Young & Height v. United States

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DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA COURT OF APPEALS

Nos. 18-CF-0694 & 18-CF-1078

JAMES D. YOUNG & TYRONE HEIGHT, APPELLANTS,

V.

UNITED STATES, APPELLEE.

Appeals from the Superior Court of the
District of Columbia
(2014-CF1-015616 & 2014-CF1-015617)

(Hon. Milton Lee, Trial Judge)

(Argued April 28, 2022 Decided November 30, 2023)

Sam H. Zwingli, with whom Jeffrey T. Green and Kathleen Mueller were on
the brief, for appellant James D. Young.

Cecily E. Baskir for appellant Tyrone Height.

David P. Saybolt, Assistant United States Attorney, with whom Channing P.
Phillips, Acting United States Attorney (at the time of argument), and Chrisellen R.
Kolb, John P. Mannarino, and Laura Crane, Assistant United States Attorneys, were
on the brief, for appellee.

Before BLACKBURNE-RIGSBY, Chief Judge, ALIKHAN, Associate Judge, and
FISHER, Senior Judge.

BLACKBURNE-RIGSBY, Chief Judge: In these appeals, appellants James D.

Young and Tyrone Height challenge their convictions for felony murder and second-
 2

degree murder while armed and related offenses resulting from, and following, the

shooting death of Willard Shelton. They contend that the government’s evidence

against them was insufficient and they also challenge various evidentiary and

motions rulings by the trial court.

We affirm appellants’ convictions 1 and, in doing so, reject a majority of their

challenges. First, we reject appellants’ challenge to the sufficiency of the

government’s evidence, and conclude that the evidence before the trial court was

sufficient for a rational jury to convict. Second, we reject appellants’ challenge to

the trial court’s denial of their motion for a mistrial based on allegedly prejudicial

testimony introduced at trial. We conclude the trial court did not abuse its discretion

in determining that appellants were not unduly prejudiced. Third, we reject

appellants’ argument that their Sixth Amendment right to a fair trial by an impartial

jury was violated by a juror’s exposure to extrajudicial communications. Fourth, we

reject appellants’ argument that there was government misconduct during closing

1
Mr. Young and Mr. Height were convicted by a jury of a total of eleven
counts each: Robbery while Armed (D.C. Code §§ 22-2801, 22-4502);, Felony
Murder while Armed (D.C. Code §§ 22-2101, 22-4502), Murder II while Armed
(D.C. Code §§ 22-2103, 22-4502), First Degree Burglary while Armed (D.C. Code
§ 22-801(a), 22-4502), Tampering with Physical Evidence (D.C. Code § 22-723),
Unlawful Possession of a Firearm with a Prior Conviction (D.C. Code § 22-
4503(a)(1)); Obstructing Justice (D.C. Code § 22-722(a)(2)(A)), and four counts of
Possession of a Firearm During a Crime of Violence (D.C. Code § 22-4504(b))
(“PFCV”).
 3

and rebuttal argument. Fifth, we reject Mr. Height’s argument that his conviction

for unlawful possession of a firearm violated his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights,

and conclude that all elements of the offense were satisfied. Sixth, we reject

appellants’ other challenges to the trial court’s rulings concerning the redirect

examination of witness Tiera Liverpool and the trial court’s response to a jury note

received during deliberations. Finally, we reject Mr. Height’s independent

challenges to the trial court’s denial of various motions to suppress evidence as well

as the denial of a pre-trial motion to sever, and affirm the trial court’s rulings on

those motions.

We agree with appellants that certain of their convictions merge; in particular

(1) their conviction for second-degree murder while armed merges with their

conviction for felony murder while armed; (2) their conviction for felony murder

merges with the underlying felony (armed robbery); and (3) three of their four

convictions for possession of a firearm during the commission of a crime of violence

merge. However, we agree with the government that appellants’ fourth conviction

for possession of a firearm during the commission of a crime of violence does not

merge. Further, we agree with appellants that the trial court retains discretion over

how to effectuate the merger and resentence appellants on remand. Accordingly, we

grant a limited remand to address the merger question consistent with this opinion.
 4

I. Procedural and Factual Background

The following facts are undisputed. During the early morning hours of August

31, 2014, appellant James D. Young, along with another individual, shot and killed

Willard Carlos Shelton in the parking lot of the Wellington Park apartment complex

in the southeast quadrant of Washington, D.C. 2 Mr. Young and the other man

subsequently removed property from Mr. Shelton’s person and entered a nearby

apartment unit without permission.

The government indicted Mr. Young for various murder, robbery, burglary

and weapons-related offenses resulting from this series of events as well as for

obstruction of justice based on a recorded jail call that the government alleges was

Mr. Young’s effort to suppress witness testimony by ordering a hit on a key

government witness. The government also indicted appellant Tyrone Michael

2
The Wellington Park apartment complex is located on the 2500 block of
Pomeroy Road, SE, in Washington, D.C. Pomeroy Road borders the complex on
the north side whereas Elvans Road borders it on the south side. The complex
consists of multiple buildings, known by their street address as 2500, 2502, 2504,
2506, 2508, 2510, 2512, and 2514, or in shorthand by the last two digits of each
address (i.e., “12”). These buildings surround a parking lot that is accessible by car
only through a single driveway. There is one pedestrian staircase into the complex
from Elvans Road. A high wall separating it from neighboring communities and
preventing pedestrian transversal otherwise surrounds the complex.
 5

Height 3 for identical offenses related to the shooting of Mr. Shelton on the theory

that Mr. Height was present with, and an accomplice to, Mr. Young at Wellington

Park. Mr. Height was additionally indicted for obstruction of justice for allegedly

conspiring with a fellow incarcerated individual to provide a false statement to the

government exculpating him for the events at Wellington Park.

Appellants Mr. Young and Mr. Height were tried jointly before a jury. The

government’s theory at trial was that appellants robbed, assaulted, and killed Mr.

Shelton when he came to buy PCP from Mr. Young. Mr. Young, testifying in his

own defense, presented a self-defense case, arguing that Mr. Shelton was an

aggressor, high on PCP, and that he only sought to recover his own property that Mr.

Shelton possessed. Mr. Young did not directly implicate his co-defendant as a part

of his defense. Mr. Height did not put on evidence, but he argued that he was not

present for these events. The jury convicted appellants of all counts, although they

were acquitted of premeditated first-degree murder while armed and convicted

instead of second-degree murder while armed, a lesser-included offense.

3
Mr. Height’s name appears in various forms in the record. He was indicted
as “Tyrone Height” and his aliases were listed as “Mike Mike” and “Mikey.” The
Judgment and Commitment Order lists his name as “Tyrone Height.” The captions
of the official trial transcripts alternately use “Michael Hight” and “Tyrone M.
Hight.” The parties mutually agreed to use “Tyrone Michael Hight” for the jury
verdict forms. We use “Mr. Height” for consistency.
 6

II. Sufficiency of the Evidence for Felony Murder While Armed
and Second-Degree Murder While Armed

Appellants argue that the government failed to prove beyond a reasonable

doubt that they were guilty of felony murder while armed as well as second-degree

murder while armed. The felony murder charge was premised on the theory that

appellants shot and killed Mr. Shelton while committing or attempting to commit

robbery. Mr. Young separately argues that the government failed to disprove self-

defense for the charge of second-degree murder while armed. The government

argues that the evidence was sufficient to support appellants’ convictions and

disprove self-defense. We agree with the government that the evidence was

sufficient for a rational jury to convict appellants of felony murder while armed and

second-degree murder while armed and that the government disproved self-defense

as to Mr. Young.

We review challenges to the sufficiency of the evidence by viewing “the

evidence in the light most favorable to the government, giving full play to the right

of the fact-finder to determine credibility, weigh the evidence, and draw justifiable

inferences of fact, and making no distinction between direct and circumstantial

evidence.” Lucas v. United States, 240 A.3d 328, 343 (D.C. 2020) (quoting Cherry

v. District of Columbia, 164 A.3d 922, 929 (D.C. 2017)). We will affirm if, after

reviewing the evidence in the light most favorable to the government, “any rational
 7

fact-finder could have found the elements of the crime beyond a reasonable doubt.”

Id. (quoting Hernandez v. United States, 129 A.3d 914, 918 (D.C. 2016)). “[T]he

evidence in a criminal prosecution must be strong enough that a jury behaving

rationally really could find it persuasive beyond a reasonable doubt.” Rivas v. United

States, 783 A.2d 125, 134 (D.C. 2001) (en banc). “The evidence is insufficient if,

in order to convict, the jury is required to cross the bounds of permissible inference

and enter the forbidden territory of conjecture and speculation.” Id. (quoting Curry

v. United States, 520 A.2d 255, 263 (D.C. 1987)).

A rational jury could have convicted appellants of felony murder while armed

and second-degree murder while armed. Viewing the evidence in the light most

favorable to the government, as we must, the record supporting these convictions

was as follows. On the morning of August 31, 2014, Mr. Shelton placed three

unanswered calls to Mr. Young. At 6:50 a.m., as recorded by a crime camera

maintained by the D.C. Metropolitan Police Department, Mr. Shelton, in his blue

Chevrolet Trailblazer, entered the Wellington Park property.

At around 7:00 a.m., Victoria McRae, who lived at 2512, awoke to the sound

of gunshots. She went to the window and saw two men shooting at Mr. Shelton.

She saw each of the shooters with a “handgun,” but she did not see Mr. Shelton

holding a firearm or anything else. Although she did not personally know Mr.

Shelton, she recognized the two shooters from the community and identified them
 8

as “Dink” and “Mike,” nicknames for Mr. Young and Mr. Height, respectively. Ms.

McRae identified appellants twice: first, in a written statement to the Wellington

Park property manager; and second, in an interview with the Metropolitan Police

Department (“MPD”). She also testified that she witnessed Mr. Young “tak[ing]

[Mr. Shelton]’s belongings out his pockets” including “[a] wallet” and “some keys.”

Tiera Liverpool, a resident of 2514, was also a witness to the events. She was

standing in her window smoking marijuana when she saw Mr. Young, whom she

identified as Dink, and a second man interacting with a “larger man.” She knew Mr.

Young through family connections at Wellington Park. Although she did not know

the larger man by name, she had previously seen him in the Wellington Park parking

lot smoking PCP. The government contended that the second man was Mr. Height

and the larger man was Mr. Shelton. 4 Ms. Liverpool testified that she heard the

second man, Mr. Height, “arguing at Dink about telling him to check the dude’s

pockets” as if it were an attempted robbery. However, Mr. Young “didn’t want to

check his pockets, but he kept asking him where the money was at.” She then heard

the shooting and saw Mr. Young and Mr. Height approaching her building. At that

time, she saw Mr. Young with a gun. With her ears by the door, she overheard a

conversation between Mr. Young and Mr. Height during which Mr. Young said,

4
Viewing the evidence in the government’s favor, we accept the
government’s contention concerning the identities of these men.
 9

“you didn’t have to shoot him first.” and Mr. Height replied, “you should have just

checked his pockets.”

Appellants’ argument that this record is insufficient to support their

convictions is unpersuasive. Mr. Young’s argument rests on the notion that the

testimony of the government’s witnesses was not credible. However, we give “full

play to the right of the jury to determine credibility.” Walker v. United States, 167

A.3d 1191, 1201 (D.C. 2017) (quoting Gibson v. United States, 792 A.2d 1059, 1065

(D.C. 2002)). Furthermore, “the evidence need not negate every possible inference

of innocence.” Id. (internal quotation mark omitted) (quoting Timberlake v. United

States, 758 A.2d 978, 980 (D.C. 2000)).

