
the conflict among the Courts of Appeals as to whether
§1146(a) applies to preconfirmation transfers.
II
Section 1146(a), entitled “Special tax provisions,” pro-
vides: “The issuance, transfer, or exchange of a security, or
the making or delivery of an instrument of transfer under
a plan confirmed under section 1129 of this title, may not
be taxed under any law imposing a stamp tax or similar
tax.” (Emphasis added.) Florida asserts that §1146(a)
applies only to postconfirmation sales; Piccadilly contends
that it extends to preconfirmation transfers as long as
they are made in accordance with a plan that is eventually
confirmed. Florida and Piccadilly base their competing
readings of §1146(a) on the provision’s text, on inferences
drawn from other Code provisions, and on substantive
canons of statutory construction. We consider each of
their arguments in turn.
A
Florida contends that §1146(a)’s text unambiguously
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 5

Opinion of the Court

limits stamp-tax exemptions to postconfirmation transfers
made under the authority of a confirmed plan. It observes
that the word “confirmed” modifies the word “plan” and is
a past participle, i.e., “[a] verb form indicating past or
completed action or time that is used as a verbal adjective
in phrases such as baked beans and finished work.”
American Heritage Dictionary 1287 (4th ed. 2000). Flor-
ida maintains that a past participle indicates past or
completed action even when it is placed after the noun it
modifies, as in “beans baked in the oven,” or “work fin-
ished after midnight.” Thus, it argues, the phrase “plan
confirmed” denotes a “confirmed plan”—meaning one that
has been confirmed in the past.
Florida further contends that the word “under” in “un-
der a plan confirmed” should be read to mean “with the
authorization of ” or “inferior or subordinate” to its refer-
ent, here the confirmed plan. See Ardestani v. INS, 502
U. S. 129, 135 (1991) (noting that a thing that is “ ‘under’ ”
a statute is most naturally read as being “ ‘subject to’ ” or
“ ‘governed by’ ” the statute). Florida points out that, in
the other two appearances of “under” in §1146(a), it clearly
means “subject to.” Invoking the textual canon that
“ ‘identical words used in different parts of the same act
are intended to have the same meaning,’ ” Commissioner v.
Keystone Consol. Industries, Inc., 508 U. S. 152, 159
(1993), Florida asserts the term must also have its core
meaning of “subject to” in the phrase “under a plan con-
firmed.” Florida thus reasons that to be eligible for
§1146(a)’s exemption, a transfer must be subject to a plan
that has been confirmed subject to §1129 (2000 ed. and
Supp. V). Echoing the Fourth Circuit’s reasoning in NVR,
supra, at 457, Florida concludes that a transfer made prior
to the date of plan confirmation cannot be subject to, or
under the authority of, something that did not exist at the
time of the transfer—a confirmed plan.
Piccadilly counters that the statutory language does not
6 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

unambiguously impose a temporal requirement. It con-
tends that “plan confirmed” is not necessarily the equiva-
lent of “confirmed plan,” and that had Congress intended
the latter, it would have used that language, as it did in a
related Code provision. See §1142(b) (referring to “any
instrument required to effect a transfer of property dealt
with by a confirmed plan”). Piccadilly also argues that
“under” is just as easily read to mean “in accordance with.”
It observes that the variability of the term “under” is well-
documented, noting that the American Heritage Diction-
ary 1395 (1976) provides 15 definitions, including “[i]n
view of,” “because of,” “by virtue of,” as well as “[s]ubject to
the restraint . . . of.” See also Ardestani, supra, at 135
(recognizing that “[t]he word ‘under’ has many dictionary
definitions and must draw its meaning from its context”).
Although “under” appears several times in §1146(a), Pic-
cadilly maintains there is no reason why a term of such
common usage and variable meaning must have the same
meaning each time it is used, even in the same sentence.
As an illustration, it points to §302(a) of the Bankruptcy
Code, which states, “The commencement of a joint case
under a chapter of this title constitutes an order for relief
under such chapter.” Piccadilly contends that this provi-
sion is best read as: “The commencement of a joint case
subject to the provisions of a chapter of this title consti-
tutes an order for relief in such chapter.” Piccadilly thus
concludes that the statutory text—standing alone—is
susceptible of more than one interpretation. See Hech-
inger, supra, at 253 (“[W]e cannot say that the language of
[§1146(a)] rules out the possibility that ‘under a plan
confirmed’ means ‘in agreement with a plan confirmed’ ”).
While both sides present credible interpretations of
§1146(a), Florida has the better one. To be sure, Congress
could have used more precise language—i.e., “under a plan
that has been confirmed”—and thus removed all ambigu-
ity. But the two readings of the language that Congress
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 7

