SUPREME COURT OF ARIZONA
En Banc
STATE OF ARIZONA, ) Arizona Supreme Court
) No. CR-05-0101-PR
Appellee, )
) Court of Appeals
v. ) Division One
) No. 1 CA-CR 03-0243
MORTON ROBERT BERGER, )
) Maricopa County
Appellant. ) Superior Court
) No. CR2002-013657
)
__________________________________) O P I N I O N
Appeal from the Superior Court in Maricopa County
The Honorable Ruth H. Hilliard, Judge
AFFIRMED
Opinion of the Court of Appeals, Division One
209 Ariz. 386, 103 P.3d 298 (2004)
VACATED IN PART
TERRY GODDARD, ARIZONA ATTORNEY GENERAL Phoenix
By Randall M. Howe, Chief Counsel
Criminal Appeals Section
Robert A. Walsh, Assistant Attorney General
Attorneys for the State of Arizona
LAW OFFICES OF LAURIE A. HERMAN Scottsdale
By Laurie A. Herman
And
LAW OFFICES OF BALLECER & SEGAL Phoenix
By Natalee Segal
Attorneys for Morton Robert Berger
MILLER, LASOTA & PETERS PLC Phoenix
By Donald M. Peters
Attorneys for Amicus Curiae American Civil Liberties
Union of Arizona
B A L E S, Justice
¶1 Based on his possession of child pornography, Morton
Robert Berger was convicted of twenty separate counts of sexual
exploitation of a minor under the age of fifteen and sentenced
to twenty consecutive ten-year prison terms. We hold that these
sentences do not violate the Eighth Amendment’s prohibition on
cruel and unusual punishment.
I.
¶2 Arizona severely punishes the distribution or
possession of child pornography. Under Arizona law, a person
commits sexual exploitation of a minor, a class two felony, by
knowingly “[d]istributing, transporting, exhibiting, receiving,
selling, purchasing, electronically transmitting, possessing or
exchanging any visual depiction in which a minor is engaged in
exploitive exhibition or other sexual conduct.” Ariz. Rev.
Stat. (“A.R.S.”) § 13-3553(A)(2) (2002). A “visual depiction,”
for purposes of this statute, “includes each visual image that
is contained in an undeveloped film, videotape or photograph or
data stored in any form and that is capable of conversion into a
visual image.” A.R.S. § 13-3551(11). If a depiction involves a
minor under the age of fifteen, the offense is characterized as
a dangerous crime against children. A.R.S. § 13-3553(C).
¶3 Under this statutory scheme, the possession of each
image of child pornography is a separate offense. A.R.S. §§ 13-
2
3551(11), -3553(A)(2); see also State v. Taylor, 160 Ariz. 415,
420, 773 P.2d 974, 979 (1989) (affirming fifty consecutive
sentences for possession of fifty contraband images obtained
over time). Consecutive sentences must be imposed for each
conviction involving children under fifteen, and each such
sentence carries a minimum term of ten years, a presumptive term
of seventeen years, and a maximum term of twenty-four years.
A.R.S. § 13-604.01(D), (F), (G), (K). Such sentences must be
served without the possibility of probation, early release, or
pardon. A.R.S. § 13-3553(C) (prescribing sentencing under § 13-
604.01).
¶4 A grand jury indicted Berger on thirty-five separate
counts of sexual exploitation of a minor based on his possession
of printed photographs, computer photo files, and computer video
files depicting children in sexual acts. On the State’s motion,
the trial court dismissed fifteen counts, and trial proceeded on
the twenty remaining counts.
¶5 The trial evidence established that Berger possessed
numerous videos and photo images of children, some younger than
ten years old, being subjected to sexual acts with adults and
other children, including images of sexual intercourse and
bestiality. The jury also heard testimony indicating that, from
1996 to 2002, Berger had downloaded computer files containing
child pornography; he had identified several “favorite” websites
3
with titles indicating they provided child pornography; he had
recently viewed contraband material; and he had created both
computer and hard copy filing systems to maintain his
collection. The jury convicted Berger of twenty counts of
sexual exploitation of a minor and found that each depiction
involved a child under the age of fifteen.
¶6 The trial judge sentenced Berger to a ten-year
sentence – the minimum mitigated sentence allowed – for each of
his crimes and, as required by statute, ordered the sentences to
be served consecutively. A.R.S. §§ 13-604.01, -3553(C). The
court rejected Berger’s argument that his sentences violated the
Eighth Amendment’s prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment.
Berger appealed, and a divided panel of the court of appeals
affirmed his convictions and sentences. State v. Berger, 209
Ariz. 386, 103 P.3d 298 (App. 2004). He petitioned for review,
arguing that the rulings below conflict with this court’s
opinion in State v. Davis, 206 Ariz. 377, 79 P.3d 64 (2003).
¶7 We granted Berger’s petition to again consider the
framework for reviewing Eighth Amendment challenges to lengthy
prison sentences. We have jurisdiction pursuant to Article 6,
Section 5(3), of the Arizona Constitution and A.R.S. section 12-
120.24 (2003).
4
II.
¶8 The Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution
bars the infliction of “cruel and unusual punishments.” U.S.
Const. amend. VIII. This provision “guarantees individuals the
right not to be subjected to excessive sanctions.” Roper v.
Simmons, 543 U.S. 551, 560 (2005). “The right flows from the
basic precept of justice that punishment for crime should be
graduated and proportioned to the offense.” Id. (internal
quotation marks and citation omitted).
¶9 The Supreme Court has long recognized that the Eighth
Amendment limits permissible sanctions in various contexts. For
example, the Court has held that the death penalty cannot be
imposed for the rape of an adult woman, on mentally retarded
defendants, or on those who commit their crimes as juveniles.
See id. at 568-69 (collecting cases). Likewise, the Court has
held that a sentence to “12 years jailed in irons at hard and
painful labor for the crime of falsifying records was
excessive.” Atkins v. Virginia, 536 U.S. 304, 311 (2002)
(citing Weems v. United States, 217 U.S. 349, 367 (1910)). The
Court has also observed that “[e]ven one day in prison would be
a cruel and unusual punishment for the ‘crime’ of having a
common cold.” Robinson v. California, 370 U.S. 660, 667 (1962).
¶10 Although “the Eighth Amendment has been applied to
lengthy sentences of incarceration,” Davis, 206 Ariz. at 381, ¶
5
13, 79 P.3d at 68 (citation omitted), courts are extremely
circumspect in their Eighth Amendment review of prison terms.
The Supreme Court has noted that noncapital sentences are
subject only to a “narrow proportionality principle” that
prohibits sentences that are “grossly disproportionate” to the
crime. Ewing v. California, 538 U.S. 11, 20, 23 (2003)
(O’Connor, J., concurring in the judgment) (quoting Harmelin v.
Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 996-97 (1991) (Kennedy, J., concurring
in part and concurring in the judgment)).
¶11 This court reviews Eighth Amendment challenges to the
length of prison sentences under the framework outlined by
Justice Kennedy in his concurring opinion in Harmelin and later
employed by Justice O’Connor in announcing the judgment of the
Court in Ewing. Davis, 206 Ariz. at 383, ¶ 30, 79 P.3d at 70.1
1
The Supreme Court’s Eighth Amendment proportionality decisions
“have not established a clear or consistent path for courts to
follow.” Lockyer v. Andrade, 538 U.S. 63, 72 (2003). In
rejecting challenges to prison sentences in Harmelin and Ewing,
a majority of the Court did not agree in any one opinion. In
each case, two justices concluded that prison sentences cannot
be challenged on proportionality grounds under the Eighth
Amendment and stated they would overrule contrary precedent.