Mr. Young further contends that the government did not “show more than

mere coincidence of time and place between the wrongful act and the death,” or that

the killing “occurred as part of the perpetuation of the crime, or in furtherance of an

attempt or purpose to commit it.” (quoting United States v. Heinlein, 490 F.2d 725,

736 (D.C. Cir. 1973) (internal quotation marks omitted)). However, based on the

testimonies of Ms. McRae and Ms. Liverpool, the jury could have concluded that

Mr. Shelton went to the parking lot to buy PCP, that Mr. Young and Mr. Height

attempted to rob Mr. Shelton, that Mr. Young and Mr. Height shot at Mr. Shelton

when he failed to give them money, and that Mr. Young went through Mr. Shelton’s

pockets and took his wallet and keys.
 10

A jury crediting the foregoing testimony supporting appellants’ guilt could

have concluded that the shooting was an outgrowth of the robbery, and not that the

robbery was secondary to the shooting. Despite Mr. Young’s contention that there

was evidence to the contrary, we do not consider whether another jury could have

reached a different outcome, only whether, in viewing the evidence in the light most

favorable to the government, there was sufficient evidence in the record for the jury

to find the elements of felony murder while armed and second-degree murder while

armed beyond a reasonable doubt. Because there was sufficient evidence in the

record for the jury to find the necessary elements, we conclude that the government

proved, beyond a reasonable doubt, that appellants were guilty of felony murder

while armed and second-degree murder while armed.

We are also unpersuaded by Mr. Young’s argument that the government failed

to disprove self-defense with respect to the charge of second-degree murder while

armed. Mr. Young is correct that “the government bears the burden of disproving

self-defense beyond a reasonable doubt.” Millhausen v. United States, 253 A.3d

565, 569 (D.C. 2021) (citing Rorie v. United States, 882 A.2d 763, 776 (D.C. 2005)).

However, this question turns on what evidence the jury chose to credit. We view

the evidence in favor of the verdict. Millhausen, 243 A.3d at 568-69. During trial,

the government elicited substantial evidence from Mr. Young that he had lied on

numerous occasions about the shooting incident—including when he was
 11

interviewed by detectives in 2014. Mr. Young also testified that it was his “natural

instinct” to lie to the police, but that he “[n]ever lied to the jury.” A jury, discrediting

Mr. Young’s testimony that Mr. Shelton instigated the shooting by attempting to

strike him with his revolver could find the government disproved self-defense.

Further, a jury that credited the government’s evidence that Mr. Young and Mr.

Height instigated the conflict and that Mr. Shelton did not brandish a gun or fire a

shot, could find that the government disproved self-defense.

III. Denial of Appellants’ Motion for a Mistrial

A. Additional Factual Background

In his opening statement, Mr. Height’s counsel asserted that Ms. McCrae

“cashed in” on the government’s provision of temporary housing with heat, water,

and air conditioning 5—paid for by the government. On cross-examination, Ms.

McCrae testified that, in 2014 and 2015, the government paid for her transportation

and food. While Ms. McCrae did not recall the amounts and timing of the payments,

appellant’s counsel noted weekly payments of about $1,000 from September 10,

2014 through November 2014, and weekly payments of about $750 from December

2014 through March 2015. Ms. McCrae also received payments in April and May

2015. According to appellant’s counsel, Ms. McCrae’s desire to move, coupled with

5
Ms. McCrae’s utilities had been shut off at the time of the shooting.
 12

the government’s financial support, undermined her credibility by giving her

“incredible motive to fabricate” her testimony.

Later, as part of its case-in-chief, the government presented the testimony of

MPD Detective James Tyler. Detective Tyler had obtained Ms. McRae’s

identification of appellants as the shooters and assisted with relocating Ms. McRae

to temporary housing. During direct examination, the following exchange occurred:

Q: Now, to your knowledge in this case, did Ms. McRae
stay in temporary housing for a relatively lengthy period
of time?
A: Yes.
Q: And why, in fact, was it that Ms. McRae was placed
into temporary housing for this extended period?
A: We learned that a possible threat on her life was –
[Counsel for Mr. Height]: Objection.
The [trial court]: Sustained. Come to the bench.
[. . .]
[Counsel for Mr. Height]: I move for mistrial, Your
Honor.
[. . .]
[Counsel for Mr. Young]: I join.

Appellants argued to the trial court that Ms. McRae was not aware of the threats and

Detective Tyler’s answer implied to the jury that appellants made the threats. In

response, the trial court pressed the government to explain the need for the testimony

regarding threats and extended housing, especially when Ms. McRae did not
 13

personally know about the threats. The government responded that because

appellants had attempted to impeach Ms. McRae’s credibility on the grounds that

she was provided temporary housing by the government, it wanted to explain to the

jury why she remained in temporary housing for an extended time. The government

ultimately yielded to the court, acquiescing that prior testimony indicating that Ms.

McRae asked to move was sufficient.

The trial court then asked appellants’ counsel why a curative instruction

would not suffice to remedy the limited testimony. In response, appellants’ counsel

stated that Detective Tyler’s response was highly inflammatory because it implied

that appellants were “somehow responsible for or connected to a threat on [Ms.]

McRae’s life” and that she was aware of the threat. Mr. Young’s counsel also

indicated that when Detective Tyler referred to a threat, counsel was looking at the

jury and “it was like somebody exploded a bomb.” The trial court noted that it was

also looking at the jury when the statement was made but did not observe the same

reaction, or at least that a reaction was not readily apparent. The trial court then

afforded appellants’ counsel and the government the opportunity to propose a

cautionary instruction via email overnight. The jury was excused and trial was then

adjourned until the next day.

Mr. Young’s counsel filed a written motion for mistrial indicating that he

believed no cautionary instruction could cure the injury. In the alternative, both
 14

defense counsel requested that the jury not be instructed so as not to highlight the

testimony any further. Before seating the jury for the day, the trial court denied the

motion for mistrial and, as requested by appellants, did not give a curative

instruction. The trial court determined that:

[t]he statement that there were possible threats against her
is not a factually inaccurate statement for much later on in
the case. The difficulty created by the information
imparted by the detective is it suggested that that may have
been the reason for the initial move, and that simply is not
an accurate reflection of the evidence in this case.

And there’s no indication that Ms. McRae was ever aware
of any threats that may have been made. And then, lastly,
there’s the concern that one might speculate that the
threats referenced by the detective may be attributable to
Mr. Young and to Mr. H[e]ight.

Certainly, the evidence in this case reflects that there were
conversations made by Mr. Young while he was
incarcerated with members of his family about Ms.
McRae. There’s nothing to suggest that Ms. McRae was
ever aware of that.

I was prepared to give a limiting instruction today to try to
cure the concerns that I’ve now outlined, it was not going
to be in line with what the [g]overnment suggested,
because the [g]overnment’s suggestion, in my view, was
just wholly incorrect.

[. . .]
 15

It’s not true as it relates to the initial move, but it certainly
is true as it relates to the issue that was raised later on, and
the reasons for the extended stay. At your request, I will
not give curative instruction, but I also will not grant a
mistrial at this time.

There was a single question asked and there was a
response by the witness. It was not highlighted. It was in
the context of a greater discussion. And to the extent that
there is any concern or prejudice that may have been
created by that singular response, the instruction, in my
view, would have addressed that in a more appropriate
fashion. But, I will defer to the defense and their position,
and simply will not give an instruction.

In addition to the trial court’s determinations, we note that Mr. Young’s presence at

the shooting was attested to by Ms. McCrae, Ms. Liverpool, and Ms. Rose Miller;

and he admitted to being at the scene as part of his self-defense claim. Mr. Height’s

presence was corroborated by evidence from a GPS monitor attached to his ankle by

a government agency which placed him at the scene. See infra “A. Denial of Pre-

Trial Motion to Suppress GPS Evidence.”

B. Analysis

Our review of the denial of a motion for a mistrial is deferential. See Trotter

v. United States, 121 A.3d 40, 53 (D.C. 2015) (“The decision whether to grant a

mistrial motion in lieu of alternative relief in response to a prejudicial development

at trial is committed to the trial court’s discretion.”); see also Bost v. United States,
 16

178 A.3d 1156, 1204 (D.C. 2018) (“A mistrial is subject to the broad discretion of

the trial court and our review is deferential.”) (brackets omitted) (citing Van Dyke v.

United States, 27 A.3d 1114, 1122 (D.C. 2011)). “We are only inclined to reverse

in extreme situations threatening a miscarriage of justice.” Holmes v. United States,

143 A.3d 60, 67-68 (D.C. 2016) (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting Gordon

v. United States, 783 A.2d 575, 583 (D.C. 2001)). To determine whether a mistrial

was necessary, we consider:

the gravity of the misconduct, the relative strength of the
government’s case, the centrality of the issue affected, and
any mitigating actions taken by the court, all while giving
due deference to the decision of the trial judge, who had
the advantage of being present not only when the alleged
misconduct occurred, but through the trial.

Trotter, 121 A.3d at 53 (quoting Bennett v. United States, 597 A.2d 24, 27 (D.C.

1991)).

We conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in determining that

these factors weigh against granting a mistrial. First, as noted by the trial court, the

alleged misconduct consisted of a single question and single response within the

context of a larger discussion that was not highlighted to the jury. Second, the

government’s case against appellants was strong, consisting of testimony from

multiple eyewitnesses, who were familiar with appellants, which placed appellants
 17

at the scene as well as other evidence. Further, Mr. Young corroborated his presence

through his own testimony and Mr. Height’s presence was corroborated by evidence

from his GPS monitor. Third, the testimony that was the basis for the motion for a

mistrial was not about a central issue at trial. Although Ms. McRae’s credibility was

important to the government’s case, the jury had other evidence before it supporting

her reasonable fear of retaliation, which was relevant to explain the reason she

accepted housing assistance. See Mercer v. United States, 724 A.2d 1176, 1191-94

(D.C. 1999) (holding that the trial court did not err in admitting evidence that a

witness entered the witness protection program due to an alleged threat on her life

on direct examination in anticipation of defense counsel’s suggestion that the

witness entered witness protection program for financial gain). Fourth, the trial

court’s decision to not provide a curative instruction abided by appellants’ counsels’

request so that Detective Tyler’s response would not be further highlighted. The

decision not to grant a mistrial was a reasonable exercise of discretion, where the

judge noted he thought an instruction would resolve the issue but deferred in

consideration of appellants’ concerns.

Appellants raise for the first time on appeal an additional argument that they

were prejudiced by the admission of this testimony because it allowed the

government to argue in rebuttal that Ms. McRae received financial assistance from

the government in response to her security concerns. Appellants take issue with
 18

statements such as “Ms. McRae received financial assistance because she had

security concerns, isn’t that reasonable?” and “Was putting her into temporary

housing too much? Keep in mind that there’s evidence that his client . . . was talking

about silencing Ms. McRae.” Appellants did not object to these statements at trial,

therefore we review to determine whether there was plain error, which is “(1) error,

(2) that is plain, (3) that affects substantial rights, and (4) that seriously affects the

fairness, integrity or public reputation of judicial proceedings.” Otts v. United

States, 952 A.2d 156, 161 (D.C. 2007) (quoting Marquez v. United States, 903 A.2d

815, 817 (D.C. 2006)). Allegations that the government made improper closing

statements require us to “first determine whether the challenged statements . . .

viewed in context, were, in fact, improper.” Bost, 178 A.3d at 1190. When

reviewing the government’s closing statements for plain error, “we reserve reversal

to particularly egregious situations.” Atkins v. United States, 290 A.3d 474, 485

(D.C. 2023) (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting Portillo v. United States, 62

A.3d 1243, 1257 (D.C. 2013)).