Opinion of the Court

chose are not equally plausible: Of the two, Florida’s is
clearly the more natural. The interpretation advanced by
Piccadilly and adopted by the Eleventh Circuit—that
there must be “some nexus between the pre-confirmation
transfer and the confirmed plan” for §1146(a) to apply, 484
F. 3d, at 1304—places greater strain on the statutory text
than the simpler construction advanced by Florida and
adopted by the Third and Fourth Circuits.
Furthermore, Piccadilly’s emphasis on the distinction
between “plan confirmed” and “confirmed plan” is unavail-
ing because §1146(a) specifies not only that a tax-exempt
transfer be “under a plan,” but also that the plan in ques-
tion be confirmed pursuant to §1129. Congress’ placement
of “plan confirmed” before “under section 1129” avoids the
ambiguity that would have arisen had it used the term
“confirmed plan,” which could easily be read to mean that
the transfer must be “under section 1129” rather than
under a plan that was itself confirmed under §1129.
Although we agree with Florida that the more natural
reading of §1146(a) is that the exemption applies only to
postconfirmation transfers, ultimately we need not decide
whether the statute is unambiguous on its face. Even
assuming, arguendo, that the language of §1146(a) is
facially ambiguous, the ambiguity must be resolved in
Florida’s favor. We reach this conclusion after considering
the parties’ other arguments, to which we now turn.
B
Piccadilly insists that, whatever the degree of ambiguity
on its face, §1146(a) becomes even more ambiguous when
read in context with other Bankruptcy Code provisions.
Piccadilly asserts that if Congress had intended §1146(a)
to apply exclusively to transfers occurring after confirma-
tion, it would have made its intent plain with an express
temporal limitation similar to those appearing elsewhere
in the Code. For example, §1127 governs modifications to
8 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

a Chapter 11 plan, providing that the proponent of a plan
may modify the plan “at any time before confirmation,” or,
subject to certain restrictions, “at any time after confirma-
tion of such plan.” §§1127(a)–(b). Similar examples
abound. See, e.g., §1104(a) (“[a]t any time after the com-
mencement of the case but before confirmation of a plan
. . .”); §1104(c) (“[a]t any time before the confirmation of a
plan . . .”). Piccadilly emphasizes that, “where Congress
includes particular language in one section of a statute but
omits it in another section of the same Act, it is generally
presumed that Congress acts intentionally and purposely
in the disparate inclusion or exclusion.” Russello v. United
States, 464 U. S. 16, 23 (1983) (internal quotation marks
omitted). Because Congress did not impose a clear and
commonly used temporal limitation in §1146(a), Piccadilly
concludes that Congress did not intend one to exist. Pic-
cadilly buttresses its conclusion by pointing out that
§1146(b)—the subsection immediately following
§1146(a)—includes an express temporal limitation. See
§1146(b) (2000 ed., Supp. V) (providing that a bankruptcy
court may declare certain tax consequences after the date
a government unit responds to a plan proponent’s request
or “270 days after such request,” whichever is earlier).
But Congress included no such limitation in subsection
(a).
Piccadilly also relies on other Code provisions to bolster
its argument that the term “under” preceding “a plan
confirmed” in §1146(a) should be read broadly—to mean
“in accordance with” rather than the narrower “authorized
by.” Apart from §302, discussed above, Piccadilly adverts
to §111, which states that an agency providing credit
counseling to debtors is required to meet “the standards
set forth under this section.” §111(b)(4)(A) (2000 ed.,
Supp. V). Piccadilly argues that this language requires
the agency to meet “the standards set forth in this sec-
tion,” because reading the quoted language to mean “the
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 9

Opinion of the Court

standards set forth authorized by this section” would
render the words “set forth” nonsensical. Piccadilly addi-
tionally refers to §303(a), which provides that “[a]n invol-
untary case may be commenced only under chapter 7 or 11
of this title.” Again, Piccadilly asserts that this language
means “an involuntary case may be commenced only in
chapter 7 or 11 of this title.” It reasons that “under” in
§303(a) cannot mean “authorized by” because §303(a) itself
authorizes involuntary cases, and the provisions of Chap-
ters 7 and 11 do not. Piccadilly makes a similar argument
with respect to §343, which provides that “[t]he debtor
shall appear and submit to examination under oath at the
meeting of creditors.” Reading “under” to mean “author-
ized by” would make little sense here. On the basis of
these examples, Piccadilly concludes that the term “under”
is ambiguous.
Finally, Piccadilly maintains that “under” in §1146(a)
should be construed broadly in light of §365(g)(1) of the
Bankruptcy Code, which provides that rejection of an
executory contract or unexpired lease constitutes the
equivalent of a prebankruptcy breach “if such contract or
lease has not been assumed under this section or under a
plan confirmed under chapter . . . 11.” In Hechinger, the
Third Circuit concluded that substituting “authorized by”
for “under” in §1146(a) would be consistent with the use of
the parallel language in §365(g)(1). 335 F. 3d, at 254.
Piccadilly attempts to refute Hechinger’s reading of
§365(g)(1), asserting that, because authorization for the
assumption of a lease under a plan is described in
§1123(b)(2), which “circles back to section 365,” such au-
thorization cannot be “subject to” or “authorized by” Chap-
ter 11. Brief for Respondent 39 (emphasis deleted); see 11
U. S. C. §1123(b)(2) (providing that “a plan may . . . sub-
ject to section 365 of this title, provide for the assumption,
rejection, or assignment of any executory contract or un-
expired lease of the debtor not previously rejected under
10 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