Ewing, 538 U.S. at 31 (Scalia, J., concurring); id. at 32
(Thomas, J., concurring); Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 994 (Scalia, J.,
joined by Rehnquist, C.J., concurring). Justice Kennedy’s
opinion in Harmelin and Justice O’Connor’s opinion in Ewing are
the controlling opinions in those cases because they reflect the
views of the justices concurring in the judgments on the
narrowest grounds. See Marks v. United States, 430 U.S. 188,
193 (1977).
6
¶12 Under this analysis, a court first determines if there
is a threshold showing of gross disproportionality by comparing
“the gravity of the offense [and] the harshness of the penalty.”
Ewing, 538 U.S. at 28; accord Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1005
(Kennedy, J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment)
(same). If this comparison leads to an inference of gross
disproportionality, the court then tests that inference by
considering the sentences the state imposes on other crimes and
the sentences other states impose for the same crime. Ewing,
538 U.S. at 23-24; Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1004-05 (Kennedy, J.,
concurring in part and concurring in the judgment).
¶13 In comparing the gravity of the offense to the
harshness of the penalty, courts must accord substantial
deference to the legislature and its policy judgments as
reflected in statutorily mandated sentences. The threshold
inquiry is guided by several principles that include the primacy
of the legislature in determining sentencing, the variety of
legitimate penological schemes, the nature of the federal
system, and the requirement that objective factors guide
proportionality review. Ewing, 538 U.S. at 23 (citing Harmelin,
501 U.S. at 997 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and concurring
in the judgment)). These principles inform the broader notion
that the Eighth Amendment “does not require strict
proportionality between crime and sentence” but instead forbids
7
only extreme sentences that are “grossly disproportionate to the
crime.” Id. at 23 (quoting Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1001 (Kennedy,
J., concurring in part and concurring in the judgment))
(internal quotation omitted).
¶14 In Ewing, the Court rejected an Eighth Amendment
challenge to a prison term of twenty-five years to life under
California’s “three strikes law” for a recidivist offender
convicted of stealing three golf clubs worth nearly $1200.
Justice O’Connor’s plurality opinion first considered the three
strikes law in its general application. While recognizing that
the law had been criticized for its lack of wisdom and lack of
effectiveness, she noted that the State of California had a
“reasonable basis” for believing the law would substantially
advance the goals of incapacitating repeat offenders and
deterring crime. Id. at 24-28. Against this backdrop, Justice
O’Connor considered and rejected Ewing’s argument that his
sentence was unconstitutionally disproportionate. Acknowledging
that his sentence was long, she concluded that “it reflects a
rational legislative judgment, entitled to deference, that
offenders who have committed serious or violent felonies and who
continue to commit felonies must be incapacitated.” Id. at 30.
¶15 Similarly, in Harmelin, the Court rejected an Eighth
Amendment challenge to a mandatory sentence of life imprisonment
without parole for a first-time offender convicted of possessing
8
672 grams of cocaine. 501 U.S. at 994-95. In his plurality
opinion, Justice Kennedy noted “that the Michigan legislature
could with reason conclude that the threat posed to the
individual and society by possession of this large an amount of
cocaine — in terms of violence, crime, and social displacement —
is momentous enough to warrant the deterrence and retribution of
a life sentence without parole.” Id. at 1003-04 (noting
Michigan legislature had a “rational basis” for determining to
impose mandatory life sentence).
¶16 Recognizing that the penalty imposed on Harmelin was
“severe and unforgiving” and that the deterrent effect of
Michigan’s law was still uncertain, Justice Kennedy nonetheless
concluded that “we cannot say the law before us has no chance of
success and is on that account so disproportionate as to be
cruel and unusual punishment.” Id. at 1008. Because there was
no threshold showing of gross disproportionality, it was
unnecessary to compare the sentence with others in Michigan or
in other states. Id. at 1005.
¶17 Harmelin and Ewing reaffirm that only in “exceedingly
rare” cases will a sentence to a term of years violate the
Eighth Amendment’s prohibition on cruel and unusual punishment.
Ewing, 538 U.S. at 22 (citation omitted). A court must first
determine whether the legislature “has a reasonable basis for
believing that [a sentencing scheme] ‘advance[s] the goals of
9
[its] criminal justice system in any substantial way.’” Id. at
28 (quoting Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277, 297 n.22 (1983))
(second and third alteration in original). In light of that
conclusion, the court then considers if the sentence of the
particular defendant is grossly disproportionate to the crime he
committed. Id. A prison sentence is not grossly
disproportionate, and a court need not proceed beyond the
threshold inquiry, if it arguably furthers the State’s
penological goals and thus reflects “a rational legislative
judgment, entitled to deference.” Id. at 30. This framework
guides our review of Berger’s Eighth Amendment challenge to his
sentence.
III.
¶18 States may criminalize the possession of child
pornography to advance the compelling interest of protecting
children from sexual exploitation. As the Supreme Court has
recognized:
It is evident beyond the need for
elaboration that a State's interest in
“safeguarding the physical and psychological
well-being of a minor” is “compelling.”
. . . The legislative judgment, as well as
the judgment found in relevant literature,
is that the use of children as subjects of
pornographic materials is harmful to the
physiological, emotional, and mental health
of the child.
10
Osborne v. Ohio, 495 U.S. 103, 109 (1990) (quoting New York v.
Ferber, 458 U.S. 747, 756-58 (1982) (citations omitted))
(affirming Ohio’s criminal ban on possession of child
pornography). Child pornography not only harms children in its
production, but also “causes the child victims continuing harm
by haunting the children in years to come.” Id. at 111
(citation omitted); see also United States v. Sherman, 268 F.3d
539, 547 (7th Cir. 2001) (“The possession, receipt and shipping
of child pornography directly victimizes the children portrayed
by violating their right to privacy, and in particular violating
their individual interest in avoiding the disclosure of personal
matters.”).
¶19 Criminalizing the possession of child pornography is
tied directly to state efforts to deter its production and
distribution. Given that the distribution and production of
this material occurs “underground,” the legislature must be
permitted to “stamp out this vice at all levels in the
distribution chain.” Osborne, 495 U.S. at 110. Moreover,
criminalization encourages the destruction of such materials.
Id. at 111. The goal of combating the sexual abuse and
exploitation inherent in child pornography animates Arizona’s
severe penalities for the possession of such material.2
2
The importance of the state’s interest justifies prohibiting
the mere possession of child pornography, even though the
11
¶20 In 1978, the Arizona legislature determined that
existing state laws were inadequate and enacted legislation
specifically aimed at the child pornography industry. The new
law, the predecessor to A.R.S. sections 13-3551 to -3553,
declared its purposes to include protecting children from sexual
exploitation and to “prevent any person from benefiting
financially or otherwise from the sexual exploitation of
children.” 1978 Ariz. Sess. Laws, ch. 200, § 2(B)(1), (3). The
legislature specifically identified a series of harms to child
victims, including the use of the material by defendants in
luring new victims and the fact that such materials cause
continuing harm to the children depicted. Id. § 2(A)(5)-(6).
¶21 In 1983, lawmakers extended this criminal ban to
include possession itself, an amendment that prosecutors claimed
would aid in prosecuting child molesters. 1983 Ariz. Sess.