The government’s statements in rebuttal do not constitute reversible error

because they were not improper; therefore, there was no error, let alone plain error.

First, the government’s statements were supported by the record. There was

evidence in the record, including testimony from Ms. McRae that she wanted to

move because she was concerned about her safety as a result of identifying Mr.
 19

Young and Mr. Height. Likewise, there was evidence in the record that Ms. McRae

remained in temporary housing for an extended period of time because of the

government’s knowledge of threats against her. Accordingly, because the

government’s statements were supported by the record and were relevant to support

Ms. McCrae’s credibility, they were not improper.

Second, the government’s statements were not otherwise misleading. When

reviewing the government’s statements during closing arguments, the “court should

not lightly infer that a prosecutor intends an ambiguous remark to have its most

damaging meaning, or that a jury, sitting through lengthy exhortation, will draw that

meaning from the plethora of less damaging interpretations.” Ashby v. United States,

199 A.3d 634, 666 (D.C. 2019) (quoting Perez v. United States, 968 A.2d 39, 80

(D.C. 2009)). Likewise, any concern over an arguable overstatement will be

remedied by an instruction to the jury that their recollection controls. Dixon v.

United States, 565 A.2d 72, 79 (D.C. 1989) (“The judge’s routine instruction to the

jurors that their recollection controls was, in our view, sufficient to remedy any

arguable overstatement.”); Shepherd v. United States, 144 A.3d 554, 563 (D.C.

2016) (“The jury is presumed, unless the contrary appears, to follow the instructions,

and we find nothing in the record to suggest the jury did not do so.” (quoting Sherrod

v. United States, 478 A.2d 644, 659 (D.C. 1984))); see Dixon, 565 A.2d at 79 n.12
 20

(“Indeed, the prosecutor himself reminded the jurors during his rebuttal argument of

their primacy with respect to recollection of the testimony.”).

Here, read in context, the government’s rebuttal statement does not unfairly

conflate the issues of why Ms. McRae initially moved and why the government

provided her with extended housing assistance. Additionally, the government’s

rebuttal statement did not improperly suggest that Ms. McRae initially wanted to

move due to her knowledge of the threats against her, which might be unduly

suggestive with respect to the obstruction of justice charge against Mr. Young. Mr.

Height contends in his supplemental brief that, even though he did not do anything

to threaten McCrae’s safety, he may have been prejudiced by Detective Tyler’s

statements as they were the last thing the jury heard before being dismissed for the

day. He argues that, in light of his obstruction of justice charge, the jury could have

interpreted Detective Tyler’s statements to mean that he was involved in the threat

to Ms. McRae. However, any such potential prejudice was not significant enough

to warrant reversal because, while the testimony could have suggested that he

threatened Ms. McCrae, the trial court deferred to appellants’ counsel’s request that

no cautionary instruction be given so as not to highlight the testimony any further. 6

6
The court gave appellants counsel and the prosecution the opportunity to
propose cautionary instructions via email.
 21

We conclude that there was no overstatement of the evidence and that both

the trial judge and the government reminded the jurors that their recollection

controlled. The trial court determined that there was nothing to suggest that Ms.

McCrae was aware of any threats against her from either appellant, Detective Tyler’s

statement was not highlighted and was in the context of a greater discussion, and no

curative instruction was given because of the defense’s position—despite the court’s

assessment that an instruction would have been more appropriate. All together, we

view this as sufficient to conclude that the trial court did not commit plain error when

it failed to intervene in the prosecutor’s argument sua sponte.

IV. Motion to Strike Juror 534

A. Additional Factual Background

During the trial, on March 19, 2018, the Deputy Chief of Security for the

Superior Court (“Deputy Chief”) notified the trial judge that she had been

approached by Juror 534 after church service the prior day. The juror had

approached the Deputy Chief because she “was scared” as a result of a conversation

she overheard in the courthouse between an audience member and court security. In

response, the trial court conducted a voir dire of Juror 534, with counsel for all

parties present.

Juror 534 identified two issues of concern. First, she had overheard a member

of the audience having a conversation with court security while she was getting water
 22

for another juror. Juror 534 paraphrased the audience member’s comment to court

security twice. She first characterized the gentleman as saying, “[W]ell, he let her

go; nobody gives an F about her; she can choke and die.” Later, she paraphrased it

as, “I was in there coughing and they didn’t offer me no F-ing water; nobody gives

an F about them; they sitting in there listening to these lies.” The juror described

court security as “out there, basically, like, kiki-ing. And I’m like, you’re having

conversations with them, and I felt uneasy.” The juror was alone at the time and did

not believe the comment was directed at her, but, rather, at the jury generally.

Second, the juror felt like audience members were “watching” the jury as they left

the building. She did not report any contact between the audience and other

members of the jury. 7

The court determined—and the juror agreed—that none of the incidents were

“connected to Mr. H[e]ight or Mr. Young.” In response to the court’s probing

questions about her ability to remain impartial, the juror said that she “prayed about

it” and believed that the incidents would not impact her ability to be fair and

impartial “at all.” After the court had its colloquy with Juror 534, the judge offered

7
The juror also described an incident involving a note left on her car while it
was parked at a store near her home. The trial judge’s only finding relating to the
note was that it was not connected to appellants. From the record, it appears to have
been an attempt by an unrelated third party to strike up a romantic relationship with
the juror.
 23

counsel the opportunity to question her. The government had no questions. Counsel

for both Mr. Young and Mr. Height questioned the juror about her concerns.

Following the colloquies, counsel for Mr. Young and Mr. Height expressed

concern about Juror 534 remaining on the panel. Counsel for Mr. Height observed

that it was “too great a risk . . . for her to remain on the jury,” that she was “biased,”

and her exposure to these statements “taint[ed] her ability to be fair and impartial.”

Counsel for Mr. Young also described her as “tainted” and did not think “she [could]

be fair and impartial.” Counsels for Mr. Young and Mr. Height moved to strike

Juror 534. In addition to saying that Juror 534 was not tainted, the government

expressed concerns that if the court struck the juror, it would open an avenue for the

defense to “force a mistrial by allowing this type of behavior to continue.”

The trial court, relying on this court’s decisions in Richardson v. United States

and Al-Mahdi v. United States, found that the juror could remain impartial and

denied the motion to strike. 893 A.2d 590, 595, 598 (D.C. 2006) (no abuse of

discretion to deny mistrial after jurors reported “uncomfortable” and “deliberate”

eye contact from defense witnesses); 867 A.2d 1011, 1018-20 (D.C. 2005) (no abuse

of discretion to deny mistrial where juror was approached at a bus stop by a young
 24

family member of the defendant; juror reported being “really scared” but overcame

that fear after prayer). 8

B. Analysis

Appellants argue that the trial court’s failure to strike Juror 534 violated their

Sixth Amendment right to a trial by an impartial jury. Appellants contend that what

the juror experienced in the instant case was “more severe” than in Richardson and

Al-Mahdi. First, they note that the jurors in Richardson described the eye contact as

non-threatening. Second, they argue that direct contact with a child, as in Al-Mahdi,

is inherently less threatening than overhearing negative comments from an adult

audience member. Third, they note that Juror 534 testified to being “frightened” and

that the juror modified her behavior by arranging alternate transportation and

approaching courthouse security at church, which showed the strength of her fear.

Fourth, they contend that because appellants faced obstruction charges, the juror’s

experience meant “she could [not] fairly evaluate the obstruction charge.” 9 Fifth,

8
While these parentheticals refer to a mistrial, in our present case, no mistrial
would have been necessary because the jury had not yet begun deliberating and the
ameliorative action would have been to replace the juror with an alternate, if
necessary.
9
In his original brief Mr. Young argues that the juror made claims regarding
witness intimidation, which also escalated the nature of the juror’s taint. However,
as the government notes, only the Deputy Chief’s second-hand account mentioned
witness intimidation.
 25

they argue that the court failed to consider all the relevant circumstances and merely

credited the juror’s assurances that she could remain impartial.

The government argues that the court did not abuse its discretion when it

declined to dismiss the juror after a “careful, thorough, and probing” examination.

The government notes that the court stressed to the juror that there was no connection

between appellants and the comment outside the courtroom. The government also

notes that, crediting the juror’s statements that she did not speak with other jurors

about her concerns, the trial court concluded that the information did not reach the

rest of the jury, so the possibility of taint did not extend beyond Juror 534. The

government further argues that the court’s investigation supported the finding that

the juror could remain fair and impartial and that “potential . . . prejudice was

vitiated by the court’s limiting instruction and the court’s finding that the juror had

overcome her fear.” Finally, the government argues that under Tann v. United

States, 127 A.3d 400, 471 (D.C. 2015), an obstruction charge does not “render the

court’s careful inquiry and findings insufficient.”

We review a trial court’s determination of juror bias for abuse of discretion.

Hill v. United States, 622 A.2d 680, 683-84 (D.C. 1993) (“[A]ppellant’s burden is

not light . . . , ‘following a proper hearing, the determination of juror bias or

prejudice lies particularly within the discretion of the trial court, reversible only for

a clear abuse of discretion . . . .’” (brackets omitted) (quoting Leeper v. United
 26

States, 579 A.2d 695, 698 (D.C. 1990))). The remedy for a claim of juror bias is “a

hearing to determine whether the allegation of bias has merit.” Richardson, 893

A.2d at 596 (quoting Al-Mahdi, 867 A.2d at 1018). The allegation is subject to a

burden shifting analysis. Headspeth v. United States, 285 A.3d 1236, 1242 (D.C.

2022). The defendant has the initial burden of establishing “substantial likelihood

of actual prejudice from the unauthorized contact.” Al-Mahdi, 867 A.2d at 1018

(quoting Hill, 622 A.2d at 684). If the defendant makes a prima facie showing of

bias, the burden shifts to the government to show that the “contact with extraneous

information was harmless.” Id. at 1019. Relevant factors “includ[e] the nature of

the communication, the length of the contact, the possibility of removing juror taint

by a limiting instruction, and the impact of the communication on both the juror

involved and the rest of the jury.” Jackson v. United States, 97 A.3d 80, 84 (D.C.

2014) (quoting Al-Mahdi, 867 A.2d at 1019). Failure to strike a biased juror

“constitute[s a] structural error requiring reversal.” Johnson v. United States, 701

A.2d 1085, 1092 (D.C. 1997); Poth v. United States, 150 A.3d 784, 789 (D.C. 2016).

Here, appellants failed to carry their initial burden to show substantial

likelihood of actual bias. As in Al-Mahdi, Juror 534 reported that she was initially

scared but, through prayer and reflection, was able to overcome that fear. Further—

in contrast to Al-Mahdi—the juror here merely overheard a conversation, which did

not appear to be directed at the juror herself, whereas in Al-Mahdi, the juror was
 27

directly confronted by a member of the defendant’s family. In order to conclude

there was an abuse of discretion for failure to strike a juror, this court has required

more than what the record shows in the instant case. See, e.g., Hill, 622 A.2d at

685-686 (reversing trial court after juror visited scene to “draw his own conclusion”

about “important, even central” evidence; concluding that the juror had “declared

himself of two minds”) (brackets omitted); Johnson, 701 A.2d at 1091 (finding juror

was biased due to friendship with a close friend of the victim’s family). Appellants’

argument that the court did not take into account the relevant circumstances lacks

merit; the court was careful and probing in addressing each of the Al-Mahdi factors,

which take into account circumstances beyond just the juror’s declaration of

impartiality. Accordingly, there was no abuse of discretion in allowing Juror 534 to

remain empaneled.