such section”). The phrase “under a plan confirmed” in
§365(g)(1), contends Piccadilly, is thus best read to mean
“in accordance with a plan confirmed” because a plan may
provide for the assumption of an executory contract or
unexpired lease but not—unlike §365—be the ultimate
authority for that assumption. As a result, Piccadilly
concludes that the identical language of §1146(a) should
have the same meaning.
Piccadilly supports this point with its assertion that,
unlike sales, postconfirmation assumptions or rejections
are not permitted under the Bankruptcy Code. See NLRB
v. Bildisco & Bildisco, 465 U. S. 513, 529 (1984) (stating
that in “a Chapter 11 reorganization, a debtor-in-
possession has until a reorganization plan is confirmed to
decide whether to accept or reject an executory contract”).
Because, as Piccadilly contends, the phrase “under a plan
confirmed under chapter . . . 11” in §365(g)(1) cannot refer
to assumptions or rejections occurring after confirmation,
it would be anomalous to read the identical phrase in
§1146(a) to cover only postconfirmation transfers.
For its part, Florida argues that the statutory context of
§1146(a) supports its position that the stamp-tax exemp-
tion applies exclusively to postconfirmation transfers. It
observes that the subchapter in which §1146(a) appears is
entitled, “POSTCONFIRMATION MATTERS.” Florida
contends that, while not dispositive, the placement of a
provision in a particular subchapter suggests that its
terms should be interpreted consistent with that subchap-
ter. See Davis v. Michigan Dept. of Treasury, 489 U. S.
803, 809 (1989) (“It is a fundamental canon of statutory
construction that the words of a statute must be read in
their context and with a view to their place in the overall
statutory scheme”). In addition, Florida dismisses Picca-
dilly’s references to the temporal limitations in other Code
provisions on the ground that it would have been super-
fluous for Congress to add any further limitations to
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 11

Opinion of the Court

§1146(a)’s already unambiguous temporal element.
Even on the assumption that the text of §1146(a) is
ambiguous, we are not persuaded by Piccadilly’s contex-
tual arguments. As noted above, Congress could have
used language that made §1146(a)’s temporal element
clear beyond question. Unlike §1146(a), however, the
temporal language examples quoted by Piccadilly are
indispensable to the operative meaning of the provisions
in which they appear. Piccadilly’s reliance on §1127, for
example, is misplaced because that section explicitly
differentiates between preconfirmation modifications, see
§1127(a), and postconfirmation modifications, which are
permissible “only if circumstances warrant” them,
§1127(b). It was unnecessary for Congress to include in
§1146(a) a phrase such as “at any time after confirmation
of such plan” because the phrase “under a plan confirmed”
is most naturally read to require that there be a confirmed
plan at the time of the transfer.
Even if we were to adopt Piccadilly’s broad definition of
“under,” its interpretation of the statute faces other obsta-
cles. The asset transfer here can hardly be said to have
been consummated “in accordance with” any confirmed
plan because, as of the closing date, Piccadilly had not
even submitted its plan to the Bankruptcy Court for con-
firmation. Piccadilly’s asset sale was thus not conducted
“in accordance with” any plan confirmed under Chapter
11. Rather, it was conducted “in accordance with” the
procedures set forth in Chapter 3—specifically, §363(b)(1).
To read the statute as Piccadilly proposes would make
§1146(a)’s exemption turn on whether a debtor-in-
possession’s actions are consistent with a legal instrument
that does not exist—and indeed may not even be conceived
of—at the time of the sale. Reading §1146(a) in context
with other relevant Code provisions, we find nothing
justifying such a curious interpretation of what is a
straightforward exemption.
12 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

Nor does anything in §365(g)(1) recommend Piccadilly’s
reading of §1146(a). Section 365(g) generally allows a
trustee to reject “an executory contract or unexpired lease
of the debtor,” i.e., to reject a contract that is unfavorable
to the estate, subject to court approval. As the text makes
clear, such approval may occur either under “this section,”
§365(g)—i.e., “at any time before the confirmation of a
plan,” §365(d)(2)—or “under a plan confirmed under chap-
ter 9, 11, 12, or 13,” §365(g)(1). Piccadilly relies heavily on
Bildisco, supra, in which this Court held that §365
permits a debtor-in-possession to reject a collective-
bargaining agreement like any other executory contract,
and that doing so is not an unfair labor practice under the
National Labor Relations Act. In reaching this conclusion,
the Court observed that “a debtor-in-possession has until a
reorganization plan is confirmed to decide whether to
accept or reject an executory contract.” 465 U. S., at 529
(emphasis added).
We agree with Bildisco’s commonsense observation that
the decision whether to reject a contract or lease must be
made before confirmation. But that in no way undermines
the fact that the rejection takes effect upon or after con-
firmation of the Chapter 11 plan (or before confirmation if
pursuant to §365(d)(2)). In the context of §1146(a), the
decision whether to transfer a given asset “under a plan
confirmed” must be made prior to submitting the Chapter
11 plan to the bankruptcy court, but the transfer itself
cannot be “under a plan confirmed” until the court con-
firms the plan in question. Only at that point does the
transfer become eligible for the stamp-tax exemption. 3
——————
3 Also meritless is Piccadilly’s argument that “under” in the phrase

“under a plan confirmed under chapter . . . 11” in §365(g)(1) cannot be
read to mean “subject to” because §1123(b)(2), in Piccadilly’s words,
“circles back to section 365.” Brief for Respondent 39. Section
1123(b)(2) authorizes a plan to provide for the assumption, rejection, or
assignment of an executory contract or unexpired lease, but requires
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 13