Laws, ch. 93; Hearing on H.B. 2127 Before the H. Comm. on
Judiciary, 36th Legis., 1st Reg. Sess. 2 (Ariz. 1983) (comments
of Elizabeth Peasley, Pima County Attorney’s Office). Such
legislation also recognizes the fact that producers of child
Supreme Court held in Stanley v. Georgia, 394 U.S. 557, 565-66
(1969), that the First and Fourteenth Amendments prevent states
from criminalizing the in-home possession of adult obscenity.
The Court in Osborne noted that child pornography has “de
minimis” First Amendment value and “the interests underlying
child pornography prohibitions far exceed the interests
justifying the Georgia law at issue in Stanley.” 495 U.S. at
108.
12
pornography exist due to the demand for such materials. “The
consumers of child pornography therefore victimize the children
depicted . . . by enabling and supporting the continued
production of child pornography, which entails continuous direct
abuse and victimization of child subjects.” United States v.
Norris, 159 F.3d 926, 930 (5th Cir. 1998) (applying federal
sentencing guidelines).
¶22 Correspondingly, the legislature soon thereafter
included the possession of child pornography among crimes
targeted in § 13-604.01 for enhanced sentencing as “dangerous
crimes against children.” 1985 Ariz. Sess. Laws, ch. 364, § 6.
This legislation provides “lengthy periods of
incarceration . . . intended to punish and deter” “those
predators who pose a direct and continuing threat to the
children of Arizona.” State v. Williams, 175 Ariz. 98, 102, 854
P.2d 131, 135 (1993) (reviewing the legislative history of § 13-
604.01).
¶23 Given this history, we conclude that the legislature
had a “reasonable basis for believing” that mandatory and
lengthy prison sentences for the possession of child pornography
would “advance [] the goals of [Arizona’s] criminal justice
system in [a] substantial way.” Ewing, 538 U.S. at 28 (internal
citation omitted).
13
IV.
¶24 It is “[a]gainst this backdrop,” id., 538 U.S. at 28,
that we consider Berger’s claim that his sentences are grossly
disproportionate to his offenses. Berger, as did Ewing,
incorrectly frames the issue at the threshold. Ewing argued
that his three strikes sentence of twenty-five years to life was
based on his “shoplifting three golf clubs”; the Supreme Court
noted that in fact Ewing had been sentenced for felony grand
theft of nearly $1200 after having already been convicted of at
least two violent or serious felonies. Id.
¶25 Berger contends that he has received a “200 year flat-
time sentence . . . upon his conviction of possession of child
pornography . . . .” But Berger in fact was convicted of twenty
separate counts of possession of child pornography involving
minors under fifteen, and he was sentenced to a ten-year term
for each count. Each ten-year sentence must, by statute, be
served consecutively. A.R.S. § 13-604.01(K).
¶26 Berger has not argued that the State’s charging him in
twenty separate counts was improper. Nor could he, as each
count was based on a different video or photo image, the images
involved some fifteen different child victims, and Berger had
accumulated the images over a six-year period. Cf. Taylor, 160
Ariz. at 420, 773 P.2d at 979 (declining to decide if individual
could be prosecuted or sentenced on separate counts for multiple
14
images acquired simultaneously). Nor does Berger dispute that
possession of child pornography is a serious crime punishable as
a felony under federal law and most state laws. Cf. Ewing, 538
U.S. at 28 (noting theft of $1200 is a felony under federal and
most state laws). For purposes of our analysis, Berger
committed twenty separate, and very serious, felonies.
¶27 In comparing the gravity of Berger’s crime and the
severity of the punishment, we focus on whether a ten-year
sentence is disproportionate for a conviction of possessing
child pornography involving children younger than fifteen. “A
defendant has no constitutional right to concurrent sentences
for two separate crimes involving separate acts.” State v.
Jonas, 164 Ariz. 242, 249, 792 P.2d 705, 712 (1990).
Accordingly, as a general rule, this court “will not consider
the imposition of consecutive sentences in a proportionality
inquiry . . . .” Davis, 206 Ariz. at 387, ¶ 47, 79 P.3d at 74.3
¶28 “Eighth amendment analysis focuses on the sentence
imposed for each specific crime, not on the cumulative
sentence.” United States v. Aiello, 864 F.2d 257, 265 (2d Cir.
1988). Thus, if the sentence for a particular offense is not
3
The court in Davis concluded that a departure from the general
rule was appropriate in light of the specific facts and
circumstances of that case. 206 Ariz. at 387, ¶ 47, 79 P.3d at
74. The general rule, rather than the exception recognized in
Davis, applies here, for reasons explained infra.
15
disproportionately long, it does not become so merely because it
is consecutive to another sentence for a separate offense or
because the consecutive sentences are lengthy in aggregate. See
Jonas, 164 Ariz. at 249, 792 P.2d at 712. This proposition
holds true even if a defendant faces a total sentence exceeding
a normal life expectancy as a result of consecutive sentences.
See, e.g., Lockyer, 538 U.S. at 74 n.1 (rejecting, in context of
federal habeas review, dissent’s argument that two consecutive
sentences of twenty-five years to life for separate offenses
were equivalent, for purposes of Eighth Amendment analysis, to
one sentence of life without parole for thirty-seven-year-old
defendant); United States v. Beverly, 369 F.3d 516, 537 (6th
Cir. 2004); Taylor, 160 Ariz. at 422, 773 P.2d at 981.
¶29 Given the principles established by prior decisions,
we cannot conclude that a ten-year sentence is grossly
disproportionate to Berger’s crime of knowingly possessing child
pornography depicting children younger than fifteen. Cf.
Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1004 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and
concurring in the judgment) (noting severity of Harmelin’s drug
possession crime brought life sentence “within the
constitutional boundaries established by our prior decisions”).
¶30 The Supreme Court has affirmed a sentence of twenty-
five years to life for the grand theft of three golf clubs worth
nearly $1200 by a recidivist felon, Ewing, 538 U.S. at 30-32;
16
upheld a sentence of life in prison without parole for a first-
time offender possessing 672 grams of cocaine, Harmelin, 501
U.S. at 996; and found no Eighth Amendment violation in two
consecutive twenty-year prison terms for possession of nine
ounces of marijuana with intent to distribute, Hutto v. Davis,
454 U.S. 370, 374 (1982) (per curiam). Similarly, this court
has upheld a sentence of twenty-five years without parole for a
twenty-one-year-old defendant convicted of selling a $1
marijuana cigarette to a fourteen-year-old, even though this
sentence was consecutive to a twenty-one-year sentence for the
defendant’s trafficking in stolen property with the same
juvenile. Jonas, 164 Ariz. at 249, 702 P.2d at 712.
¶31 In fact, only once in the past quarter-century has the
Supreme Court sustained an Eighth Amendment challenge to the
length of a prison sentence. In that case, Solem v. Helm, a
judge sentenced a non-violent repeat offender to life
imprisonment without parole for the crime of writing a “no
account” check for $100. 463 U.S. at 279-82. In concluding
that this life sentence, “the most severe punishment that the
State could have imposed,” id. at 297, was grossly
disproportionate, the Court noted that Solem’s crime was quite
minor, Solem, id. at 296. Indeed, the Court stated that the
crime of uttering a no account check was “one of the most
17
passive felonies a person could commit.” Id. (internal
quotation omitted).
¶32 Solem also did not involve a mandatory sentence, but
instead concerned a judge’s discretionary decision to impose the
maximum authorized sentence. Thus, Solem did not implicate the
“traditional deference” that courts must afford to legislative
policy choices when reviewing statutorily mandated sentences.
