PUBLISHED
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE FOURTH CIRCUIT
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA,
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
SABRI BENKAHLA,
Defendant-Appellant.
No. 07-4778
COUNCIL ON AMERICAN-ISLAMIC
RELATIONS; MUSLIM AMERICAN
SOCIETY FREEDOM FOUNDATION,
Amici Supporting Appellant.
Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Eastern District of Virginia, at Alexandria.
James C. Cacheris, Senior District Judge.
(1:06-cr-00009-JCC)
Argued: April 11, 2008
Decided: June 23, 2008
Before WILKINSON, MOTZ, and DUNCAN, Circuit Judges.
Affirmed by published opinion. Judge Wilkinson wrote the opinion,
in which Judge Motz and Judge Duncan joined.
COUNSEL
ARGUED: William Benjamin Moffitt, MOFFITT & BROADNAX,
Reston, Virginia, for Appellant. Gordon Dean Kromberg, OFFICE
2 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
OF THE UNITED STATES ATTORNEY, Alexandria, Virginia, for
Appellee. ON BRIEF: Andrew L. Hurst, REED SMITH, L.L.P.,
Washington, D.C., for Appellant. Chuck Rosenberg, United States
Attorney, Alexandria, Virginia, for Appellee. Mara Verheyden-
Hilliard, PARTNERSHIP FOR CIVIL JUSTICE, Washington, D.C.,
for Muslim American Society Freedom Foundation; John Kenneth
Zwerling, ZWERLING, LEIBIG & MOSELEY, P.C., Alexandria,
Virginia, Nadhira F. Al-Khalili, Washington, D.C., for Council on
American-Islamic Relations, Amici Supporting Appellant.
OPINION
WILKINSON, Circuit Judge:
Sabri Benkahla was part of a network of people the government
was investigating for crimes connected to radical Islamic terrorism
and violent jihad. The FBI questioned him and prosecutors twice cal-
led him before grand juries. Then he was prosecuted himself for false
declarations, false statements, and obstructing justice. He raises three
main issues on appeal. First, he claims his prosecution violated the
collateral estoppel component of the Double Jeopardy Clause, as he
had already been prosecuted and acquitted for some of the activities
he was questioned about. Second, he claims the trial court admitted
irrelevant and unduly prejudicial evidence about terrorism and violent
jihad. Third, he claims the trial court erred in determining his sen-
tence by applying the Sentencing Guidelines’ terrorism enhancement.
For the reasons below, we reject all three claims and affirm the judg-
ment of the district court.
I.
An organization in Falls Church, Virginia, known as the Dar al-
Arqam Islamic Center, has figured in no fewer than fourteen terrorism
prosecutions so far. See, e.g., United States v. Chandia, 514 F.3d 365
(4th Cir. 2008); United States v. Khan, 461 F.3d 477 (4th Cir. 2006).
Some of those prosecutions centered on a group of young men who
assembled at Dar al-Arqam and, in early 2000, started training
together for violent jihad. The group escalated stepwise from an ideo-
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 3
logical attraction to religious violence to actually taking up arms
against nations they saw as enemies of Islam: Russia in Chechnya,
India in Kashmir, and the United States. They began by talking with
some of the more militant leaders at Dar al-Arqam. Then they started
conducting quasi-military exercises with paintball guns in the Vir-
ginia woods and practicing marksmanship with AK-47 style rifles on
Virginia shooting ranges. A few members traveled to Pakistan or
Afghanistan to train at jihadist camps run by Lashkar-e-Taiba (a des-
ignated terrorist organization since December 2001).
Then came the attacks of September 11th and a schism at Dar al-
Arqam between those who condemned and those who condoned the
attacks. Within a few days, the leader of the violent wing, a Dar al-
Arqam founder named Ali Al-Timimi (later convicted of solicitation
to levy war against the United States), held a secret meeting at which
the core of the paintball group formally dedicated itself to violence.
More members went abroad to the jihadist camps. Some who went,
upon returning to the United States, purchased sophisticated aerial
surveillance technology to send to Lashkar-e-Taiba overseas. Then, in
2003, the group was arrested and eleven men indicted together. Six
of the men pled guilty. Three were convicted. One was acquitted. The
instant case concerns the eleventh man: Sabri Benkahla.