Opinion of the Court

If the statutory context suggests anything, it is that
§1146(a) is inapplicable to preconfirmation transfers. We
find it informative that Congress placed §1146(a) in a
subchapter entitled, “POSTCONFIRMATION MATTERS.”
To be sure, a subchapter heading cannot substitute for the
operative text of the statute. See, e.g., Pennsylvania Dept.
of Corrections v. Yeskey, 524 U. S. 206, 212 (1998) (“ ‘[T]he
title of a statute . . . cannot limit the plain meaning of the
text’ ”). Nonetheless, statutory titles and section headings
“ ‘are tools available for the resolution of a doubt about the
meaning of a statute.’ ” Porter v. Nussle, 534 U. S. 516,
528 (2002). The placement of §1146(a) within a subchap-
ter expressly limited to postconfirmation matters under-
mines Piccadilly’s view that §1146(a) covers preconfirma-
tion transfers.
But even if we were fully to accept Piccadilly’s textual
and contextual arguments, they would establish at most
that the statutory language is ambiguous. They do not—
and largely are not intended to—demonstrate that
§1146(a)’s purported ambiguity should be resolved in
Piccadilly’s favor. Florida argues that various nontextual
canons of construction require us to resolve any ambiguity
in its favor. Piccadilly responds with substantive canons
of its own. It is to these dueling canons of construction
that we now turn.
C
Florida contends that even if the statutory text is
deemed ambiguous, applicable substantive canons compel
its interpretation of §1146(a). Florida first invokes the
canon that “Congress is presumed to be aware of an ad-
——————
that the plan do so in a manner consistent with the various require-
ments set forth throughout §365. By contrast, the phrase “under this
section” in §365(g)(1) serves as a reference to §365(d)(2), which permits
preconfirmation assumptions and rejections pursuant to a court order
(and not, as in §1123(b)(2), pursuant to a confirmed plan).
14 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

ministrative or judicial interpretation of a statute and to
adopt that interpretation when it reenacts a statute with-
out change.” Lorillard v. Pons, 434 U. S. 575, 580–581
(1978). Florida observes that the relevant language of
§1146(a) relating to “under a plan confirmed” has re-
mained unchanged since 1978 despite several revisions of
the Bankruptcy Code. The most recent revision in 2005
occurred after the Fourth Circuit’s decision in NVR and
the Third Circuit’s decision in Hechinger but before the
Eleventh Circuit’s decision below. Florida asserts that
Congress ratified this longstanding interpretation when,
in its most recent amendments to the Code, it “readopted”
the stamp-tax provision verbatim as §1146(a). Brief for
Petitioner 26.
Florida also invokes the substantive canon—on which
the Third Circuit relied in Hechinger—that courts should
“ ‘proceed carefully when asked to recognize an exemption
from state taxation that Congress has not clearly ex-
pressed.’ ” 335 F. 3d, at 254 (quoting California State Bd.
of Equalization v. Sierra Summit, Inc., 490 U. S. 844, 851–
852 (1989)). In light of this directive, Florida contends
that §1146(a)’s language must be construed strictly in
favor of the States to prevent unwarranted displacement
of their tax laws. See National Private Truck Council, Inc.
v. Oklahoma Tax Comm’n, 515 U. S. 582, 590 (1995) (dis-
cussing principles of comity in taxation and the “federal
reluctance to interfere with state taxation” given the
“strong background presumption against interference”).
Furthermore, Florida notes that the canon also discour-
ages federal interference with the administration of a
State’s taxation scheme. See id., at 586, 590. Florida
contends that the Court of Appeals’ extension of §1146(a)
to preconfirmation transfers directly interferes with the
administration of the State’s stamp tax, which is imposed
“prior to recordation” of the instrument of transfer. Fla.
Stat. §§201.01, 201.02(1) (2006). Extending the exemption
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 15

Opinion of the Court

to transfers that occurred months or years before a con-
firmable plan even existed, Florida explains, may require
the States to “ ‘unravel’ ” stamp taxes already collected.
Brief for Petitioner 31. Alternatively, should a court grant
an exemption under §1146(a) before confirmation, States
would be saddled with the task of monitoring whether the
plan is ever eventually confirmed.
In response, Piccadilly contends that the federalism
principle articulated in Sierra Summit, supra, at 852, does
not apply where there is a “clear expression of an exemp-
tion from state taxation” overriding a State’s authority to
tax. In Piccadilly’s view, that is precisely the case with
regard to §1146(a), which proscribes the imposition of
stamp taxes and demonstrates Congress’ intent to exempt
a category of state taxation.
Piccadilly further maintains that Florida’s stamp tax is
nothing more than a postpetition claim, specifically an
administrative expense, which is paid as a priority claim
ahead of the prepetition claims of most creditors. Equat-
ing Florida’s receipt of tax revenue with a preference in
favor of a particular claimant, Piccadilly argues that
§1146(a)’s ambiguous exemption should not be construed
to diminish other claimants’ recoveries. See Howard
Delivery Service, Inc. v. Zurich American Ins. Co., 547
U. S. 651, 667 (2006) (emphasizing that “provisions allow-
ing preferences must be tightly construed”). Reading the
stamp-tax exemption too narrowly, Piccadilly maintains,
“ ‘is not only inconsistent with the policy of equality of
distribution’ ” but also “ ‘dilutes the value of the priority for
those creditors Congress intended to prefer’ ”—those with
prepetition claims. Brief for Respondent 54 (quoting
Howard Delivery Serv., supra, at 667).
Above all, Piccadilly urges us to adopt the Court of
Appeals’ maxim that “a remedial statute such as the
Bankruptcy Code should be liberally construed.” 484 F.
3d, at 1304; cf. Isbrandtsen Co. v. Johnson, 343 U. S. 779,
16 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