See Ewing, 538 U.S. at 25 (O’Connor, J., announcing judgment of
the Court); Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1006-07 (Kennedy, J.,
concurring in part and concurring in the judgment); Solem, 463
U.S. at 299 n.26 (noting that Court’s decision “d[id] not
question the legislature’s judgment”).
¶33 Berger is in a fundamentally different situation than
was the defendant in Solem. Berger received a statutorily
mandated minimum sentence for each of his separate, serious
offenses. The ten-year sentence imposed for each offense is
consistent with the State’s penological goal of deterring the
production and possession of child pornography.
¶34 The evidence showed that Berger knowingly gathered,
preserved, and collected multiple images of child pornography.
When confronted by the police, he acknowledged that he had
“downloaded some things that he was not proud of, and was not
sure if he should have downloaded them or not.” Additionally,
in response to police questions, Berger admitted he had
18
downloaded images of people under eighteen and that he believed
these people were involved in sexual conduct. He also possessed
a news article describing a recent arrest of another person in
Arizona for possession of child pornography.
¶35 The images for which Berger was convicted, graphically
depicting sordid and perverse sexual conduct with pre-pubescent
minors, were well within the statutory definition of contraband.
Nor did Berger come into possession of these images fleetingly
or inadvertently. Berger had obtained at least two images in
1996, some six years before his arrest. The websites Berger
flagged as “favorites” included graphic titles indicating that
they provide underage, and illegal, pornographic depictions.
His computer contained “cookie” files and text fragments
indicating he had searched for or visited websites providing
contraband material. Berger also had recordable CDs indicating
he had specifically set up a “kiddy porn” directory, which
included other subfolders with titles indicating a collection of
contraband images.
¶36 Taken together, this evidence indicates that, in the
terminology of Ewing, Berger’s sentences are “amply supported”
by evidence indicating his “long, serious” pursuit of illegal
depictions and are “justified by the State’s public-safety
interest” in deterring the production and possession of child
pornography. Ewing, 538 U.S. at 29-30.
19
V.
¶37 Berger nonetheless argues that our holding in Davis
compels the vacating of his sentence. In Davis, this court
vacated four consecutive thirteen-year sentences imposed on a
twenty-year-old man of below average intelligence convicted of
having uncoerced sex at different times with two fourteen-year-
old girls. 206 Ariz. at 380, ¶¶ 7-10, 79 P.3d at 68.
¶38 Davis represents an “extremely rare case” in which the
court concluded prison sentences were grossly disproportionate.
In so holding, the court observed that a sentence violates the
Eighth Amendment if it is “so severe as to shock the conscience
of society.” Id. at 388, ¶ 49, 79 P.3d at 75 (quotation
omitted). This language, however, must be understood as a
restatement of the court’s conclusion that the sentences were
“grossly disproportionate” under the standard set forth in the
plurality opinions in Harmelin and Ewing, which Davis expressly
followed. Davis was not suggesting a different standard by its
use of the phrase “shock the conscience of society.”4
4
In State v. Davis, 108 Ariz. 335, 337, 312 P.2d 202, 204
(1972), this court rejected an Eighth Amendment challenge to a
mandatory ten-year sentence for a recidivist offender, but noted
that “in a proper case and at a proper time we may find that a
particular penalty is so severe as to shock the conscience of
society” and thus violate the Eighth Amendment. Prior to Ewing
and Harmelin, this court said that it would judge whether a
sentence “shocks the conscience of the community” for Eighth
Amendment purposes by whether it is “overly severe or
disproportionate to the crime.” State v. Bartlett, 164 Ariz.
20
¶39 Davis acknowledged, and we here reaffirm, that a
sentencing scheme that does not violate the Eighth Amendment in
its general application may still, in its application to “the
specific facts and circumstances” of a defendant’s offense,
result in an unconstitutionally disproportionate sentence. Id.
at 384, ¶ 34, 79 P.3d at 71. Berger, however, misunderstands
how the “specific facts and circumstances of the offenses” enter
into the Eighth Amendment analysis under Davis.
¶40 The court in Davis effectively concluded that it could
not reconcile the particular sentences imposed with any
reasonable sentencing policy it could attribute to the
legislature. Most significantly, the defendant in Davis, who
had no prior criminal record, was caught up in the “broad sweep”
of a statute that made no distinction between the perpetrators
of incest, serial pedophiles, and an eighteen-year-old man
engaging in sex initiated by a fifteen-year-old girlfriend. Id.
at 384-85, ¶¶ 36-37, 79 P.3d at 71-72. The statute’s breadth in
terms of imposing liability was coupled with a sentencing scheme
229, 233, 792 P.2d 692, 696 (1990), vacated, 501 U.S. 1246
(1991). The Supreme Court itself has not used the “shocks the
conscience” language in its Eighth Amendment review of prison
sentences, although it has used such language with respect to
the different issue of whether state action is so arbitrary as
to violate substantive due process. See Rochin v. California,
342 U.S. 165, 172 (1952).
21
mandating lengthy consecutive sentences for each offense. Id.
at 385, ¶ 37, 79 P.3d at 72.
¶41 In Davis, objective facts about the offenses indicated
that the defendant’s conduct was at the edge of the statute’s
broad sweep of criminal liability. Davis was twenty years old
and his maturity and intelligence fell far below that of a
normal adult. Id. at 384-85, ¶ 36, 79 P.3d at 71-72. The girls
involved not only participated willingly, but they had sought
Davis out and gone voluntarily to his home. Id. If the girls
had been fifteen or older and Davis within two years of their
age, he would not have been criminally liable at all. A.R.S. §
13-1407(F). But because his conduct was “swept up in the broad
statutory terms,” Davis, 206 Ariz. at 385, ¶ 37, 79 P.3d at 72,
Davis was subject to four consecutive thirteen-year sentences.
¶42 Only after concluding that objective factors about
Davis’s offense showed he had been caught up in the expansive
reach of the statute did the court determine that the
consecutive nature of his sentences was relevant to the Eighth
Amendment analysis. Id. at 387, ¶ 47, 79 P.3d at 74. In so
doing, however, the court noted that its conclusion rested on
the “specific facts and circumstances of Davis’s offenses,” and
reaffirmed that the court “normally will not consider the
imposition of consecutive sentences in a proportionality
inquiry . . . .” Id. at 387-88, ¶¶ 47-48, 79 P.3d at 74-75.
22
¶43 Berger argues that, in light of Davis, the court must
consider the consecutive nature of his sentences in the Eighth
Amendment analysis, along with the “victimless” nature of his
crime, and that this court must, at the least, order a re-
sentencing hearing so he can present “mitigation evidence.”
¶44 Berger’s conduct is at the core, not the periphery, of
the prohibitions of A.R.S. § 13-3553(A)(2) – the knowing
possession of visual depictions of sexual conduct involving
minors – and he, unlike Davis, cannot be characterized as
someone merely “caught up” in a statute’s broad sweep. Thus,
there is no basis here to depart from the general rule that the
consecutive nature of sentences does not enter into the
proportionality analysis.5
5
Berger has no prior criminal record, and Davis noted that the
defendant there had no prior adult criminal record. 206 Ariz.
at 385, ¶ 36, 79 P.3d at 72. This fact is not in itself a basis
for challenging a mandatory prison sentence as grossly
disproportionate. See Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 994-95 (rejecting
defendant’s contention that mandatory life sentence for first
time offender was “cruel and unusual”). An offender’s lack of
prior convictions also does not alter the general rule that
proportionality review focuses on the particular sentence for
each offense rather than the cumulative sentences. For purposes
of proportionality review, a prior criminal record may, however,
increase the gravity of the offense that underlies a challenged
prison sentence. See Ewing, 538 U.S. at 29 (“In weighing the
gravity of Ewing’s offense, we must place on the scales not only
his current felony, but also his long history of criminal
recidivism.”). For example, this court may well have reached a
different result in Davis if the defendant had prior adult
criminal convictions.