V. Allegations of Prosecutorial Misconduct

A. Unpreserved Challenges to the Prosecutor’s Statements

For the first time on appeal, appellants raise several claims of prosecutorial

misconduct which they contend warrant reversal. We review allegations of

prosecutorial misconduct not first raised before the trial court for plain error. Wills

v. United States, 147 A.3d 761, 767 (D.C. 2016). As previously stated, under plain

error review, an appellant is required to show that a trial court’s allowance of

evidence was “(1) error, (2) that is plain, (3) that affects substantial rights.” Otts,
 28

952 A.2d at 161 (quoting Marquez, 903 A.2d at 817). An error is plain when it is

“clear or obvious, rather than subject to reasonable dispute” under current law. In

re Taylor, 73 A.3d 85, 99 (D.C. 2013) (quoting Puckett v. United States, 556 U.S.

129, 135 (2009)). “If all three [mentioned] conditions are met, an appellate court

may then exercise its discretion to notice a forfeited error, but only if (4) the error

seriously affects the fairness, integrity, or public reputation of judicial proceedings.”

Portillo v. United States, 62 A.3d 1243, 1258 n.17 (D.C. 2013) (quoting Thomas v.

United States, 914 A.2d 1, 8 (D.C. 2006)).

When we evaluate claims of prosecutorial error, particularly to challenged

statements from the prosecutor, we first determine whether the statements were

improper. Bost, 178 A.3d at 1190. If error has occurred, then we consider whether

“substantial prejudice” resulted. Powell v. United States, 455 A.2d 405, 411 (D.C.

1982). The determinative factors for assessing whether there has been substantial

prejudice include “the closeness of the case, the centrality of the issue affected by

the error, and the steps taken to mitigate the effects of the error.” Id. See Atkins,

290 A.3d at 485 (In a plain error posture, we reserve reversal “to particularly

egregious situations,” leaving us to determine if a failure to cure allegedly improper

comments “was ‘so clearly prejudicial to substantial rights as to jeopardize the very

fairness and integrity of the trial.’” (quoting Portillo, 62 A.3d at 1257 and Andrade
 29

v. United States, 88 A.3d 134, 140 (D.C. 2014) (quoting Ball v. United States, 26

A.3d 764, 772 (D.C. 2011)).

1. Prosecutor’s Statements During Initial Closing Argument

Appellants argue that during closing argument the government improperly

asserted that Mr. Young had testified that he had an inclination to lie. They assert

that, to the contrary, Mr. Young only testified that it had been his “natural instinct”

to lie to the police officers when he was interviewed by detectives in 2014, but that

he had “never lied to the jury.”

During trial, Mr. Young testified that he was untruthful when interviewed by

police when he stated:

Me knowing that I took a life or life got tooken (sic) and I
was responsible for it, I didn’t want to tell the truth. I
didn’t want to. My natural instinct was to – because the
police was saying stuff like if you know who killed this
guy going to get 50 years and me knowing what’s going
on, I wasn’t trying to tell the truth. It was just my natural
instincts.

Mr. Young also affirmatively responded, “Yes, it was” to his attorney’s question

about it being his natural instinct to lie in the interview. During cross-examination,

the government asked Mr. Young if he would also lie to the jury given his admission

to lying numerous times before. He responded that he was no longer desperate, that

his testimony was under oath, and that he was not trying to make things worse.
 30

Specifically, he testified, “I never lied to the jury. None of them”; “Never lied to the

jury, but I lied before because it’s my life and just natural instincts is just not say I

did it.” Mr. Young also admitted to lying in a letter to a judge regarding the case.

The prosecution’s closing statements highlighted Mr. Young’s admission to

previously lying, stating:

Mr. Young, for his part, made statements to the police in a
desperate attempt to try to talk his way out of it. You heard
what he said, his natural inclination was to lie. He said, I
thought I could talk myself out of it. Talk my way out of
the case against him.

[. . .]

Consider his motive. He’s facing a serious charge in this
case. He told you that he would say anything to try to get
out from underneath this case. He told you that his natural
inclination was to lie. Is that somebody whose testimony
that you’re going to credit? Is that somebody that you
would believe?

[. . .]

Ladies and gentlemen, the government is not asking you
to sponsor James Young’s testimony during trial,
somebody who admitted on the stand that his natural
instinct is to lie, somebody who admitted that he thinks he
can talk his way out of things. But that’s what the defense
is asking you to do. That's desperate, ladies and gentlemen.
 31

The prosecutor is “entitled to make reasonable comments on the evidence and

[urge] such inferences from the testimony as will support his theory of the case.”

Atkins, 290 A.3d at 484 (alteration in original) (quoting Irby v. United States, 464 A.

2d 136, 140 (D.C. 1983)). When understood in context, the prosecutor’s statements

that Mr. Young had an inclination to lie were limited to describing the circumstances

in which Mr. Young had acknowledged he lied to officers in order to avoid

prosecution. As such, the prosecutor’s statements were not improper because the

prosecutor did not misstate or mischaracterize evidence. Shepherd, 144 A.3d at

561-64 (discussing how the misstatement of evidence is improper); Coreas v. United

States, 565 A.2d 594, 602 (D.C. 1989) (“The prosecutor will exceed the line of

permissible comment on the evidence by misstating or mischaracterizing the

evidence.”). Likewise, the prosecutor’s statements were not improper because the

statements did not engage in impermissible speculation or argue facts not in

evidence. Matthews v. United States, 13 A.3d 1181, 1189 (D.C. 2011) (“The

prosecution’s theory is thus supported by rational inferences from the evidence and

did not extend into ‘impermissible speculation.’” (quoting Clayborne v. United

States, 751 A. 2d 956, 969 (D.C. 2000))); cf. Lee v. United States, 668 A.2d 822,

830 (D.C. 1995) (“We therefore conclude that the prosecutor argued facts not in

evidence, and that the opening of his rebuttal argument was improper.”). Because
 32

the prosecutor’s statements during closing were not improper, it was not error, nor

plain error, for the trial court to permit them.

2. Prosecutor’s Statements During Rebuttal Argument

Appellants argue that the prosecutor injected his personal evaluations and

opinions about Mr. Young’s credibility when he described Mr. Young’s self-defense

theory, along with all of Mr. Young’s other testimony, as “self-serving.” Appellants

highlight the specific statement: “And then Mr. Young gets on the stand and makes

these self-serving statements about how it was self-defense and tries to match it up

with all the evidence that’s been introduced, all the evidence that he’s heard.” 10

Appellants suggest that the prosecution’s rebuttal comments “inhibited” the jury’s

ability to consider the evidence Mr. Young presented. We have held that “[c]ounsel

may not express a personal opinion as to a witness’s credibility or veracity because

[i]t is for the jury to decide whether a witness is truthful and an attorney may not

inject personal evaluations and opinions as to a witness’[s] veracity.” Andrade, 88

A.3d at 140 (second and third alterations in original) (internal quotation marks

omitted) (quoting Diaz v. United States, 716 A.2d 173, 179 (D.C. 1998)). However,

this comment by the prosecution does not amount to an expression of opinion

regarding Mr. Young’s truthfulness. Considering this comment in its full context,

10
Appellant did not object to this statement at trial, so we review for plain
error. Otts, 952 A.2d at 161.
 33

the prosecution later clarified that Mr. Young, on three separate occasions, stated

that Mr. Shelton was not shooting. There was additional testimony by Ms. McRae

that Mr. Shelton did not have a gun, and Ms. Liverpool, before the grand jury, said

she did not see Mr. Shelton with a gun. Accordingly, in this context, the prosecutor’s

statement was reasonable as it was based on evidence that contradicted the self-

defense theory, and not just a personal opinion regarding Mr. Young’s credibility.

B. Preserved Objections to the Prosecutor’s Statements

Appellants argue that the prosecutor inappropriately displayed a photograph

of Mr. Shelton and his wife, previously admitted into evidence, while playing audio

of a phone call Mr. Young made to his mother purportedly talking about Mr. Shelton

during rebuttal. Appellants allege that this display inflamed the jury’s emotions

because it was a “sympathetic photograph” of Mr. Shelton. 11 The government

contends that displaying the photograph was not misconduct because it was being

used to place the phone call in context. Alternatively, the government argues that,

if there were misconduct, appellants cannot demonstrate “substantial prejudice”

11
Mr. Height’s trial counsel objected to the photo being displayed arguing it
was being done to inflame the passions of the jury. He also renewed a motion for
severance. The trial court ordered the prosecution to take the photo down and move
on, and denied Mr. Height’s renewed motion for severance. Neither appellant asked
for a curative instruction.
 34

because the case against Mr. Young was strong and the trial court instructed the jury

that arguments by the lawyers are not evidence.

We need not decide whether the trial court erred in permitting the photograph

to be shown to the jury because appellants have not established that they were

substantially prejudiced. See Freeman v. United States, 689 A.2d 575, 586 (D.C.

1997) (resolving a claim of prosecutorial error on substantial prejudice). Even if the

sole purpose behind showing the photograph was to elicit sympathy from the jury—

as opposed to contextualizing the audio being played—it is not plausible that the

photograph “substantially swayed” the outcome of trial. First, the photograph was

not central to appellants’ guilt or innocence, nor was it graphic or inflammatory, and

the trial court promptly ordered its removal after sustaining Mr. Height’s objection.

Cf. Chatmon v. United States, 801 A.2d 92, 101 (D.C. 2002) (use of “gory” pictures

that caused jurors to “divert their eyes”). Next, the government’s evidence against

appellants was formidable, resting largely on the credibility of several witnesses, and

it is unlikely that the photograph played any considerable role in determining which

statements were credited or rejected. Finally, appellants declined to ask for a

curative instruction after the objection was sustained, suggesting that they did not

view the photograph as having a serious risk of swaying the verdict. Accordingly,

any resulting error was harmless.
 35

Appellants also challenge the propriety of the prosecutor’s comment on the

audio of a call during which Mr. Young complained that Mr. Height was putting the

“bones” on him. The prosecutor questioned, “Whose bones could [Mr. Young] be

referring to, ladies and gentlemen? William Shelton’s bones.” Because appellants

raised an objection to this statement, we review for abuse of discretion. Robinson v.

United States, 50 A.3d 508, 530 (D.C. 2012) (“In considering claims of improper

argument, ‘it is our function to review the record for legal error or abuse of discretion

by the trial judge, not by counsel.’” (quoting Gilliam v. United States, 46 A.3d 360,

366 (D.C. 2012))). The prosecutor’s statement was reasonable as it was based on

the audio and the government’s evidence that Mr. Young killed Mr. Shelton. See

Matthews, 13 A.3d at 1189 n.7 (affirming that the government is permitted to discuss

its theory of the crime during closing by use of inferences from evidence). Thus,

there was no abuse of discretion by the court in allowing the statements during

closing.

VI. Knowledge of Prohibited Status as an Element of
Unlawful Possession of Firearm Charge

Mr. Height argues that his conviction for unlawful possession of a firearm

under D.C. Code § 22-4503 violated his Fifth and Sixth Amendment rights. He

contends that the indictment failed to allege an element of the offense: his knowledge
 36

of his prior conviction for a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding

one year. Mr. Height acknowledges his claim is subject to a plain error review.

In our recent decision in Atkins, 290 A.3d 474, we denied a plain error

challenge to a conviction under § 22-4503 where, “[a]ssuming without deciding the

District’s statute plainly requires such a [showing of knowledge] and a

corresponding instruction,” the appellant “d[id] not sufficiently dispute his felony

status and d[id] not proffer representations that would support his position that he

was unaware of his felony status at the time of the charged incident.” Atkins, 290

A.3d at 481-82. We further deemed it relevant whether appellant stipulated to a

felony conviction at trial. Id. at 482. The same considerations are present here.