782 (1952). In Piccadilly’s view, any ambiguity in the
statutory text is overshadowed by §1146(a)’s obvious
purpose: to facilitate the Chapter 11 process “through
giving tax relief.” In re Jacoby-Bender, Inc., 758 F. 2d 840,
841 (CA2 1985). Piccadilly characterizes the tax on asset
transfers at issue here as tantamount to a levy on the
bankruptcy process itself. A stamp tax like Florida’s
makes the sale of a debtor’s property more expensive and
reduces the total proceeds available to satisfy the credi-
tors’ claims, contrary to Congress’ clear intent in enacting
§1146(a).
What is unclear, Piccadilly argues, is why “Congress
would have intended the anomaly that a transfer essential
to a plan that occurs two minutes before confirmation may
be taxed, but the same transfer occurring two seconds
after may not.” Brief for Respondent 43. After all, inter-
preting §1146(a) in the manner Florida proposes would
lead precisely to that result. And that, Piccadilly asserts,
is “absurd” in light of §1146(a)’s policy aim—evidenced by
the provision’s text and legislative history—of reducing
the cost of asset transfers. In that vein, Piccadilly con-
tends that interpreting §1146(a) to apply solely to postcon-
firmation transfers would undermine Chapter 11’s twin
objectives of “preserving going concerns and maximizing
property available to satisfy creditors.” Bank of America
Nat. Trust and Sav. Assn. v. 203 North LaSalle Street
Partnership, 526 U. S. 434, 453 (1999). In order to obtain
the maximum value for its assets—especially assets rap-
idly declining in value—Piccadilly claims that a debtor
often must close the sale before formal confirmation of the
Chapter 11 plan.
We agree with Florida that the federalism canon articu-
lated in Sierra Summit and elsewhere obliges us to con-
strue §1146(a)’s exemption narrowly. Piccadilly’s effort to
evade the canon falls well short of the mark because read-
ing §1146(a) in the manner Piccadilly proposes would
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 17

Opinion of the Court

require us to do exactly what the canon counsels against.
If we recognized an exemption for preconfirmation trans-
fers, we would in effect be “ ‘recogniz[ing] an exemption
from state taxation that Congress has not clearly ex-
pressed’ ”—namely, an exemption for preconfirmation
transfers. Sierra Summit, 490 U. S., at 851–852 (empha-
sis added); see also Swarts v. Hammer, 194 U. S. 441, 444
(1904) (reasoning that if Congress endeavored to exempt a
debtor from state and local taxation, “the intention would
be clearly expressed, not left to be collected or inferred
from disputable considerations of convenience in adminis-
tering the estate of the bankrupt”). Indeed, Piccadilly
proves precisely this point by resting its entire case on the
premise that Congress has expressed its stamp-tax ex-
emption in ambiguous language. Therefore, far from
being inapposite, the canon is decisive in this case.
The canons on which Piccadilly relies are inapposite.
While we agree with Piccadilly that “provisions allowing
preferences must be tightly construed,” Howard Delivery
Serv., supra, at 667, §1146(a) is not a preference-granting
provision. The statutory text makes no mention of
preferences.
Nor are we persuaded that in this case we should con-
strue §1146(a) “liberally” to serve its ostensibly “remedial”
purpose. Based on the Eleventh Circuit’s declaration that
the Bankruptcy Code is a “remedial statute,” Piccadilly
would stretch the disallowance well beyond what the
statutory text can naturally bear. Apart from the opinion
below, however, the only authority Piccadilly offers is a
1952 decision of this Court interpreting the Shipping
Commissioners Act of 1872. See Brief for Respondent 54
(citing Isbrandtsen, supra, at 782). But unlike the statu-
tory scheme in Isbrandtsen, which was “ ‘designed to se-
cure the comfort and health of seamen aboard ship, hospi-
talization at home and care abroad,’ ” 343 U. S., at 784
(quoting Aguilar v. Standard Oil Co. of N. J., 318 U. S.
18 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
Opinion of the Court