Benkahla’s case was severed from the other ten defendants. The
indictment charged the other members of the group chiefly with a
conspiracy, beginning in 2000, to engage in armed hostilities against
the United States, take part in military expeditions against nations
with which the United States was at peace, and provide material sup-
port to terrorists. See 18 U.S.C. §§ 960, 2339A, 2390 (2000). But
Benkahla was not charged with that conspiracy. He had taken a trip
to England in the summer of 1999, and, from there, had bought a
ticket to Pakistan, where he traveled with a man called "Abdullah."
According to the government, in August 1999 he crossed from Paki-
stan into Afghanistan and there attended a Lashkar-e-Taiba jihadist
training camp, where he fired an AK-47 and a rocket-propelled gre-
nade launcher — conduct charged (since attending a Lashkar-e-Taiba
jihadist training camp was not necessarily illegal at the time) as sup-
plying services to the Taliban and using a firearm in furtherance of
a crime of violence. See 50 U.S.C. § 1705 (2000); Exec. Order No.
13,129 (July 4, 1999), 31 C.F.R. § 545.204 (prohibiting transactions
4 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
with the Taliban); 18 U.S.C. §§ 924(c)(1)(B)(ii), 3238 (2000).
Benkahla was arrested in Saudi Arabia in 2003, where he had been
studying Islamic law and traveling with Ahmed Omar Abu Ali, a
friend from Dar al-Arqam and a member of al Qaeda (eventually con-
victed of conspiracy to assassinate the President of the United States,
among other crimes). Ultimately, having waived his right to a jury
trial, Benkahla appeared before the U.S. District Court for the Eastern
District of Virginia for a bench trial in March 2004.
It was clear in the trial that Benkahla was drawn to violent jihad,
had traveled to Pakistan in August 1999, and had cultivated relation-
ships with various individuals connected to terrorist organizations and
jihadist training. In its decision, the trial court indicated that it thought
he had attended a jihadist camp somewhere, either in Pakistan or
Afghanistan, and fired an AK-47 and rocket-propelled grenade
launcher while there. The court stated that "[i]f the standard of proof
for the government were by a preponderance of the evidence, I would
be able to find this defendant guilty." But the nature of the charges
required that the camp be located in Afghanistan and that Benkahla
have provided some meaningful form of support to the Taliban while
there. In the court’s judgment, there simply was not enough evidence
on those points to convict beyond a reasonable doubt.
Within a few weeks of his March 2004 acquittal, Benkahla was
subpoenaed. The government had been unable to prove that he had
attended a jihadist training camp in Afghanistan, but it was by no
means convinced that he hadn’t attended a jihadist training camp at
all. Indeed, it was still investigating such camps, the individuals who
facilitated training at them, and several militants associated with Dar
al-Arqam. Specifically, the government had convened two grand
juries to investigate violations of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2339A and 2339B,
which concern the provision of material support to terrorists and ter-
rorist organizations. Thus over the next few months, the government
compelled Benkahla to testify before each of the grand juries and to
meet with the FBI several times in ancillary proceedings, with immu-
nity from criminal prosecution for truthful testimony.
The questions throughout the proceedings focused anew on
whether Benkahla had attended a jihadist training camp during that
August 1999 trip. But they no longer centered on the camp’s location,
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 5
and the government took the approach of asking about the camp in
the disjunctive (as in "Did you participate in any training . . . during
your trip to Pakistan or Afghanistan in the summer of 1999?"). The
questions also concerned the individuals with whom Benkahla had
communicated in the course of exploring violent jihad and planning
the 1999 trip abroad. For his part, Benkahla consistently denied
attending any such camp anywhere, or knowing anything substantial
about the individuals.
The proceedings ended in November 2004. A little over a year
later, in 2006, the government indicted Benkahla for making false
material declarations to the two grand juries, 18 U.S.C. § 1623
(2000), obstructing justice on account of the false declarations, 18
U.S.C. § 1503 (2000), and making false material statements to the
FBI, 18 U.S.C. § 1001(a) (2000). Specifically, Benkahla stood
accused of a set of false denials: that he had participated in a jihadist
training camp somewhere in August 1999; that he had handled weap-
ons while there and observed others doing the same; and that he knew
about the various people he had communicated with about training for
jihad (such as "Abdullah," Ali Al-Timimi, and other persons of inter-
est to the FBI in terrorism-related investigations). Benkahla moved to
dismiss on collateral estoppel grounds and lost, and the case went to
a jury in January and February 2007.