23
¶45 Nor do we accept Berger’s assertion that his crimes
were “victimless” merely because he did not touch or even
photograph any children himself. The defendant in Harmelin
similarly argued that his sentence to life without parole was
unconstitutional because his possession of 672 grams of cocaine
was a victimless and non-violent offense. In rejecting this
argument, Justice Kennedy noted the pernicious effects of the
drug trade, including drug-related violence. 501 U.S. at 1002-
03. Here, the link between possession of the contraband images
and the abuse of children is at least as direct. Production of
the images Berger possessed required the abuse of children, and
Berger’s consumption of such material cannot be disassociated
from that abuse for purposes of the Eighth Amendment
proportionality analysis. Cf. Norris, 159 F.3d at 930 (noting,
for purposes of federal sentencing guidelines, that “the
victimization of a child depicted in pornographic materials
flows just as directly from the crime of knowingly receiving
child pornography as it does from the arguably more culpable
offenses of producing or distributing child pornography”).
¶46 Alternatively, Berger asks this court to remand his
case for an evidentiary hearing in light of Davis. He notes
that, when he was sentenced, our court’s Eighth Amendment case
law did not allow a judge to consider the individual facts and
circumstances of the crime committed, see State v. DePiano, 187
24
Ariz. 27, 29-30, 926 P.2d 494, 496-97, and Davis overruled that
holding, 206 Ariz. at 384, ¶ 34, 79 P.3d at 71.
¶47 Davis, however, does not interpret the Eighth
Amendment to generally require evidentiary hearings to allow
defendants to offer “mitigation evidence” to show that a
particular sentence is disproportionate. The specific facts and
circumstances considered relevant in Davis are those that go to
the defendant’s degree of culpability for the offense, not to a
showing that the defendant is, apart from the crime at issue, a
good person or a promising prospect for rehabilitation. Cf.
Davis, 206 Ariz. at 384, ¶ 32, 79 P.3d at 71 (citing cases from
other jurisdictions that consider defendant’s culpability and
harm caused by offense as part of proportionality analysis).
¶48 In Harmelin, the Court held that the Eighth Amendment
does not require courts to consider mitigation evidence before
imposing mandatory prison sentences, even when a mandatory life
term results. 501 U.S. at 996 (Scalia, J., announcing judgment
of the Court); id. at 1006 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and
concurring in the judgment). Justice Kennedy noted that the
Court’s Eighth Amendment decisions “reject any requirement of
individualized sentencing in noncapital cases,” and that the
Court had “never invalidated a penalty mandated by a legislature
based only on the length of a sentence, and especially with a
crime as severe as this one, [a court] should do so only in the
25
most extreme circumstance.” Id. at 1006-07 (Kennedy, J.,
concurring in part and concurring in the judgment). Davis does
not question these propositions.
¶49 Further, Berger has not identified any fact that he
might offer on remand that would alter our conclusion that his
sentences are not grossly disproportionate. At the time of his
arrest, Berger was a fifty-two-year-old high school teacher, was
married, and had no prior criminal record. These facts, which
are in the record, do not reduce his culpability. The trial
evidence showed that Berger knowingly sought and possessed
numerous items of contraband child pornography over an extended
period of time. Accordingly, considering “the specific facts
and circumstances” of Berger’s crimes only amplifies the
conclusion that he consciously sought to do exactly that which
the legislature sought to deter and punish. See Seritt v.
Alabama, 731 F.2d 728, 737 (11th Cir. 1984) (rejecting habeas
claimant’s argument for an evidentiary hearing when
circumstances of the crime were demonstrated in the record).
VI.
¶50 Penalties as severe and unforgiving as those imposed
here, as Justice Kennedy noted in Harmelin, present “a most
difficult and troubling case for any judicial officer.” 501
U.S. at 1008 (Kennedy, J., concurring in part and concurring in
the judgment). But “the fixing of prison terms for specific
26
crimes involves a substantive penological judgment that, as a
general matter, is properly within the province of legislatures,
not courts.” Id. at 998 (internal quotations omitted).
Moreover, subject to constitutional limits, “[w]e recognize
society’s strong interest in protecting children and understand
and appreciate that it is the legislature’s province to assess
the appropriate punishment for crimes against children.” Davis,
206 Ariz. at 385, ¶ 37, 79 P.3d at 72.
¶51 In light of the legislature’s intent to deter and
punish those who participate in the child pornography industry,
and Berger’s commission of twenty separate offenses, we hold
that the twenty consecutive ten-year sentences are not grossly
disproportionate to his crimes. We vacate the part of the
opinion of the court of appeals that addresses the Eighth
Amendment issue, and we affirm the sentences.
________________________________
W. Scott Bales, Justice
CONCURRING:
_______________________________________
Ruth V. McGregor, Chief Justice
_______________________________________
Michael D. Ryan, Justice
_______________________________________
Andrew D. Hurwitz, Justice
27
H U R W I T Z, Justice, concurring
¶52 I fully concur in the analysis and result reached by
the majority in this case. I write briefly in response to
Justice Berch’s eloquent concurring and dissenting opinion. As
a policy matter, there is much to commend Justice Berch’s
suggestion that the cumulative sentence imposed upon Mr. Berger
was unnecessarily harsh, and my personal inclination would be to
reach such a conclusion. As a judge, however, I cannot conclude
under the Supreme Court precedent or even under the alternative
test that Justice Berch proposes that Berger’s sentences violate
the United States Constitution.
A.
¶53 The issue in this case is whether the twenty
consecutive sentences that Berger received for twenty separate
crimes violate the cruel and unusual punishment clause of the
Eighth Amendment.6 In my view, proof of an Eighth Amendment
violation can only be premised on (a) a conclusion that a ten-
year sentence for one count of sexual exploitation of a minor
through knowing possession of child pornography itself is so
disproportionate to the crime as to be cruel and unusual, or (b)
6
This case does not require us to confront the question of
whether the Eighth Amendment can in some circumstances be
violated by consecutive sentences for crimes essentially
constituting one occurrence. Thus, for example, we need not
today decide whether similar sentences would be appropriate if
Berger downloaded the images at one sitting, or possessed a book
with twenty illegal photographs inside.
28
that even if a ten-year sentence for one count is
constitutional, twenty such consecutive sentences are not.
¶54 As Justice Berch quite correctly suggests, and as the
Supreme Court itself has admitted, the Court’s “proportionality
decisions have not been clear or consistent in all respects.”
Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 996 (1991) (Kennedy, J.,
concurring). I therefore find merit in Justice Berch’s
suggestion that objective analysis would be easier if courts
were allowed to conduct an intra- and inter-jurisdictional
analysis at the outset in order to find an inference of gross
disproportionality. However, as Justice Berch candidly admits,
the Court has expressly eschewed this very approach. Id. at
1005.
¶55 But even if we were free to follow Justice Berch’s
suggested approach, I would not conclude that an inference of
gross disproportionality can be drawn here. The initial
question is whether a ten-year sentence for one count of this
kind of sexual exploitation of a minor is itself
unconstitutional. That the Arizona penalty is purportedly the
longest in the nation does not of course, establish
disproportionality. See Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263, 281
(1980). There will always be one state with the longest
penalty, and if that were enough to establish an Eighth
Amendment violation, the result would be a revolving door under
29
which the penalty for the next state in line would then be
automatically unconstitutional. See id. at 282.