Even assuming we should interpret the felon-in-possession statute as Mr. Height

urges, Mr. Height stipulated at trial that prior to the date of the offense he “had been

convicted of a crime punishable by imprisonment for a term exceeding one year.”

Therefore, the knowledge element of the statute would be satisfied; there is no

dispute over whether Mr. Height was “unaware of his felony status.” Id. Mr. Height

offers no reason for us to disregard this stipulation and its consequences. Instead,

he rests solely on legal arguments concerning how to interpret § 22-4503. However,

even under his preferred reading, there was still sufficient evidence of this mens rea

element to convict and, therefore, there was no plain error under Atkins that compels

reversal. See Greer v. United States, 141 S. Ct. 2090, 2099-2100 (2021) (holding
 37

that the failure to instruct a jury as to the mens rea element does not constitute a

structural error that warrants automatic reversal). Accordingly, we affirm Mr.

Height’s conviction for unlawful possession of a firearm. 12

VII. Other Joint Challenges Raised

A. Scope of the Government’s Redirect Examination of
Witness Tiera Liverpool

1. Additional Factual Background

Ms. Liverpool testified during trial pursuant to an immunity letter provided

by the government shielding her from prosecution for perjury or obstruction of

justice based on her testimony before the grand jury. 13 However, she could be

prosecuted if she lied at trial.

Before the grand jury, Ms. Liverpool testified that, prior to the shooting, the

second man had told Mr. Young to check Mr. Shelton’s pockets, and that Mr. Young

“didn’t want to check his pockets, but he kept asking him where the money was at

12
Mr. Height failed to make an adequate showing under Atkins. Therefore,
we decline to reach his further arguments about whether § 22-4503 contains a mens
rea element requiring proof that he knew of his prior conviction.
13
We walk through the grand jury testimony introduced during the trial for
the sole purpose of determining whether the trial court correctly permitted the
government to ask Ms. Liverpool about Gooney Mooney on redirect. Neither Mr.
Young nor Mr. Height has raised any challenge on appeal to the trial court’s
admission of this grand jury testimony. Therefore, we consider any evidentiary
challenges waived.
 38

. . . [in] a more demanding tone.” She testified that she believed Mr. Shelton was

present to buy drugs, but Mr. Shelton was telling Mr. Young he did not have any

money. She then testified that it seemed that Mr. Young and Mr. Height were trying

to rob Mr. Shelton based on the argument between the men over money. She

testified that the verbal exchange escalated.

Ms. Liverpool further testified that on the morning of August 31, 2014, she

heard more than five gunshots while smoking in her apartment window, which faced

the front side of the apartment building. She implicated two men in the shooting,

including Mr. Young, whom she identified by name, and said was holding a gun.

She testified that when the two men entered the building, she heard them speaking

in the hallway. She heard Mr. Young say, “you didn’t have to shoot him first,” to

which the other man replied, “you should have just checked his pockets.” She also

testified that she saw Mr. Young with a gun and that Rose Miller’s apartment was

“the only place you can go in that building” because the “building has no outlets[.]”.

At trial, Ms. Liverpool recanted almost all of her grand jury testimony, instead

testifying that she saw two men enter her building after the shooting and retracting

her identification of Mr. Young. The government impeached Ms. Liverpool

repeatedly with her grand jury testimony. Ms. Liverpool further testified that she

lied before the grand jury because she felt pressure from “somewhere” to do so and

someone told her what to say at the time. When asked why her testimony changed,
 39

she stated: “It changed because I had to come to a conclusion and just tell the truth

about what I seen, which I seen two males and that was it. But, other than that, it

was told to me. So, that’s why I said what I had said.” Ms. Liverpool admitted on

the witness stand that people had contacted her after her grand jury appearance and

she was getting pressure from the neighborhood. 14 She testified that the pressure

she was receiving occurred as recently as the week before her trial testimony.

On cross-examination, appellants asked Ms. Liverpool about what she did or

did not witness. She testified that she did not see Mr. Young on August 31, 2014,

did not see him shoot anyone, and did not hear his voice after the shooting regarding

checking Mr. Shelton’s pockets.

On re-direct the prosecution sought to ask Ms. Liverpool about “Gooney

Mooney,” a person Ms. Liverpool previously told the government was regularly

going to the trial (allegedly on behalf of Mr. Young) and communicating with her at

her place of work. 15 The prosecution expected that Ms. Liverpool would lie about

14
The trial court gave a curative instruction to the jury regarding pressure
from people in the neighborhood. The trial court stated, “Also, you’ve heard
evidence that maybe Ms. Liverpool felt some pressure from people in the
neighborhood; you may not attribute that to Mr. Young or to Mr. H[e]ight. There is
no information that supports they’re responsible for that, and you may not infer that
in any way, shape or form.”
15
The trial court barred the government from introducing evidence to the jury
suggesting a connection between Gooney Money and appellants.
 40

Gooney Mooney attending trial and it would then call a police officer to impeach

her and testify that Gooney Mooney had been attending. Mr. Young’s counsel

objected to the questioning as outside the scope of cross-examination because

counsel “never asked her anything about talking to anybody since she started

testifying.” Mr. Height’s counsel separately vocalized a concern about how the

potential witness tampering would have a “spillover effect” on Mr. Height, who was

not connected to Gooney Money.

The court overruled appellants’ objection and permitted the government’s

inquiry. The court opined it was appropriate in light of Ms. Liverpool’s change in

position at trial in comparison to her grand jury testimony. On re-direct, Ms.

Liverpool testified that she worked with Gooney Mooney and that he talked to her

about her testimony, but she denied that Gooney Mooney had been attending trial.

Appellants did not request to re-cross-examine Ms. Liverpool.

2. Analysis

Appellants argue on appeal that the trial court abused its discretion in allowing

the prosecution to ask Ms. Liverpool about Gooney Mooney on re-direct because it

exceeded the scope of cross-examination. We conclude that the trial court erred in

permitting the line of inquiry into Gooney Mooney on re-direct because it was
 41

outside the scope of cross-examination. 16 However, the error was ultimately

harmless.

“[T]he scope of the redirect examination is limited to matters which were first

raised on cross-examination, to which the opposing party is merely responding.”

Green v. United States, 209 A.3d 738, 741 (D.C. 2019) (quoting Singletary v. United

States, 383 A. 2d 1064, 1073 (D.C. 1978)). “It may therefore explain, avoid, or

qualify the new substantive facts or impeachment matters elicited by the cross

examiner.” Rose v. United States, 879 A.2d 986, 993 n.3 (D.C. 2005) (internal

quotation mark omitted) (quoting Brown v. United States, 763 A.2d 1137, 1140

(D.C. 2000)). “The scope of redirect examination rests within the sound discretion

of the trial court and will not be reversed absent a showing of clear abuse.” Harrison

16
We summarily deny Mr. Young’s argument that his Sixth Amendment
Confrontation Clause rights were violated because he was not able to re-cross Ms.
Liverpool on the “new issues” raised during the redirect examination. Assuming
arguendo that the government’s redirect raised a new issue, which we doubt, Mr.
Young failed to preserve this issue because he did not seek to re-cross Ms. Liverpool
at trial. Tyer v. United States, 912 A.2d 1150, 1158 n.6 (D.C. 2006) (“[T]he trial
court cannot be faulted for denying a request that was never made.”); see id.
(concluding that appellant preserved the issue of the denial of a request to re-cross
for appeal despite counsel’s failure to request permission to re-cross at trial only
because trial counsel later moved to strike the testimony from the record as
inadmissible). We also decline to review appellants’ Sixth Amendment argument
as cursory. Wagner v. Georgetown Univ. Med. Ctr., 768 A.2d 546, 554 n.9 (D.C.
2001) (“It is not enough merely to mention a possible argument in the most skeletal
way, leaving the court to do counsel’s work, create the ossature for the argument,
and put flesh on its bones.”) (quoting United States v. Zannino, 895 F.2d 1, 16 (1st
Cir. 1990))).
 42

v. United States, 60 A.3d 1155, 1168 (D.C. 2012) (quoting Hairston v. United States,

467 A. 2d 1097, 1103 (D.C. 1985))

The trial court erred in allowing the government to redirect Ms. Liverpool

with questions about Gooney Mooney. The government was not surprised by the

change in her testimony and had the opportunity, on direct examination, to elicit the

testimony about Gooney Mooney to support its explanation for why Ms. Liverpool’s

testimony changed at trial. Further, neither appellant raised the issue on cross-

examination. See Brown, 763 A.2d at 1140 (“[R]edirect examination is limited to

matters which were first raised on cross-examination, to which the opposing party is

merely responding on direct.” (alteration in original) (quoting Dobson v. United

States, 426 A.2d 361, 365 (D.C. 1981))). However, the trial court’s decision to allow

the questioning about Gooney Mooney on redirect examination was harmless

because it had already been established that Ms. Liverpool had been pressured to

change her testimony between the grand jury and the trial; Ms. Liverpool’s grand

jury testimony was corroborated by other evidence; and the trial court gave a limiting

instruction prohibiting the jury from attributing any pressure to the appellants. The

government’s questions about Gooney Mooney also went to Ms. Liverpool’s

credibility, a permissible subject matter for redirect. Brown, 763 A.2d at 1140.
 43

B. Jury Note Concerning Definition of “Intent”

1. Additional Factual Background

On April 4, 2018, during deliberations, the jury sent a note to the court asking,

“What is the definition of intent[?]” The jury did not specifically reference any count

to which its question pertained. The government agreed with the trial court’s

suggestion to refer the jury back to the state of mind instruction, Criminal Jury

Instructions for the District of Columbia, No. 3.101 (5th ed. 2018), on which the

jury had been originally instructed. Counsel for Mr. Height agreed that under the

circumstances the state of mind instruction was appropriate. Likewise, counsel for

Mr. Young agreed that the trial judge should re-read the state of mind instruction for

the jury. The trial judge reinstructed the jury as such. 17

17
The exact state of mind instruction given by the court in response to the
jury’s note was:
Someone’s intent or knowledge ordinarily cannot be
proved directly because there is no way of knowing what
a person is actually thinking, but you may infer someone’s
intent or knowledge from the surrounding circumstances.
You may consider any statement made or acts done by
James Young and Tyrone Michael H[e]ight in all of the
facts and circumstances that were received in evidence.
You may infer, but you’re not required to infer, that a
person intends the natural probable consequences of the
acting he intentionally did or did not do. It is entirely up
to you, however, to decide what facts to find from the
evidence that’s received during this trial. So you should
consider all of the circumstances in evidence that you
 44

2. Analysis

Neither Mr. Young nor Mr. Height objected to this jury instruction at trial, so

we review for plain error.

Appellants argue that the jury instruction was error because it failed to respond

to the jury’s specific question about the definition of intent by failing to define the

term. However, both Mr. Young and Mr. Height agreed to this jury instruction at

trial, thus inviting the error and waiving any right to raise the claim on appeal. See

Masika v. United States, 263 A.3d 1070, 1077 (D.C. 2021) (an appellant waives their

claim of instructional error when they affirmatively agree to the instruction, thus

inviting the error). See also Buskey v. United States, 148 A.3d 1193, 1204 (D.C.

2016) (appellants invited the error by “aiding-and-abetting instructions they now

deem. . . error.” (citing Preacher v. United States, 934 A.2d 363, 368 (D.C. 2007))).