724, 728 (1943)), the Bankruptcy Code—and Chapter 11 in
particular—is not a remedial statute in that sense. To the
contrary, this Court has rejected the notion that “Congress
had a single purpose in enacting Chapter 11.” Toibb v.
Radloff, 501 U. S. 157, 163 (1991). Rather, Chapter 11
strikes a balance between a debtor’s interest in reorganiz-
ing and restructuring its debts and the creditors’ interest
in maximizing the value of the bankruptcy estate. Ibid.
The Code also accommodates the interests of the States in
regulating property transfers by “ ‘generally [leaving] the
determination of property rights in the assets of a bank-
rupt’s estate to state law.’ ” Travelers Casualty & Surety
Co. of America v. Pacific Gas & Elec. Co., 549 U. S. ___,
___ (2007) (slip op., at 7 ). Such interests often do not
coincide, and in this case, they clearly do not. We there-
fore decline to construe the exemption granted by §1146(a)
to the detriment of the State.
As for Piccadilly’s assertion that reading §1146(a) to
allow preconfirmation transfers to be taxed while exempt-
ing others moments later would amount to an “absurd”
policy, we reiterate that “ ‘it is not for us to substitute our
view of . . . policy for the legislation which has been passed
by Congress.’ ” Hechinger, 335 F. 3d, at 256. That said,
we see no absurdity in reading §1146(a) as setting forth a
simple, bright-line rule instead of the complex, after-the-
fact inquiry Piccadilly envisions. At bottom, we agree with
the Fourth Circuit’s summation of §1146(a):
“Congress struck a most reasonable balance. If a
debtor is able to develop a Chapter 11 reorganization
and obtain confirmation, then the debtor is to be af-
forded relief from certain taxation to facilitate the im-
plementation of the reorganization plan. Before a
debtor reaches this point, however, the state and local
tax systems may not be subjected to federal interfer-
ence.” NVR, 189 F. 3d, at 458.
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 19

Opinion of the Court

Lastly, to the extent the “practical realities” of Chapter
11 reorganizations are increasingly rendering postconfir-
mation transfers a thing of the past, see 484 F. 3d, at
1304, it is incumbent upon the Legislature, and not the
Judiciary, to determine whether §1146(a) is in need of
revision. See, e.g., Ali v. Federal Bureau of Prisons, 552
U. S. ___, ___ (2008) (slip op., at 14 ) (“We are not at lib-
erty to rewrite the statute to reflect a meaning we deem
more desirable”).
III
The most natural reading of §1146(a)’s text, the provi-
sion’s placement within the Code, and applicable substan-
tive canons all lead to the same conclusion: Section
1146(a) affords a stamp-tax exemption only to transfers
made pursuant to a Chapter 11 plan that has been con-
firmed. Because Piccadilly transferred its assets before its
Chapter 11 plan was confirmed by the Bankruptcy Court,
it may not rely on §1146(a) to avoid Florida’s stamp taxes.
Accordingly, we reverse the judgment below and remand
the case for further proceedings consistent with this
opinion.
It is so ordered.
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 1

BREYER, J., dissenting

SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES
_________________

No. 07–312
_________________

FLORIDA DEPARTMENT OF REVENUE, PETITIONER
v. PICCADILLY CAFETERIAS, INC.
ON WRIT OF CERTIORARI TO THE UNITED STATES COURT OF
APPEALS FOR THE ELEVENTH CIRCUIT
[June 16, 2008]

JUSTICE BREYER, with whom JUSTICE STEVENS joins,
dissenting.
The Bankruptcy Code provides that the “transfer” of an
asset “under a plan confirmed under section 1129 of this
title, may not be taxed under any law imposing a stamp
tax or similar tax.” 11 U. S. C. §1146(a) (2000 ed., Supp V)
(previously §1146(c)) (emphasis added). In this case, the
debtor’s reorganization “plan” provides for the “transfer” of
assets. But the “plan” itself was not “confirmed under
section 1129 of this title” (i.e., the Bankruptcy Judge did
not formally approve the plan) until after the “transfer” of
assets took place. See §1129 (2000 ed. and Supp. V) (de-
tailing the requirements for bankruptcy court approval of
a Chapter 11 plan).
Hence we must ask whether the time of transfer mat-
ters. Do the statutory words “under a plan confirmed
under section 1129 of this title” apply only where a trans-
fer takes place “under a plan” that at the time of the
transfer already has been “confirmed under section 1129 of
this title”? Or, do they also apply where a transfer takes
place “under a plan” that subsequently is “confirmed under
section 1129 of this title”? The Court concludes that the
statutory phrase applies only where a transfer takes place
“under a plan” that at the time of transfer already has
been “confirmed under section 1129 of this title.” In my
2 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
BREYER, J., dissenting

view, however, the statutory phrase applies “under a plan”
that at the time of transfer either already has been or
subsequently is “confirmed.” In a word, the majority be-
lieves that the time (pre- or post-transfer) at which the
bankruptcy judge confirms the reorganization plan mat-
ters. I believe that it does not. (And construing the provi-
sion to refer to a plan that simply “is” confirmed would
require us to read fewer words into the statute than the
Court’s construction, which reads the provision to refer
only to a plan “that has been” confirmed, ante, at 19.)
The statutory language itself is perfectly ambiguous on
the point. Linguistically speaking, it is no more difficult to
apply the words “plan confirmed” to instances in which the
“plan” subsequently is “confirmed” than to restrict their
application to instances in which the “plan” already has
been “confirmed.” See In re Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc., 484
F. 3d 1299, 1304 (CA11 2007) (per curiam) (“[T]he statute
can plausibly be read either as describing eligible trans-
fers to include transfers ‘under a plan confirmed’ regard-
less of when the plan is confirmed, or . . . imposing a tem-
poral restriction on when the confirmation of the plan
must occur” (emphasis in original)). Cf. In re Hechinger
Inv. Co. of Del., 335 F. 3d 243, 252–253 (CA3 2003) (major-
ity opinion of Alito, J.) (noting more than one “plausible
interpretation”); In re NVR, LP, 189 F. 3d 442, 458 (CA4
1999) (Wilkinson, J., concurring in part and concurring in
judgment) (“equally possible that the provision requires
only that the transfer occur ‘under’—i.e., that it be inferior
or subordinate to—‘a plan’ that is ultimately ‘confirmed’ ”).
But cf. ante, at 7 (majority believes its reading is “clearly
the more natural”).
Nor can I find any text-based argument that points
clearly in one direction rather than the other. Indeed, the
majority, after methodically combing the textualist
beaches, finds that a comparison with other somewhat
similar phrases in the Bankruptcy Code sheds little light.
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 3