The jury trial lasted four days and included a good deal of back-
ground testimony on terrorism and violent jihad worldwide from the
government’s expert witness, Evan Kohlmann, as well as further testi-
mony on the subject from an FBI agent working on Benkahla’s case,
Sarah Linden. After a day-and-a-half of deliberation, the jury con-
victed Benkahla on all counts, though it acquitted him of certain par-
ticular allegations in its special verdict form (each count alleged
multiple falsehoods). Post-trial motions also led the court to strike
Count II (concerning whether Benkahla handled weapons at the
camp) for being based on uncorroborated admissions. Benkahla’s
convictions under Counts I, III, and IV — false declarations to the
grand jury, obstruction of justice by virtue of the false declarations,
and false statements to the FBI — stood.
At Benkahla’s sentencing, the pivotal issue was whether to apply
the terrorism enhancement of U.S. Sentencing Guidelines Manual
6 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
§ 3A1.4 (2007): "If the offense is a felony that involved, or was
intended to promote, a federal crime of terrorism," increase the
offense level to at least a 32 (and by no less than 12 levels) and the
criminal history category to a Category VI (the maximum). According
to Application Note 2, "[f]or purposes of this guideline, an offense
that involved . . . obstructing an investigation of a federal crime of ter-
rorism, shall be considered to have involved, or to have been intended
to promote, that federal crime of terrorism." In Benkahla’s case,
applying the enhancement meant a Guidelines sentence over six times
longer than he otherwise would get — jumping from a range of 33
to 41 months to a range of 210 to 262 months.
The court held that Benkahla qualified for the enhancement. See
United States v. Benkahla, 501 F. Supp. 2d 748, 751-57 (E.D. Va.
2007). First, the investigations Benkahla obstructed concerned "fed-
eral crimes of terrorism" under the statutory definition of the term.
See 18 U.S.C. § 2332b(g)(5) (2006). The investigations concerned
offenses enumerated in § 2332b(g)(5), namely the provision of mate-
rial support to terrorists and terrorist groups. And the investigations
were sufficiently particular to satisfy § 2332b(g)(5), being oriented to
a set of people (particularly Abu Ali and Al-Timimi) who would ulti-
mately be prosecuted. Furthermore, the court thought Benkahla’s
false statements had genuinely impeded the government’s investiga-
tion, preventing it from finding out about Lashkar-e-Taiba training
camps or uncovering the true identities of Benkahla’s correspondents.
Benkahla’s Guidelines range was thus 210 to 262 months. But the
court thought the case called for a downward departure under § 4A1.3
or (in the alternative) a variance under 18 U.S.C. § 3553(a). "Sabri
Benkahla is not a terrorist," the court stated. Benkahla, 501 F. Supp.
2d at 759. He "has not committed any other criminal acts" and his
likelihood of doing so upon release is "infinitesimal." Id. Also,
Benkahla’s former co-defendants, the other ten members of the Dar
al-Arqam paintball group, had received lesser sentences for what were
more dangerous and more violent offenses, a disparity the court found
"staggering." Id. at 762. The court thus treated Benkahla as having a
Category I criminal history and sentenced him to 121 months.
Benkahla has appealed chiefly three issues: whether his second
prosecution violated principles of collateral estoppel; whether the trial
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 7
court admitted irrelevant or unduly prejudicial evidence concerning
radical Islamic terrorism; and whether the court improperly applied
the terrorism enhancement of Sentencing Guideline § 3A1.4. A fourth
issue — Benkahla’s claim that the government’s evidence was insuf-
ficient as a matter of law — received only passing attention in the
briefs and argument, and we find it unpersuasive.1 For its part, the
government takes issue with the district court’s characterization of
Benkahla and calls its calculation of his criminal history category
"baseless" and "mystifying," but, on the grounds that the sentence
imposed "does not constitute an abuse of discretion" when treated as
a variance, filed no cross-appeal. Appellee’s Br. 62.
II.