Further, the invited error doctrine “precludes a party from asserting as error on

appeal a course that [they have] induced the trial court to take.” Preacher, 934 A.2d

at 368 (citing District of Columbia v. Wical Ltd. P’ship, 630 A.2d 174, 183-184

(D.C. 1993)). Thus, this court is precluded from reviewing the claim of instructional

think are relevant in determining whether the government
has proven beyond a reasonable doubt that James Young
and Tyrone Michael H[e]ight acted with the necessary
state of mind.
 45

error. Butts v. United States, 822 A.2d 407, 416 (D.C. 2003) (this court has

repeatedly held that a defendant may not take one position at trial and a contradictory

one on appeal and, thus, this court is precluded from considering an instructional

error argument where defense counsel agreed during the conference on instructions).

Mr. Young argues, however, that the court should still consider the claim

because it falls into an exception to the invited error doctrine. The exception is such

that reversible error occurs when the trial court does not dispel jury confusion about

a central aspect of applicable law with concrete accuracy. Preacher, 934 A.2d at

368. Young contends that the trial court’s response to the jury question was clear

error because rereading the state of mind instructions could not dispel confusion.

However, Mr. Young’s claim does not fall into any such exception to the invited

error doctrine. While it is true that the trial court has an obligation to “respond

appropriately” to jury questions, Alcindore v. United States, 818 A.2d 152, 155 (D.C.

2003), “[i]n some cases, the nature of the question asked or the confusion expressed

may be such that simple referral to the original instructions is appropriate.” Ivey v.

District of Columbia, 46 A.3d 1101, 1108 (D.C. 2012). This is so “because the judge

knows that the answer to the question is readily to be found there or that rereading

the instructions is likely to clear the confusion.” Id.

Here, although Mr. Young contends the reinstruction likely confused the jury

by failing to explain the different standards applicable to general and specific intent
 46

crimes, we have specifically approved of the use of the state of mind instruction with

respect to specific intent crimes and see no basis on which to depart from that

approval here. See Walden v. United States, 19 A.3d 346, 348-50 (D.C. 2011)

(approving of the state-of-mind instruction with respect to first-degree murder); see

also Perez Hernandez v. United States, 286 A.3d 990, 1000 (D.C. 2022) (en banc)

(recognizing this court’s past criticism of the general and specific intent framework).

We have also specifically approved of reinstructing the jury with the original

instruction when such instruction contains the pertinent information. 18 Graham v.

United States, 703 A.2d 825, 832 (D.C. 1997). As such, reinstruction with the state

of mind instruction was an appropriate response. Further, the trial court noted to

counsel after instructing the jury that, “I do believe [the jury is] having an epiphany

right now. I do think they are having an epiphany.” While it is unclear whether that

comment was made in response to the state-of-mind instruction or the other

instruction the trial court provided at the time, the jury’s observed reaction is

suggestive that the instruction adequately cleared the confusion. Thus, we conclude

18
To the extent the trial court’s reinstruction differed slightly from its original
instruction, we do not view that distinction as relevant on these facts.
 47

that Mr. Young’s claim does not fall into an exception to the invited error doctrine

and, as such, the right to raise it on appeal has been waived. 19

C. Cumulative Errors

Mr. Young argues that the trial court’s cumulative errors warrant reversal and

remand for a new trial. He asserts that the errors affected “critical issues at trial.”

The government argues that there were no errors warranting reversal on their own,

and that the cumulative effect of any errors does not require reversal because

appellants were not prejudiced.

In Hagans v. United States, this court determined that “the strength of the

government’s case and the innocuousness . . . of the few errors we have found or

assumed arguendo convinces us that, even in combination, and even applying a

Chapman standard across the board, there is no reasonable possibility the errors

affected the outcome of appellants’ trial.” 96 A.3d 1, 43-44 (D.C. 2014). That is

the case in the present circumstance as well. Although Mr. Young asserts numerous

errors before the trial court, here we have concluded that there were no prejudicial

errors that warrant reversal. Consequently, the cumulative effect of any such errors

19
Mr. Young also argued that the court should have instructed the jury to ask
additional questions. However, we conclude that the court’s failure to so instruct
the jury did not substantially affect Mr. Young’s rights. Olano, 507 U.S. at 734.
 48

did not prejudice Mr. Young. As such, Mr. Young is not entitled to reversal on this

ground.

VIII. Challenges Raised Only by Appellant Height

A. Denial of Pre-Trial Motion to Suppress GPS Evidence

1. Additional Factual Background

Amongst the evidence introduced against Mr. Height at trial was GPS data

derived from a monitor that Mr. Height was wearing as required by the Court

Supervision and Offender Services Agency (“CSOSA”) as a condition of his release

in a previous case. This GPS evidence placed him in the vicinity of Wellington Park

at the time of the shooting. MPD was able to access the GPS tracking database

because of an existing Memorandum of Understanding between MPD and CSOSA.

Prior to trial, Mr. Height moved to suppress this and other evidence derived

from the GPS data as a violation of his Fourth Amendment rights. The trial court

denied his motion, concluding that when Mr. Height was fitted with the GPS device

he signed a contract acknowledging that his movements would be monitored,

tracked, and stored by CSOSA, and as such his reasonable expectation of privacy

was diminished. The trial court also concluded that: (1) the purpose of MPD’s

search of the GPS data was not to target a particular person; (2) the search was

tailored to fit MPD’s investigatory needs, because it was limited to the area of the
 49

murder and set an exact frame of four hours aligning with the events; and (3) any

intrusion on Mr. Height’s privacy was minimal when weighed against the

government’s interests. Moreover, the trial court determined that the location

information inevitably would have been discovered because a witness had come

forward identifying Mr. Height as present at Wellington Park at the time of the

shooting and the government subpoenaed CSOSA to produce the GPS information

for Mr. Height.

2. Analysis

On appeal, Mr. Height argues that the trial court erred in denying his motion

because there was an unreasonable search in violation of the Fourth Amendment.

In addition, he contends that the use of the tracking device contravened CSOSA’s

internal policies because it was placed on him merely as a result of failed drug tests

and because CSOSA lacked justification for keeping him on GPS monitoring after a

30-day period. The parties disagree over whether Mr. Height adequately preserved

his complaint about the alleged violation of CSOSA’s regulations, and thus what is

the appropriate standard of review.

Generally, when the government “attaches a device to a person’s body,

without consent, for the purpose of tracking that individual’s movements,” it

conducts a search. United States v. Jackson, 214 A.3d 464, 472 (D.C. 2019) (quoting
 50

Grady v. North Carolina, 575 U.S. 306, 309 (2015)). The government’s use of the

device to monitor the person’s movements also constitutes a search. Id. Under the

Fourth Amendment’s protection against unreasonable searches and seizures, we are

tasked with determining whether CSOSA’s GPS monitoring of Height was

reasonable.

To determine whether a search was reasonable, we assess the “totality of the

circumstances,” which includes “the nature and purpose of the search and the extent

to which the search intrudes upon reasonable privacy expectations.” Grady, 573

U.S. at 310. When reviewing a trial court’s ruling on a motion to suppress, “the facts

and all reasonable inferences therefrom must be viewed in favor of sustaining the

trial court ruling.” Plummer v. United States, 983 A.2d 323, 330 (D.C. 2009). We

review de novo the denial of a motion to suppress GPS data on Fourth Amendment

grounds. Jackson, 214 A.3d at 471.

Mr. Height does not dispute that he violated his conditions of supervision. We

have previously acknowledged that CSOSA “probationers . . . are on notice and

agree that they will be subject to intensive and intrusive supervision, specifically

including GPS monitoring, if there is reason to believe they are . . . otherwise

violating the conditions of their release.” Jackson, 214 A.3d at 478. Although Mr.

Height attempts to characterize his violations as mere “technical violations,” which

there is reason to doubt, that characterization would not justify a departure from
 51

Jackson. Further, the Fourth Amendment allows significant intrusion on a

probationer’s privacy because their reasonable expectation of privacy is diminished

and outweighed by the heightened governmental interest in deterring re-offending

and promoting rehabilitation. See id. at 475. Accordingly, we conclude that CSOSA

was permitted to place Mr. Height on GPS monitoring.

In Jackson, we also explained that “CSOSA did not violate [a defendant’s]

reasonable expectation of privacy by granting the police access to his GPS tracking

data in furtherance of their mutual law enforcement objectives. The limited police

utilization of that access comported with the reason CSOSA granted it and did not

unreasonably intrude on [defendant’s] privacy.” Id. at 486. We concluded that such

an expectation was not reasonable where CSOSA and MPD had a Memorandum of

Understanding (“MOU”) under which the two agencies shared data. 20 Id. at 482-3.

In addition, “CSOSA made no secret of its sharing of GPS monitoring data with the

police . . . . CSOSA publicized on its website the MPD’s use of its GPS tracking

data to ‘aid in suspect apprehension.’” Id. at 483. Furthermore, the information

CSOSA shared with the police was limited in scope and properly used as part of an

20
The MOU at issue in Jackson explained that “CSOSA and the MPD share
a common mission to reduce and prevent crime, and that a purpose of their two-way
automated and routine data sharing arrangements is to enhance CSOSA’s ability to
prevent supervised offenders from engaging in criminal activity, thereby reducing
recidivism and improving public safety, in accord with the agency’s mission.”
Jackson, 214 A.3d at 482 (internal quotation marks omitted).
 52

investigation. Id. at 485. We have since confirmed in Atchison v. United States that

the use of GPS data obtained by CSOSA in this manner does not violate the Fourth

Amendment. 257 A.3d 524, 529-31 (D.C. 2021).

Mr. Height further argues that CSOSA violated its own regulations when it

placed the monitor on him. Mr. Height states that CSOSA policy does not permit

GPS monitoring for positive drug tests and that his monitoring exceeded the time

limit. However, Mr. Height misrepresents CSOSA’s policy statement when he

asserts that it “does not permit GPS monitoring for positive drug tests.” The policy,

in fact, states that: “[o]ffenders testing positive for the drug PCP shall be

immediately sanctioned with GPS.” CSOSA Global Positioning System (“GPS”)

Tracking of Offenders, Policy Statement 4008(A)(3)(g) (csosa.gov 2009). The

policy also allows CSOSA to extend tracking for up to a total of 90 days when there

are aggravating circumstances, such as positive drug tests. Id. at 4008(A)(3).

Thus, Mr. Height has not shown that CSOSA violated its own regulations.

Moreover, he has not established as a legal matter that an agency’s violation of its

own regulations would justify use of the exclusionary rule. See United States v.

Caceres, 440 U.S. 741, 755 (1979) (overturning order suppressing evidence obtained

in violation of IRS regulations; “our precedents enforcing the exclusionary rule to

deter constitutional violations provide no support for the rule’s application in this

case”). For all these reasons, we affirm the denial of the motion to suppress.
 53

B. Admissibility of Testimony Regarding Height’s
Possession of a .40-Caliber Firearm

1. Additional Factual Background

Prior to trial, the government filed a motion in limine seeking to introduce the

testimony of Reynaldo Mora, an individual who had met Mr. Height the day after

Mr. Shelton was shot. The government’s proffer was that Mr. Mora’s testimony

would provide evidence that on the day after Mr. Shelton was shot, Mr. Height

possibly possessed a black .40 caliber handgun. Mr. Height opposed the motion on

the grounds that the testimony constituted impermissible other crimes evidence,

rather than testimony demonstrating his “possession of the means to commit” Mr.

Shelton’s murder. The trial court granted the motion over Mr. Height’s opposition.

At trial, during the government’s case-in-chief, it introduced a stipulation concerning

the testimony that Reynaldo Mora would have provided if he were called to testify

at trial. In relevant part, this stipulation provided that:

During the early morning hours of September 1, 2014,
Reynaldo Mora met a group of young men from Southeast,
Washington, D.C. . . . in Landover, Maryland.