¶56 Nor can I conclude that inter-jurisdictional
comparisons demonstrate that the penalty Berger received for a
single count is disproportionate to the penalty that could be
imposed elsewhere for a single such offense. The federal
sentencing guidelines in effect when Berger was sentenced
recommended a sentence of fifty-seven to seventy-one months for
possession of one (or more) proscribed depictions, but the
governing statute allowed a sentence of up to fifteen years for
one offense.7 As Justice Berch notes, at least nine other states
allow (but do not require) a ten-year penalty, and four states
permit a greater penalty. Such is not the stuff of gross
disproportionality.
¶57 Nor does an intra-jurisdictional comparison lead to a
different result. It is tempting to compare Berger’s
accumulated consecutive sentences to the maximum sentence for
second degree murder or sexual assault. But the question, of
course, is not what a defendant who commits one murder or one
7
This range is based on an assumed violation of 18 U.S.C. §
2252(a)(2) (2000), an assumed offense conduct level of twenty-
five, U.S. Sentencing Guidelines (“USSG”) § 2G2.2 (2002), and a
criminal history category for a first-time offender, USSG Ch. 5,
pt. A, Sentencing Table. The federal guidelines today recommend
a sentence of seventy-eight to ninety-seven months for one such
offense, USSG § 2G2.2 (West, Westlaw through 2006), but the
governing statute allows a sentence of up to twenty years, 18
U.S.C. §§ 2252(b)(1) (West, Westlaw through 2006).
30
sexual assault faces as a potential sentence, but rather what
one who commits twenty such offenses faces. It cannot be
suggested that a 200-year sentence for twenty murders or twenty
rapes would be disproportionate.
¶58 As Justice Berch suggests, her real concern is not
that a defendant can receive a ten-year sentence for each
offense, or that a court can impose consecutive sentences for
multiple offenses, but rather that Arizona law requires that a
court impose consecutive ten-year sentences for each offense.
Yet, as Justice Berch correctly notes, the Supreme Court – whose
Eighth Amendment interpretations bind us – has rejected the
notion that mandatory flat sentences violate the Constitution
because they do not allow consideration of the particular
situation of the offender. Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1006-07
(Kennedy, J., concurring). Nor does Supreme Court precedent
allow us to find consecutive sentences for separate crimes
unconstitutional if the individual sentences for each crime are
not. See Lockyer v. Andrade, 538 U.S. 63, 74 n.1 (2003).
B.
¶59 I thus conclude that the majority opinion faithfully
applies the Supreme Court’s Eighth Amendment disproportionality
jurisprudence. I do so reluctantly, however. What is
troublesome here – as Justice Berch points out – is that the
punishment for Berger’s admittedly serious offenses intuitively
31
seems too long. If I were a legislator, I would be free to find
such a long sentence shocking to my conscience and vote for a
less draconian sentencing scheme. But the test for violation of
the Constitution is not my personal conscience nor whether a
sentence subjectively is bothersome to me. The Supreme Court
has held that a defendant may receive a life sentence for the
commission of three felonies, none of which in and of themselves
could result in a long term of imprisonment. Ewing v.
California, 538 U.S. 11, 30-31 (2003). If this is the case, I
cannot conclude that consecutive sentences for separate felonies
turns an otherwise legal sentence into one that violates the
Constitution.
¶60 Benjamin Cardozo long ago noted the correct role of
the judge in difficult areas such as this:
The judge, even when he is free, is still not wholly
free. He is not to innovate at pleasure. He is not a
knight-errant, roaming at will in pursuit of his own
ideal of beauty or of goodness. He is to draw his
inspiration from consecrated principles. He is not to
yield to spasmodic sentiment, to vague and unregulated
benevolence. He is to exercise a discretion informed
by tradition, methodized by analogy, disciplined by
system, and subordinated to “the primordial necessity
of order in the social life.” Wide enough in all
conscience is the field of discretion that remains.
B. Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process 141 (1921).
¶61 This is the kind of case that tests the limits of
Cardozo’s wisdom and our discipline as judges. But unless and
until the Supreme Court changes its interpretation of the Eighth
32
Amendment, I am constrained to conclude that the legislature is
empowered to require the sentences that Berger received.
__________________________________
Andrew D. Hurwitz, Justice
B E R C H, Vice Chief Justice, concurring in part and dissenting
in part
¶62 A mitigated sentence of 200 years for possession of
twenty images of child pornography, without the possibility of
pardon or early release, is extraordinarily long. While courts
must defer to the legislature in setting sentencing ranges, the
Supreme Court has recognized a “narrow proportionality
principle” inherent in the Eighth Amendment that prohibits
sentences that are “grossly disproportionate” to the crime.
Harmelin v. Michigan, 501 U.S. 957, 996-97 (1991) (Kennedy, J.,
concurring).8
¶63 The question is how to determine whether the sentence
at issue is grossly disproportionate. The Court has stated that
reviewing courts must compare the “gravity of the offense” to
the “harshness of the penalty.” Ewing v. California, 538 U.S.
11, 28 (2003) (plurality opinion). If this inquiry gives rise
8
Although substantial deference is due to legislative
judgments regarding sentencing, the notion that the legislature
may set any non-capital sentence without regard to
proportionality has garnered only two votes. See Harmelin, 501
U.S. at 994 (Scalia, J., joined by Rehnquist, C.J.); Ewing v.
California, 538 U.S. 11, 31 (2003) (Scalia, J., concurring), 32
(Thomas, J., concurring).
33
to an “inference” of gross disproportionality, the court must
then examine the punishment for similar offenses in other
jurisdictions (the inter-jurisdictional analysis) and the
punishment for other offenses in the forum jurisdiction (the
intra-jurisdictional analysis). Solem v. Helm, 463 U.S. 277,
291 (1983). The inquiry is not supposed to be subjective, yet
courts are directed not to conduct an inter- and intra-
jurisdictional analysis to assist in ascertaining whether a
sentence is too long unless they first find an “inference of
gross disproportionality,” see Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1005
(Kennedy, J., concurring), which the courts reviewing this case
have not found. My point in this opinion is merely to
demonstrate that were we able to conduct such an objective
inquiry as a part of our determination of whether a sentence
gives rise to an inference of gross disproportionality, the
analysis would demonstrate that Arizona’s sentence for this
crime is by far the longest in the nation and is more severe
than sentences imposed in Arizona for arguably more serious and
violent crimes. Such objective facts support finding an
inference of gross disproportionality.
¶64 For example, in the federal system, the sentencing
guidelines recommend a sentence of approximately five years (57-
71 months) based on the number and type of images Berger
possessed. U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual (“U.S.S.G.”) §
34
2G2.2 (Supp. 2005) & § 5A (1996).9 While the Arizona Legislature
is free to set its own sentencing ranges, of course, the federal
sentences are set by a professional Sentencing Commission, whose
opinions the federal courts have deemed entitled to “great
weight” because of the Commission’s expertise in matters of
sentencing. United States v. Hill, 48 F.3d 228, 231 (7th Cir.
1995); see also Mistretta v. United States, 488 U.S. 361, 379
(1989) (stating that Sentencing Commission is an “expert body”).
In setting sentence ranges, this congressionally established
Commission examines abundant data and consults experts in each
field. That this Commission recommends approximately five years
as an appropriate sentence for possession of twenty images
suggests that a minimum term of 200 years probably is not merely
disproportionate, but grossly disproportionate to the crime.