We begin with Benkahla’s collateral estoppel claim. Collateral
estoppel, in the criminal context, is one part of the Fifth Amend-
ment’s guarantee against double jeopardy. The guarantee as a whole
prohibits twice prosecuting or punishing a person for the same
offense. See United States v. Dixon, 509 U.S. 688, 695-96 (1993). Its
collateral estoppel strand "means simply that when an issue of ulti-
mate fact has once been determined by a valid and final judgment,
that issue cannot again be litigated between the same parties in any
future lawsuit." Ashe v. Swenson, 397 U.S. 436, 443 (1970). Benkahla
argues that, since he was acquitted of attending a jihadist training
camp in Afghanistan, he could not afterwards be prosecuted for
falsely denying that he attended such a camp in (as the government
framed it) "Pakistan or Afghanistan."
Benkahla’s claim arises in an area of legal tension. On the one
hand, there is some potential for abuse in the government’s procedure
of acquittal, questioning on matters related to the acquittal, and sec-
ond prosecution for some form of perjury. Accusing someone of a
false denial does indeed assume the truth of the matter denied, and
1
Only one part of Benkahla’s insufficiency of evidence argument is
substantive: the claim that the uncorroborated admissions that led the
trial court to strike Count 2 were repeated in Counts 1 and 4. In our judg-
ment, however, the admissions were corroborated, and, in any case,
Counts 1 and 4 rest mainly on other, unrelated false denials and false
statements.
8 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
prosecutors frustrated at an acquittal should not lightly be able to take
a second bite at the apple by bringing perjury charges afterwards. Nor
may the device of the "or" be used to create a spurious appearance of
dissimilarity between prosecutions with a common core.
On the other hand, a defendant does not win with acquittal a
license to commit perjury. Cf. United States v. Dunnigan, 507 U.S.
87, 96 (1993) ("[A] defendant’s right to testify does not include a
right to commit perjury."); Bryson v. United States, 396 U.S. 64, 72
(1969) ("Our legal system provides methods for challenging the Gov-
ernment’s right to ask questions — lying is not one of them."). Law
enforcement is entitled to keep investigating a criminal enterprise
even after one defendant is acquitted, and if that defendant is pre-
sented with a subpoena and cloaked with the dual protections of
court-ordered immunity and the guarantee against double jeopardy, he
may well be required to admit the very conduct he successfully
denied at trial.
Given this tension, a mechanical approach to the collateral estoppel
rule will not do — and the law has never required one. "[T]he rule
of collateral estoppel in criminal cases is not to be applied with the
hypertechnical and archaic approach of a 19th century pleading book,
but with realism and rationality. . . . The inquiry must be set in a prac-
tical frame and viewed with an eye to all the circumstances of the pro-
ceedings." Ashe, 397 U.S. at 444 (quotation omitted). A practical
approach means closely examining the record of both trials to discern
whether an "issue of ultimate fact" resolved in the first was indeed re-
opened in the second. Id. at 443. Thus our circuit has asked whether
the two trials involved an "identical" issue "necessarily adjudicated"
in the first, United States v. Nash, 447 F.2d 1382, 1386 (4th Cir.
1971); or whether an "identical" issue was "actually" and "necessarily
decided" in the first trial, after "a full and fair opportunity to litigate"
and a "final and valid" judgment, United States v. Fiel, 35 F.3d 997,
1006 (1994); or again whether "certain facts were necessarily deter-
mined in the first trial" that "constituted ultimate issues" in the sec-
ond, United States v. Yearwood, 518 F.3d 220, 229 (4th Cir. 2008)
(quotation omitted). Consistent throughout these cases over nearly
forty years is the detailed, trial-specific look at the factual issues
asked and answered at each prosecution.
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 9
Benkahla’s first prosecution was a bench trial that concluded with
a full judicial explanation of the verdict — a welcome thing, for a
good deal of the law in this area stems from the mysteries of the gen-
eral jury verdict. See, e.g., United States v. Ruhbayan, 325 F.3d 197,
203 (4th Cir. 2003) ("[D]oubt as to what was decided by a prior judg-
ment should be resolved against using it as an estoppel." (quotation
omitted)). There is no mystery as to why the court acquitted in the
first proceedings. What disturbed it was a lack of evidence showing
that the jihadist training camp was in Afghanistan rather than Paki-
stan, and, if it was in Afghanistan, that Benkahla provided any serious
form of support to the Taliban while there. "I would find . . . that at
some point, Mr. Benkahla has fired an automatic AK-47 and RPG"
while abroad, the court said. But much of the evidence "is equally
consistent in my view with going to a training camp in Pakistan as it
would be to go to Afghanistan." The question was nonetheless close;
the court stated that it "would be able to find this defendant guilty"
on a preponderance of the evidence standard. But the charges brought
required a high degree of certainty that the camp was located in
Afghanistan and that by attending Benkahla was actually fighting or
preparing to fight for the Taliban. At the factual heart of Benkahla’s
acquittal was a measure of uncertainty about those matters. In no way
did the court’s decision turn on doubt about whether Benkahla
attended a jihadist training camp somewhere.