[. . .]

Mr. Mora and one of the individuals who had been with
him at the [music] studio had a discussion outside of Mr.
Mora’s car. Mr. Mora later identified this individual as the
defendant, Michael [Height], from photographs that police
displayed to Mr. Mora.
 54

[. . .]

[H]e does recall spending several hours with this
individual at the recording studio in Bowie.

During this interaction, Mr. Mora, who was face to face
with the individual that he later identified as Defendant
[Height], saw the individual with a black object which Mr.
Mora believed to be a .40-caliber handgun.

Mr. Mora believed that the black object may have been a
firearm because the individual appeared to retrieve it from
his back waist area, and made statements that Mr. Mora
interpreted to mean that the individual had a gun.

According to Mr. Mora, he saw a black object that he
believed to be a pistol grip. Mr. Mora thought the object
was a .40-caliber gun because of the size of the black
object as well as the fact that the individual had been
rapping about .40-caliber guns while recording inside the
studio.

Mr. Mora only saw the black item briefly, and he cannot
say with certainty that it was a firearm.

2. Analysis

On appeal, Mr. Height reasserts the arguments he raised before the trial court

that Mr. Mora’s testimony was evidence of other crimes, i.e., possession of the

firearm—an uncharged crime. “We review a trial court’s evidentiary decisions for

abuse of discretion, and in doing so, broadly defer to the trial court due to its

‘familiarity with the details of the case and its greater experience in evidentiary

matters.’” Johnson v. United States, 960 A.2d 281, 294 (D.C. 2008) (citation
 55

omitted). This deference particularly applies where the trial court must consider the

relevance and potential prejudice of the evidence, under a Rule 403 assessment. Id.

We “evaluate the trial court’s decision from its perspective when it had to rule and

[do] not indulge in review by hindsight.” Id. at 295 (quoting Old Chief v. United

States, 519 U.S. 172, 182 n.6 (1997)).

We conclude that the trial court did not abuse its discretion in granting the

motion in limine. First, the trial court correctly concluded that Mr. Mora’s

identification of Mr. Height was admissible evidence. “Evidence of an uncharged

crime is inadmissible for the purpose of proving the defendant’s criminal disposition

to commit the type of offense for which the defendant is on trial.” Hagans, 96 A.3d

at 29. However, Mr. Mora’s testimony “was not offered or admitted for such an

improper purpose.” Id. Rather, the testimony was introduced for the legitimate

purpose of proving possession of a weapon that had recently been used to commit

the charged crimes. Id.; see, e.g., Jenkins v. United States, 80 A.3d 978, 999 (D.C.

2013) (upholding admission of evidence that defendant had committed an uncharged

homicide with the same weapon used eight days later to commit the murder for

which the defendant was on trial); Jones v. United States, 27 A.3d 1130, 1146 (D.C.

2011) (upholding, in prosecution for murder, admission of evidence that the

defendant had used the murder weapon to commit an uncharged armed robbery). “A

defendant’s possession of a weapon not long before or after it was used to commit a
 56

homicide for which he is on trial ‘is some evidence of the probability of his guilt,

and is therefore admissible.’” Hagans, 96 A.3d at 29 (citing Busey v. United States,

747 A.2d 1153, 1165 (D.C. 2000)).

As Mr. Height argues, “[a]dmissible evidence may [still] be excluded . . . if

its probative value is substantially outweighed by the danger of unfair prejudice.”

Id. However, the trial court did not abuse its discretion in determining that the

probative value of Mr. Mora’s identification was not substantially outweighed by

the danger of unfair prejudice. The trial court noted that the probative value of the

testimony was that Mr. Height had the means to commit the murder shortly after the

shooting. The trial court also noted there was prejudice because of the questionable

reliability of Mr. Mora’s testimony due to the changes to and uncertainty in Mr.

Mora’s statements during two different interviews with police. For example, Mr.

Mora was less than certain Mr. Height had a .40 caliber handgun. Even so, the trial

court was in a better position to assess the relevance and potential prejudice at the

time Mr. Mora’s testimony was proffered. Further, Mr. Mora’s testimony was

ultimately presented to the jury as a stipulation, approved by Mr. Height, which

included qualifiers about the certainty of Mr. Mora’s identification of the weapon.

The stipulation omitted evidence that Mr. Height had pistol-whipped Mr. Mora and

threatened to kill him. Accordingly, we conclude that the trial court did not abuse
 57

its discretion in determining that the introduction of the evidence was not

substantially more prejudicial than probative.

C. Denial of Pre-Trial Motion to Suppress
Out-of-Court Identification of Height

1. Additional Factual Background

Mr. Height also moved to suppress out-of-court identifications made by Mr.

Mora to Detective Tyler. Mr. Mora first identified Mr. Height when Detective Tyler

presented Mr. Mora with a single photograph of Mr. Height. This photo presentation

occurred after MPD used Mr. Height’s GPS tracking data to follow him, but made

contact with Mr. Mora instead of Mr. Height. In response to seeing Mr. Height’s

photo, Mr. Mora identified Mr. Height as someone who had assaulted him the

morning of September 1, 2014. The second identification took place during an

interview with Mr. Mora at MPD’s homicide branch when Mr. Mora was asked to

confirm in a recorded interview whether the photograph of Mr. Height depicted the

individual who had assaulted him that morning. The third identification occurred

after an interview with a Prince George’s County detective when Mr. Mora provided

a description of the person who assaulted him that morning and then selected Mr.

Height’s photograph from an array of six photos. At the time of the identifications,

Mr. Height was not a suspect in the murder of Mr. Shelton, but a person of interest,

perhaps a witness to the shooting.
 58

2. Analysis

On appeal, Mr. Height contends that, contrary to the trial court’s conclusions,

the single-photograph display was unduly suggestive, and that the trial court erred

in determining that the identification was reliable. The government argues that the

display was not unduly suggestive, but that even if it was, the resulting identification

was reliable. “[S]uggestivity and reliability are mixed questions of law and fact. We

review mixed questions of law and fact under our usual deferential standard of

review for factual findings . . . and [apply] de novo review to the ultimate legal

conclusions based on those facts.” Hilton v. United States, 250 A.3d 1061, 1068

(D.C. 2021) (alterations in original) (citations, italics, and internal quotation marks

omitted). “This court is bound by the trial court’s findings on whether identification

procedures were impermissibly suggestive and whether an identification was

reliable if they are supported by the evidence and in accordance with the law.”

Kaliku v. United States, 994 A.2d 765, 871 (D.C. 2010) (citation omitted). An

identification must be both impermissibly suggestive and unreliable to justify

suppression on due process grounds. Hilton, 250 A.3d at 1068. We conclude that

Mr. Height was not entitled to suppression because the identification of Mr. Height

was reliable.

This court has previously held that a pretrial identification procedure which

involved display of a single photograph was impermissibly and unnecessarily
 59

suggestive. Morales v. United States, 248 A.3d 161, 172, 174 (D.C. 2021). In

Morales, the witness was shown a single-mugshot photo of a standalone suspect four

months after the witness “glimpsed” the suspect. Id. at 173. Importantly, in

Morales, this court noted that “[a]sking a witness whether they can identify a

standalone suspect—rather than picking him out from a lineup or photo array—is

among the most suggestive and objectionable forms of pretrial identification because

of the strong implication that the individual has been singled out as the suspect by

law enforcement.” Id. at 172 (citing Patterson v. United States, 384 A.2d 663, 666

(D.C. 1978)).

However, there is no rule of per se exclusion when a single photograph has

been shown, Manson v. Brathwaite, 432 U.S. 98, 112 (1977), and Morales is

distinguishable from the present case in important ways. First, the witness in

Morales only glimpsed the suspect four months prior to the identification procedure.

Id. at 173. Here, as the trial court recognized, Mr. Mora had been associating with

Mr. Height for some hours and the first identification happened only an hour or so

after the assault on Mr. Mora.

Further, in Morales, the government needlessly displayed a single-mugshot

during preparation for trial. Morales, 248 A.3d at 174 (“The government had every

opportunity to conduct an appropriate and timely pretrial photo array or a lineup

procedure . . . had it wished to do so.”). Given the circumstances of the present case,
 60

it is understandable that a photo array had not been prepared as the officers were

attempting to find Mr. Height and, by their own admission, were not “investigating

what happened to [Mr. Mora] in Maryland, [but] inquiring if [Mr. Height] was at the

studio.” Thus, the identification procedure was, arguably, not unnecessarily

suggestive.

But even if we assume, without deciding, that the display of the single

photograph was impermissibly suggestive, suppression would not be required. We

have adopted the Supreme Court’s five-factor totality test set forth in Neil v. Biggers

to determine the reliability of an identification:

(1) the witness’s opportunity to observe the perpetrator at
the time of the crime, (2) the degree of attention the
witness paid to the perpetrator, (3) the accuracy of any
prior descriptions of the perpetrator provided by the
witness, (4) the level of certainty demonstrated by the
witness at the time of the identification, and (5) the lapse
in time between the crime and the identification procedure.

Long v. United States, 156 A.3d 698, 707 (D.C. 2017) (citing Neil v. Biggers, 409

U.S. 188, 199-200 (1972)). “Against these factors is to be weighed the corrupting

effect of the suggestive identification itself.” Id. (citation omitted).

The trial court determined that Mr. Mora had “great” opportunity to observe

Mr. Height. Specifically, it concluded that there was a strong likelihood that Mr.

Height and Mr. Mora spent an evening out together (based upon Mr. Mora’s
 61

recollection and the GPS information), including the time spent together at the

studio; that Mr. Mora’s initial identification of Mr. Height was because of their prior

interaction and the face-to-face confrontation during the assault; that Mr. Mora was

able to describe accurately Mr. Height’s build and height, which could not be

ascertained from the photos; and that Mr. Mora did not hesitate in identifying Mr.

Height. The trial court also highlighted that there was only a limited passage of time

between when Mr. Mora was pistol-whipped and Detective Tyler’s presentation of

the photo.

Mr. Height argues that Mr. Mora’s identifications are not sufficiently reliable

because the trial court ignored several significant facts in reaching its conclusion.

Mr. Height asserts that the trial court ignored Mr. Mora’s lack of focus and degree

of attention at the time the pistol-whipping incident occurred. Mr. Height highlights

that: Mr. Mora had been out partying all night and was dozing off shortly before the

incident; there was no indication of how long the face-to-face altercation lasted; and

Mr. Mora did not provide a description of his assailant before Detective Tyler

produced the photo.

Although the facts outlined by Mr. Height contribute to our review of the

totality of the circumstances, it was the trial court’s function to weigh conflicting

evidence, and we cannot say that its assessment was clearly erroneous or contrary to
 62

law. We conclude that, for the reasons outlined by the trial court, 21 Mr. Mora’s

identification of Mr. Height was sufficiently reliable. Mr. Mora had several hours

of time and close proximity to observe his assailant leading up to and at the time of

the assault. Though Mr. Mora was assaulted by several men, he, without hesitation

or equivocation, identified Mr. Height as the individual who pistol-whipped him.