9
This sentence is based on an offense level of 25, which
both Justice Hurwitz and I agree is the appropriate level under
the 2002 sentencing guidelines for one possessing multiple
pornographic computer images of children under 12. See supra ¶
56 and n.7. Two recent amendments have increased the offense
level, resulting in a recommended sentence for twenty images of
about nine years (97-121 months), or, if a defendant is charged
with possessing more than 600 images, a range of eleven to
fourteen years (135-168 months). U.S.S.G. §§ 2G2.2 & 5A.
Although the federal maximum statutory sentence is, as Justice
Hurwitz correctly notes, fifteen years, Berger’s conduct would
not warrant a maximum sentence. See 18 U.S.C. § 2252 (2000).
Even if it did, fifteen years would be the total sentence for
possession of all twenty images. While the ranges and maximum
sentence have been increased to twenty years, Berger’s crimes
would fall under the 2002 version of the statute.
35
¶65 Arizona’s mandatory minimum 200-year sentence also
exceeds that imposable in any other state. See Harmelin, 501
U.S. at 1005 (Kennedy, J., concurring) (requiring examination of
sentences imposed in other jurisdictions for similar crimes to
validate an inference of gross disproportionality). It is the
unique combination of long mandatory minimum sentences, coupled
with the requirements that each image be charged separately and
that the terms be served consecutively and fully – that is,
without possibility of early release – that renders Arizona’s
sentences extraordinarily long. See A.R.S. §§ 13-3553, -604.01
(Supp. 2005). Indeed, the minimum ten-year sentence in Arizona
for possession of one image is greater than the maximum sentence
for possession of child pornography in thirty-six states and
equal to the maximum sentence in nine other states.10
Additionally, most other states permit concurrent sentences or
10
These figures are based on possession of one image, and are
based primarily on the copies of all fifty states’ child
pornography possession and sentencing statutes provided to the
court by the parties in January and February, 2006. The states
that allow maximum sentences greater than ten years for one
image – Georgia, Mississippi, Tennessee, and Utah – all have
minimum sentences of less than ten years. In those states,
moreover, sentences may be served concurrently, they need not be
served day-for-day, and probation is available. Ga. Code Ann.
§§ 16-12-100(b)(8), 42-8-34(a) (West, Westlaw through 2005 Spec.
Sess.); Miss. Code Ann. §§ 97-5-33(5), 97-5-35, 47-7-33(1)
(West, Westlaw through 2005 5th Extraordinary Sess.); Tenn. Code
Ann. §§ 39-17-1003, 40-35-111, 40-35-303(a) (West, Westlaw
through 2005 Sess.); Utah Code Ann. §§ 76-5a-3(1), 76-3-203, 77-
18-1 (West, Westlaw through 2005 2d Spec. Sess.).
36
grouping of charges. E.g., State v. Christensen, 663 N.W.2d
691, 693 (S.D. 2003) (imposing two one-year sentences, to be
served concurrently). Only Florida appears to require each
image to be a separate count, but each charge there carries a
five-year term and is probation eligible.11 Fla. Stat. Ann. §§
827.071(5), 775.082(3)(d) (term), 948.01 (probation) (West,
Westlaw through 2005 ‘B’ Sess.). In Arkansas, Berger would have
been eligible for a sentence of three to ten years, and in
Connecticut, possession of twenty images requires a sentence of
one to ten years. Ark. Code Ann. §§ 5-27-304(b), 5-4-401(a)
(West, Westlaw through 2005 Sess.); Conn. Gen. Stat. Ann. §§
53a-196e, -35a (West, Westlaw through 2006 Supp.).
¶66 While some states provide for enhanced penalties for
“second or subsequent” offenses, that term is defined as later
offenses not charged at the same time. See, e.g., Miles v.
State, 51 So. 2d 214, 215 (Miss. 1951); McGervey v. State, 958
P.2d 1203, 1207 (Nev. 1998). By that definition, Berger is a
first-time offender. In most states, Berger’s sentence would
not exceed five years, and he would also have the possibility of
probation or early release. See, e.g., Cal. Penal Code §
311.11(a) (West, Westlaw through 2006 Sess.) (up to twelve
11
Tennessee allows each image to be charged separately if
there are fewer than fifty. Tenn. Code Ann. § 39-17-1003(b).
In Utah, each minor depicted gives rise to a separate charge.
Utah Code Ann. § 76-5a-3(3).
37
months); N.M. Stat. Ann. §§ 30-6A-3(A), 31-18-15(A)(9) (West,
Westlaw through 2006 Sess.) (up to eighteen months). Thus, if
the Supreme Court’s jurisprudence permitted the court to examine
the sentences imposed in other jurisdictions for similar crimes
– the inter-jurisdictional analysis mentioned in Solem,
Harmelin, and Ewing – the analysis would support the inference
that Berger’s 200-year sentence is grossly disproportionate.
¶67 Moreover, the sentence at issue is longer than that
imposed in Arizona for many crimes involving serious violence
and physical injury to the victim. Second degree murder, for
example, like possession of child pornography, also carries a
minimum sentence of ten years, see A.R.S. § 13-710(A) (2001),
but a term imposed for a murder may be served concurrently with
sentences imposed for other crimes. Similarly, the minimum
sentence for possession of an image of child pornography is
longer than the presumptive sentence for rape or aggravated
assault. See A.R.S. §§ 13-1406(B) (2001) (seven years for
rape), 13-1204(B), -701(C)(2) (2001) (3.5 years for aggravated
assault). A presumptive sentence for possession of two images
of child pornography (thirty-four years) is harsher than the
sentences for second degree murder or sexual assault of a child
under twelve (twenty years). See A.R.S. § 13-604.01(B), (D)
(Supp. 2005). Even a mitigated sentence for possession of five
images (fifty years) amounts as a practical matter to a life
38
sentence without parole, more serious than the sentence imposed
for virtually any crime in the state. For molesting a child,
one might receive the same sentence that Berger has received for
possessing one picture.12 See A.R.S. § 13-604.01(D). Indeed,
sexual exploitation of a minor, the offense with which Berger
was charged, is the only “dangerous crime against children” that
by definition does not involve contact with any children. Yet a
defendant may easily accrue a very lengthy sentence. The
Supreme Court has said that “[i]f more serious crimes are
subject to the same penalty, or to less serious penalties, that
is some indication that the punishment at issue may be
excessive.” Solem, 463 U.S. at 291. This factor as well
indicates the extraordinary nature of the sentence in this case.
See id. at 299.13
¶68 The majority correctly observes, however, that Berger
was convicted of not one, but twenty serious felonies. Op. ¶
12
These facts might lead victims of violent crime to think
that the legislature and justice system care less about their
injuries and losses than it does about punishing those who
possess pornographic images. See United States v. Angelos, 345
F. Supp. 2d 1227, 1251 (D. Utah 2004) (“[C]rime victims expect
that the penalties the court imposes will fairly reflect the
harms that they have suffered.”), aff’d by 433 F.3d 738 (10th
Cir. 2006).
13
Terrorist co-conspirator Zacarias Moussaoui was recently
sentenced to two life sentences in prison – the equivalent of
the sentence Berger received – for Moussaoui’s involvement in
the terrorist acts that led to the deaths of nearly 3000 people
on September 11, 2001. United States v. Moussaoui, Crim. No.
01-455-A (E.D. Va. May 4, 2006).