BREYER, J., dissenting

For example, on the one hand, if Congress thought the
time of confirmation mattered, why did it not say so ex-
pressly as it has done elsewhere in the Code? See, e.g., 11
U. S. C. §1127(b) (plan proponent may modify it “at any
time after confirmation” (emphasis added)); §1104(a) (“[a]t
any time after the commencement of the case but before
confirmation” (emphasis added)); §1104(c) (“at any time
before the confirmation of a plan” (emphasis added));
§1114(e)(2) (“before a plan confirmed under section 1129 of
this title is effective” (emphasis added)). On the other
hand, if Congress thought the time of confirmation did not
matter, why did it place this provision in a subchapter
entitled “POSTCONFIRMATION MATTERS”? See 11
U. S. C., ch. 11, subch. III. (And yet one could also argue
that the tax exemption provision appears under the “post-
confirmation matters” title because the trigger for the
exemption is plan confirmation. Thus, the exemption is a
“postconfirmation matter,” regardless of when the transfer
occurs.)
The canons of interpretation offer little help. And the
majority, for the most part, seems to agree. It ultimately
rests its interpretive conclusion upon this Court’s state-
ment that courts “must proceed carefully when asked to
recognize an exemption from state taxation that Congress
has not clearly expressed.” California State Bd. of Equali-
zation v. Sierra Summit, Inc., 490 U. S. 844, 851–852
(1989) (internal quotation marks omitted). See ante, at
17. But when, as here, we interpret a provision the ex-
press point of which is to exempt some category of state
taxation, how can the statement in Sierra Summit prove
determinative? See §1146(a) (“The issuance, transfer, or
exchange of a security, or the making or delivery of an
instrument of transfer under a plan confirmed under
section 1129 of this title, may not be taxed under any law
imposing a stamp tax or similar tax” (emphasis added)).
Neither does Florida’s related claim, protesting federal
4 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
BREYER, J., dissenting

interference in the administration of a State’s taxation
scheme seem plausible. See Brief for Petitioner 32–33
(noting the “additional difficulties and complexities that
will proliferate” under the lower court’s decision). If Flor-
ida now requires transferees to file a pre-existing con-
firmed plan in order to avoid payment of the stamp tax,
then why could Florida not require a transferee under a
not-yet-confirmed plan to pay the stamp tax and then file
the plan after its confirmation in order to obtain a refund?
(If there is some other, less curable, practical problem,
Florida has not explained what it is.) Given these difficul-
ties, I suspect that the majority’s reliance upon Sierra
Summit’s “canon,” ante, at 14, reflects no more than an
effort to find the proverbial “any port” in this interpretive
storm.
The absence of a clear answer in text or canons, how-
ever, should not lead us to judicial despair. Consistent
with Court precedent, we can and should ask a further
question: Why would Congress have insisted upon tempo-
ral limits? What reasonable purpose might such limits
serve? See, e.g., Dolan v. Postal Service, 546 U. S. 481,
486 (2006) (“Interpretation of a word or phrase depends
upon reading the whole statutory text, considering the
purpose and context of the statute, and consulting any
precedents or authorities that inform the analysis” (em-
phasis added)); Robinson v. Shell Oil Co., 519 U. S. 337,
346 (1997) (the Court’s construction of a statute’s meaning
based in part on its consideration of the statute’s “primary
purpose” (emphasis added)). In fact, the majority’s read-
ing of temporal limits in §1146(a) serves no reasonable
congressional purpose at all.
The statute’s purpose is apparent on its face. It seeks to
further Chapter 11’s basic objectives: (1) “preserving going
concerns” and (2) “maximizing property available to sat-
isfy creditors.” Bank of America Nat. Trust and Sav. Assn.
v. 203 North LaSalle Street Partnership, 526 U. S. 434,
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 5