Further, this identification took place approximately one-hour after Mr. Mora was

assaulted. Finally, Mr. Mora was able to accurately describe Mr. Height’s build and

height, before the photo array identification, even though the photo he was shown

by Detective Tyler was a headshot. For these reasons, we conclude that Mr. Mora’s

21
Mr. Height argues in his supplemental brief that the trial court’s conclusion
that binding precedent required finding that the single photo display was not
impermissibly suggestive was legally erroneous. The trial court cited Melendez v.
United States, 26 A.3d 234 (D.C. 2011), to support the proposition that this court
routinely upholds the practice of showing a witness a single photograph of an
acquaintance or someone whom the witness had opportunity to focus on during the
commission of the crime. Even if the facts of Melendez are not strictly comparable
to what happened here, the trial court specifically recognized during that same
discussion that “even when there is unnecessary suggestivity, due process is not
offended when the identification is supported by indicia of reliability. That is the
case here.”
 63

identifications of Mr. Height were sufficiently reliable. 22 Accordingly, Mr. Height

was not entitled to suppression of the out-of-court identifications by Mr. Mora. 23

D. Denial of Pre-Trial Motion for Severance

Before trial, Mr. Height filed a written motion to sever based on the

expectation that the government would introduce prior statements made by Mr.

Young; the trial court denied the motion in a written order. In his motion, Mr. Height

appeared to rely upon both the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment and

Super. Ct. Crim. Rule 14. As it turned out, there was no confrontation issue because

Mr. Young testified at trial. Thus, on appeal, Mr. Height challenges the trial court’s

denial of severance solely on Rule 14 grounds. See Thomas v. United States, 978

A.2d 1211, 1223 (D.C. 2009). Mr. Height has preserved this claim by renewing it

at the end of trial, so we review for abuse of discretion.

22
This court in Morales noted that the first and fifth Biggers factors are of
great importance to the determination of reliability. 248 A.3d at 177. Here, the
identification satisfies both: Mr. Mora had sufficient opportunity to view Mr. Height
and it had only been an hour or so before the first identification took place.
23
Appellant Height also moved to suppress Mr. Mora’s identification of him
from a photo array presented by detectives from Prince George’s County who were
investigating the assault that took place in Bowie. He did not argue that the photo
array was impermissibly suggestive, but rather that the resulting identification was
tainted by the earlier display of a single photograph to Mr. Mora. Because we have
concluded that the earlier identification was reliable and admissible, there was no
taint that would invalidate the identification made upon viewing the photo spread.
 64

Even where there is no Confrontation Clause violation, “the opportunity to

cross-examine does not operate to make [an otherwise inadmissible] incriminating

extrajudicial statement admissible against the non-declarant co-defendant.”

Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1223 (alteration in original) (quoting Carpenter v. United

States, 430 A.2d 496, 503 (D.C. 1981) (en banc)). There is a duty imposed on the

trial judge by Criminal Rule 14 to “take appropriate steps to minimize the prejudice

inherent in co-defendant confessions which are inadmissible against the

nondeclarant defendant.” 24 Wynn v. United States, 241 A.3d 277, 281 (D.C. 2020).

This is true even when the declarant is available for cross-examination. Matthews,

13 A.3d at 1186. Some appropriate steps include, if feasible, “redact[ing] to

24
Pursuant to Criminal Rule 14:
[A] trial court may grant severance if it appears that a
defendant will be prejudiced by joinder, but this
discretionary authority is to be exercised with caution; in
view of the strong policy reasons and longstanding
presumption in favor of joint trials, a court should grant a
severance under Rule 14 only if there is a serious risk that
a joint trial would compromise a specific trial right of one
of the defendants, or prevent the jury from making a
reliable judgment about guilt or innocence. We will
reverse a trial court’s denial of a motion for severance only
upon a clear showing that it has abused its considerable
discretion. To demonstrate such an abuse, an appellant
must show manifest prejudice.

Hagans, 96 A.3d at 40 (brackets, citations, and internal quotation marks omitted).
 65

eliminate all incriminating references to the [non-declarant] co-defendant” or

granting the non-declarant co-defendant’s motion for severance. Wynn, 241 A.3d at

282 (quoting Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1224). Alternatively, the government could

choose to forego introducing the statement to avoid severance. Id. However, the

trial court is relieved from its obligations under Carpenter if the co-defendant’s

statements “fall[] within an exception to the hearsay rule” such that they are

admissible against the defendant. Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1224. Severance and

exclusion are not required “if the evidence would be admissible against the

defendant in a separate trial.” Ashby, 199 A.3d at 657.

Mr. Height identifies three statements Mr. Young made that allegedly

implicated him and required severance. First, Mr. Young made a statement on

September 3, 2014, when he was interviewed by the police. At the time, Mr. Young

told police he was with “Darius,” “Tay,” and another person. He also told officers

that Mr. Shelton was trying to buy PCP, and the other three men planned to sell Mr.

Shelton fake PCP and rob him. Mr. Young was shown a photo array to identify the

third man; it included Mr. Height’s photo, but Mr. Young did not make an

identification. Second, during a subsequent interview with police, which was

recorded and played for the jury at trial, Mr. Young gave a description of the alleged

shooter, stating that the person was wearing a shirt over his head, a white tank top

and blue jeans, and was covering his face with one arm and extending the other while
 66

shooting. At trial, Mr. Young confirmed that he gave this description. And third,

during trial, the government introduced statements from Mr. Young during his

interview that he did not have a Facebook page and that police would not see a

photograph of him with the other shooter on that page, but then Mr. Young admitted

that he had a Facebook page and that that Facebook page included old photographs

of Mr. Young and Mr. Height together. Mr. Height suggests that Mr. Young’s

admissions equate to Mr. Young implicating him as the other shooter.

This court has instructed that a defendant’s extrajudicial statement “may be

admitted in evidence in a joint trial (with an appropriate limiting instruction . . .) so

long as the statement . . . does not incriminate a non-declarant co-defendant on its

face, either explicitly or by direct and obvious implication.” Thomas, 978 A.2d at

1235 (citing Riley v. United States, 923 A.2d 868, 886 (D.C. 2007), and Plater v.

United States, 745 A.2d 953, 960-961 (D.C. 2000)). Non-specific references to

jointly tried co-perpetrators satisfy these conditions even when the non-declarant co-

defendant may be linked to the statement by other, extrinsic evidence of their guilt.

Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1235-1236. Here, none of Mr. Young’s testimony explicitly

implicates Mr. Height; none of the statements directly refer to Mr. Height in the

context of the commission of the charged crimes. Mr. Young’s statement to police

that he was with “Darius,” “Tay,” and another person and his description of the

shooter were both non-specific references. See Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1237 (“Even
 67

when there is only one accomplice and only one co-defendant is on trial with the

declarant, the use of a non-specific . . . pronoun is acceptable.”). Likewise, none of

Mr. Young’s testimony implicates Mr. Height by “direct and obvious implication.”

Id. at 1235. None of Mr. Young’s testimony refers to specific attributes that would

be suggestive of Mr. Height. See, e.g., Matthews, 13 A.3d at 1187-8 (concluding

that a statement did not implicate a co-defendant by direct and obvious implication

where there was no reference to the co-defendant by name or nickname); Mobley v.

United States, 101 A.3d 406, 418 (D.C. 2014) (concluding a statement did not

implicate a co-defendant by direct and obvious implication even though the

declarant used a plural pronoun). The fact that Mr. Height may be linked to the

statement by other evidence of his guilt is insufficient to require the trial court to

sever Mr. Height’s case. Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1235 (“A statement [that does not

incriminate by direct and obvious implication] normally is admissible . . . even

though it alludes non-specifically to the declarant’s confederates and the non-

declarant co-defendant may be linked to it by other, properly admitted evidence of

his guilt.”). Thus, the statements satisfy the conditions laid out in Thomas and did

not require severance under Criminal Rule 14. However, the court in Thomas does

emphasize that statements which meet the conditions may normally be admitted with

an appropriate limiting instruction. Thomas, 978 A.2d at 1235. The trial court erred

in not providing such instruction or exercising its remedial discretion. The error,
 68

however, was ultimately harmless because the statements were merely cumulative

in light of other evidence—GPS data and testimony from Ms. McCrae placed Mr.

Height at the scene of the crime. See Ingram v. United States, 40 A.3d 887, 898

(D.C. 2012) (concluding that the non-confessing co-defendant was not prejudiced

by the admission of a co-defendant’s unredacted inculpating confession in a joint

trial because there was overwhelming evidence presented by eyewitnesses).

IX. Merger

Appellants argue that under the Double Jeopardy Clause of the Fifth

Amendment, various convictions should merge. Specifically, appellants argue that:

(1) their conviction for second-degree murder while armed merges with their

conviction for felony murder while armed; (2) their conviction for felony murder

merges with the underlying felony (armed robbery); and (3) all four of their

convictions for possession of a firearm during the commission of a crime of violence

(“PFCV”) merge. The government concedes the first two points and we agree.

Foreman v. United States, 114 A.3d 631, 645 (D.C. 2015) (“When there is only one

killing, the defendant may not be convicted of more than one murder.” (quoting

Thacker v. United States, 599 A.2d 52, 63 (D.C. 1991))); Thacker, 599 A.2d at 63

(“[F]elony murder convictions merge with the underlying felonies.”).
 69

However, the government only concedes that three of the four PFCV

convictions merge, not all four convictions. The government concedes that three

PFCV convictions (for the predicate offenses of armed robbery (of Mr. Shelton)),

felony murder while armed, and second-degree murder while armed should merge.

Terry v. United States, 114 A.3d 608, 629 (D.C. 2015); Hampleton v. United States,

10 A.3d 137, 146 (D.C. 2010) (“We have, nevertheless, held ‘that multiple PFCV

convictions will merge, even if the predicate felony offenses do not merge, if they

arise out of a defendant’s uninterrupted possession of a single weapon during a

single act of violence.’” (quoting Matthews v. United States, 892 A.2d 1100, 1106

(D.C. 2006))). However, the government argues, and appellants do not challenge in

their reply briefs, that the PFCV conviction resulting from the burglary of Ms.

Miller’s apartment does not merge because the burglary constitutes a subsequent

criminal act resulting from a fresh impulse. See, e.g., Barber v. United States, 179

A.3d 883, 895 (D.C. 2018) (“In situations like this, the key consideration in

determining whether multiple crimes for acts committed against one victim merge

is whether ‘the defendant can be said to have realized that he [or she] has come to a

fork in the road, and [still] decides to invade a different interest[.]’” (alterations in

original) (quoting Ellison v. United States, 919 A.2d 612, 615 (D.C. 2007))). We

agree with the government that Mr. Young and Mr. Height’s entry into Ms. Miller’s

apartment is a subsequent act of violence and, therefore, the fourth PFCV conviction
 70

should not merge with the other three. Appellants may thus stand convicted of two

PFCV offenses.

The parties also disagree on how the trial court should be instructed to merge

the convictions with respect to sentencing. The government argues that the remand

should include instructions for the trial court to “effectuate its original sentencing

plan.” Citing to Bonhart v. United States, Mr. Young contends that the trial court

should retain discretion over resentencing because it may choose between several

alternatives concerning the merger of offenses. 691 A.2d 160, 164 (D.C. 1997); see

Mooney v. United States, 938 A.2d 710, 721 n.12 (D.C. 2007) (discussing remand

options under Bonhart). We agree that the trial court retains discretion during

sentencing either to (1) vacate the first-degree felony murder conviction and

sentence Mr. Young and Mr. Height for both second-degree murder while armed

and armed robbery or (2) vacate the second-degree murder while armed and armed

robbery convictions. Depending on how the trial court exercises this discretion,

appellants’ sentences may differ from their original sentences. We remand

accordingly.
 71

X. Conclusion

In sum, we conclude that: (1) there was sufficient evidence to support

appellants’ convictions for felony murder while armed and second-degree murder

while armed; (2) the trial court did not commit reversible error in ruling on various

evidentiary and legal challenges; and (3) various of appellants’ convictions merge.

Accordingly, for the foregoing reasons, we affirm appellants’ convictions but

remand for the limited purpose of merging appellants’ convictions and resentencing

consistent with this opinion.

So ordered.