39
25. Moreover, my colleagues note, we must look at the sentences
for the individual crimes, Op. ¶ 27, and defer to the
legislature’s requirement of mandatory sentences. Op. ¶ 32.
From this, my colleagues derive the proposition that the court
may not consider the consecutive nature of Berger’s sentences in
determining whether the total is grossly disproportionate to the
seriousness of Berger’s crimes, Op. ¶ 27, nor may we consider
the mandatory flat nature of the sentences.
¶69 I agree that the Supreme Court has implied as much
when dealing with statutes different from those now before us.
Lockyer v. Andrade, 538 U.S. 63, 74 n.1 (2003) (consecutive
sentences); Harmelin, 501 U.S. at 1006-07 (Kennedy, J.,
concurring) (mandatory sentences). But in determining whether a
total sentence is grossly disproportionate to the crime for
which it was meted out as punishment, we must deal with the
sentence imposed as a whole and not shield ourselves from the
full impact of the sentence by analyzing only one charge and
sentence. Arizona’s sentencing scheme requires very long,
mandatory sentences that must be served consecutively and fully,
with no possibility of probation, pardon, or early release.
These combined features affect the real-world sentences
defendants must serve, and we should not allow these unique
features and the resulting sentences to escape review by
focusing only on the sentence for one charge. We suggested as
40
much in State v. Davis, 206 Ariz. 377, 387-88, ¶ 47, 79 P.3d 64,
74-75 (2003).
¶70 Arizona’s sentencing scheme is unique in coupling
extraordinarily long terms with mandatory stacking requirements,
and in requiring that each sentence be fully served, without
possibility of early release. The compounding impact of this
triple whammy should not escape scrutiny. While great deference
is owed to the legislature’s choice to impose stringent
sentences, the constitution imposes on this court the obligation
to determine whether the resulting sentence is cruel and unusual
in light of the circumstances of an individual case.
¶71 The Supreme Court requires the court to measure the
gravity of the crimes for which Berger was convicted –
possession of twenty graphic images of child pornography –
against the severity of the sentence imposed. Harmelin, 501
U.S. at 1005 (Kennedy, J., concurring). In weighing the gravity
of the offenses, the court may consider the defendant’s criminal
history, see Ewing, 538 U.S. at 29 (plurality opinion), as well
as the “harm caused or threatened to the victim or society, and
the culpability of the offender.” Solem, 463 U.S. at 292.
¶72 Berger has no prior criminal record. He was convicted
of possessing twenty grossly obscene images depicting young
children engaged in lewd acts. He was not involved in making
any of the photographs and the record contains no evidence that
41
he purchased the items or intended to sell them. They appear to
be images he downloaded from the Internet. Although purchase of
such items undoubtedly drives the market for their production,
it is unclear that mere possession does so.
¶73 While the legislature may choose to punish severely
those who support the child pornography industry because of
pornography’s extremely deleterious effect on those degraded and
harmed in its making, due process notions of individualized and
appropriate sentencing require consideration of the fact that
Berger engaged in no force or violence, made no threats of force
or violence, and did not physically injure anyone. See Burns v.
United States, 287 U.S. 216, 220 (1932) (setting forth due
process requirement of individualized sentencing). Indeed,
there is no evidence that Berger has ever touched any child
improperly. That absence of direct violence affects the
assessment of society’s interest in punishing his acts so
severely. See Rummel v. Estelle, 445 U.S. 263, 275 (1980).
¶74 Although the Supreme Court has confirmed that a
limited proportionality principle inheres in the Eighth
Amendment to prevent sentences that are “grossly
disproportionate” to the crime committed, Ewing, 538 U.S. at 23
(plurality opinion), that Court has only twice struck a sentence
as being so grossly disproportionate to the crime as to violate
the Eighth Amendment. See Solem, 463 U.S. at 303; Weems v.
42
United States, 217 U.S. 349, 382 (1910). In Solem, the Court
held that imposing a life sentence for passing an “insufficient
funds” check violated the Eighth Amendment’s requirement that
sentences not be grossly disproportionate to the crime
committed. 463 U.S. at 303. In the case before us, Berger was
sentenced to 200 years – more than two and one-half lifetimes,
from birth to death – for possessing twenty lewd and obscene
photographs.
¶75 While one can rationalize that the defendant here was
convicted of twenty felonies rather than one, other
considerations mitigate the importance of that factor. Unlike
other crimes, which tend to occur in relative isolation, those
who possess pornography tend to possess more than one image.
Because possession of each image constitutes a separate crime
and the minimum sentence for each crime is ten years, the
sentences quickly mount up. Moreover, in this case, Berger had
no chance to rehabilitate between convictions because he was
convicted on all twenty counts on one occasion.
¶76 I do not condone Berger’s crimes. Child pornography
is a serious offense. See 1978 Ariz. Sess. Laws, ch. 200, § 2;
see also State v. Taylor, 160 Ariz. 415, 422, 773 P.2d 974, 981
(1989). I concur in the majority’s analysis of the crime itself
and of the legislature’s right to impose severe penalties for
it. See Op. ¶¶ 18-23. I further agree that Berger’s crimes,
43
unlike the crimes at issue in Davis, were precisely the type of
criminal acts the legislature intended to punish. 206 Ariz. at
385, ¶ 37, 79 P.3d at 72. Berger was not “swept up” in an
overly broad categorization, as was the defendant in Davis. Id.
¶77 Nonetheless, sentences must not only reflect the
seriousness of the offense and deter the defendant and others
from committing future crimes, they should also promote respect
for law. We are not asked to determine in this case whether a
sentence of ten years would ever be appropriate for possession
of a pornographic image. It might be. We are asked instead to
determine whether in this case, 200 years is just punishment for
a defendant who possessed child pornography, but directly harmed
no one. An objective examination of the 200-year sentence
reveals that it far exceeds the sentence imposed for similar
crimes in any jurisdiction and exceeds the penalties regularly
imposed in Arizona for crimes that result in serious bodily
injury or even death to victims. The sentence provides no
opportunity for rehabilitation and provides no second chance.
Instead, it imposes on the taxpayers the burden of supporting
the defendant for the rest of his life. Such a sentence seems
incompatible with “evolving standards of decency that mark the
progress of a maturing society.” Trop v. Dulles, 356 U.S. 86,
101 (1958).
¶78 The foregoing analysis would support an inference of
44
gross disproportionality, if the court had drawn such an
inference. But it didn’t. Given that result, it is difficult
to envision when the court would ever find a term of years to be
disproportionate to the gravity of the crime and the harm to the
public.14
¶79 In conclusion, I concur in the court’s statements of
the rules emanating from the Harmelin line of Supreme Court
cases and its interpretation of Davis. I also agree that
exploitation of children is a serious crime and that the
legislature has responsibility for defining crimes and setting
the sentencing ranges for those crimes. I disagree only in that
I would find that a minimum mandatory sentence of 200 years for
possession of twenty pornographic images raises an inference of
gross disproportionality that requires additional analysis
before ultimately the court determines whether the sentence is
unconstitutionally disproportionate.
_______________________________________
Rebecca White Berch, Vice Chief Justice
14
The governor generally has the power to grant pardons or
commute sentences. A.R.S. § 31-443 (2002). In this case,
however, the statute setting forth the sentence purports to
preclude that remedy. A.R.S. § 13-604.01(G) (providing that
defendant is not subject to pardon or early release). Moreover,
it would be a brave politician who ventured to reduce the
sentence of a sex offender. For those reasons, among others,
courts have a role, although a limited one, in determining the
constitutionality of sentences of terms of years.
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46