BREYER, J., dissenting

453 (1999). See also Toibb v. Radloff, 501 U. S. 157, 163
(1991) (Chapter 11 “embodies the general [Bankruptcy]
Code policy of maximizing the value of the bankruptcy
estate”). As an important bankruptcy treatise notes, “[i]n
addition to tax relief, the purpose of the exemption of
[§1146(a)] is to encourage and facilitate bankruptcy asset
sales.” 8 Collier on Bankruptcy ¶1146.02, p. 1146–3 (15th
ed. rev. 2005). It furthers these objectives where, e.g.,
asset transfers are at issue, by turning over to the estate
(for the use of creditors or to facilitate reorganization)
funds that otherwise would go to pay state stamp taxes on
plan-related transferred assets. The requirement that the
transfers take place pursuant to a reorganization “plan”
that is “confirmed” provides the bankruptcy judge’s assur-
ance that the transfer meets with creditor approval and
the requirements laid out in §1129.
How would the majority’s temporal limitation further
these statutory objectives? It would not do so in any way.
From the perspective of these purposes, it makes no dif-
ference whether a transfer takes place before or after the
plan is confirmed. In both instances the exemption puts in
the hands of the creditors or the estate money that would
otherwise go to the State in the form of a stamp tax. In
both instances the confirmation of the related plan assures
the legitimacy (from bankruptcy law’s perspective) of the
plan that provides for the assets transfer.
Moreover, one major reason why a transfer may take
place before rather than after a plan is confirmed is that
the preconfirmation bankruptcy process takes time. As
the Administrative Office of the United States Courts
recently reported, “[a] Chapter 11 case may continue for
many years.” Bankruptcy Basics (Apr. 2006), online at
http://www.uscourts.gov/bankruptcycourts/bankruptcybasics/
chapter11.html (as visited June 13, 2008, and available in
Clerk of Court’s case file). Accord, In re Hechinger Inv. Co.
of Del., 254 B. R. 306, 320 (Bkrtcy. Ct. Del. 2000) (noting it
6 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
BREYER, J., dissenting

may run “a year or two”). And a firm (or its assets) may
have more value (say, as a going concern) where sale takes
place quickly. As the District Court in this case acknowl-
edged, “there are times when it is more advantageous for
the debtor to begin to sell as many assets as quickly as
possible in order to insure that the assets do not lose
value.” In re Piccadilly Cafeterias, Inc., 379 B. R. 215, 224
(SD Fla. 2006) (internal quotations marks and alteration
omitted). See, e.g., In re Webster Classic Auctions, Inc.,
318 B. R. 216, 219 (Bkrtcy. Ct. MD Fla. 2004) (recognizing
“the inestimable benefit to a Chapter 11 estate to sell a
piece of property at the most opportune time—whether
pre- or postconfirmation—as opposed to requiring all
concerned to wait for a postconfirmation sale in order to
receive the tax relief Congress obviously intended”); In re
Medical Software Solutions, 286 B. R. 431, 441 (Bkrtcy.
Ct. Utah 2002) (approving preconfirmation sale of debtor’s
assets recognizing that the assets’ “value is reducing
rapidly” and there was only a narrow window for a viable
sale of the assets). Thus, an immediate sale can often
make more revenue available to creditors or for reorgani-
zation of the remaining assets. Stamp taxes on related
transfers simply reduce the funds available for any such
legitimate purposes. And insofar as the Court’s interpre-
tation of the statute reduces the funds made available,
that interpretation inhibits the statute’s efforts to achieve
its basic objectives.
Worse than that, if the potential loss of stamp tax reve-
nue threatens delay in implementing any such decision to
sell, then creditors (or the remaining reorganized enter-
prise) could suffer far more serious harm. They could lose
the extra revenues that a speedy sale might otherwise
produce. See, e.g., In re Met-L-Wood Corp., 861 F. 2d
1012, 1017 (CA7 1988) (as suppliers and customers “shy
away,” it can make sense quickly to sell business to other
owners so that it “can continue” to operate “free of the
 Cite as: 554 U. S. ____ (2008) 7

BREYER, J., dissenting

stigma and uncertainty of bankruptcy”). In the present
case, for example, Piccadilly, by selling assets quickly after
strategic negotiation, realized $80 million, considerably
more than the $54 million originally offered before Picca-
dilly filed for bankruptcy. That fact, along with the Bank-
ruptcy Court’s finding of “sound business reasons” for the
prompt sale of Piccadilly’s assets and that the expeditious
sale was “in the best interests of creditors of [Piccadilly]
and other parties in interest,” App. 32a, suggest that
considerably less would have been available for creditors
had Piccadilly waited until after the plan’s confirmation to
execute the sale plan.
What conceivable reason could Congress have had for
silently writing into the statute’s language a temporal
distinction with such consequences? The majority can find
none. It simply says that the result is not “ ‘absurd’ ” and
notes the advantages of a “bright-line rule.” Ante, at 18. I
agree that the majority’s interpretation is not absurd and
do not dispute the advantages of a clear rule. But I think
the statute supplies a clear enough rule—transfers are
exempt when there is confirmation and are not exempt
when there is no confirmation. And I see no reason to
adopt the majority’s preferred construction (that only
transfers completed after plan confirmation are exempt),
where it conflicts with the statute’s purpose.
Of course, we should not substitute “ ‘ “our view of . . .
policy” ’ ” for the statute that Congress enacted. Ante, at
18 (emphasis added). But we certainly should consider
Congress’ view of the policy for the statute it created, and
that view inheres in the statute’s purpose. “Statutory
interpretation is not a game of blind man’s bluff. Judges
are free to consider statutory language in light of a stat-
ute’s basic purposes.” Dole Food Co. v. Patrickson, 538
U. S. 468, 484 (2003) (BREYER, J., concurring in part and
dissenting in part). It is the majority’s failure to work
with this important tool of statutory interpretation that
8 FLORIDA DEPT. OF REVENUE v. PICCADILLY
CAFETERIAS, INC.
BREYER, J., dissenting

has led it to construe the present statute in a way that, in
my view, runs contrary to what Congress would have
hoped for and expected.
For these reasons, I respectfully dissent.