The second prosecution, Benkahla argues, once again put whether
he attended a jihadist training camp in Afghanistan at issue. Asking
the second jury whether he falsely denied attending a camp in "Paki-
stan or Afghanistan," he claims, invited conviction on a thinly veiled
forbidden ground. But this argument mistakes the factual issues at
stake in both trials. An analogy helps: One may be quite uncertain
whether a man who always wears a blue or grey suit to work wore
the blue one on Monday — but quite certain that he wore one or the
other. In the same sense, the charges in the first trial required that the
court determine with some certainty whether Benkahla attended a
camp in Afghanistan and fought for the Taliban while there (the
equivalent of the "blue suit on Monday" question). It could not. But
the court was confident that Benkahla had attended a camp some-
where in the "Pakistan or Afghanistan" collective — and what mat-
tered factually in the second trial, given the new charges, was that
collective. Indeed, the form the government’s questioning took, ask-
10 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
ing about "Pakistan or Afghanistan," was not in this context a device
with which to evade a matter already decided. It was exactly the ques-
tion suggested by the first acquittal, a question to which both the first
court and the second jury were prepared to answer "Yes."
On that note, it is worth observing that the investigations in which
Benkahla was interviewed and the questions he was asked show no
sign of having been manufactured for the sake of a second prosecu-
tion. Given the character of the first court’s acquittal, the government
had every right to think Benkahla had attended a jihadist training
camp somewhere (it would have been anomalous for it to have
thought otherwise), and, for the best of reasons, the government was
still investigating those camps and the people involved in them.
Indeed, the two grand juries to which Benkahla testified were con-
vened to investigate violations of 18 U.S.C. §§ 2339A and 2339B,
which concern the provision of support to terrorists and terrorist orga-
nizations. And those investigations or connected ones eventuated in
indictments — including ones for serious terrorists like Al-Timimi
(whom Benkahla had been questioned about, leading to one of the
grounds for Benkahla’s false statements conviction), Abu Ali, and
Chandia. It was legitimate to ask Benkahla, even post-acquittal, about
his jihadist training in Pakistan or Afghanistan, and it was legitimate
to prosecute him when he spoke falsely about it.
Thus the issue of ultimate fact in Benkahla’s two prosecutions was
distinct, and collateral estoppel presents no bar to the second.
III.
Benkahla next claims that the trial court admitted irrelevant and
unduly prejudicial testimony and exhibits. He takes special exception
to the government’s terrorism expert, Evan Kohlmann, who runs a
consulting company on Islamic terrorism and regularly testifies in
terrorism-related prosecutions. Kohlmann’s testimony was proffered
mainly under Federal Rule of Evidence 702 to "assist the trier of fact
to understand the evidence or to determine a fact in issue," and he
gave background information on radical Islam and jihad generally
rather than discussing Benkahla individually. As to that background,
he spoke at length, beginning with the nature and history of the Tali-
ban government in Afghanistan but ultimately touching on many of
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 11
the individuals, ideologies, and organizations underlying the current
conflict. Benkahla takes special note of a passage in which Kohlmann
remarked that, for Osama bin Laden and al Qaeda, "Americans, no
matter where they are on earth, whether they’re civilian or military,
are considered to be a target. There are no innocent civilians."
Benkahla argues that this sort of testimony inflamed the jury and con-
demned him by association. It was too far afield from the issues in
his case to be relevant under Rules 401, 402, and 702, he claims, and
to the extent it was relevant, its probative value was substantially out-
weighed "by the danger of unfair prejudice, confusion of the issues,
. . . or needless presentation of cumulative evidence" under Rule 403.2
Benkahla makes a similar argument against the testimony and
exhibits admitted to prove that his false statements were material to
the government’s investigation — materiality being an element of
both the false declarations and false statements charges. See 18 U.S.C.
§§ 1001(a), 1623 (2000); United States v. Sarihifard, 155 F.3d 301,
306 (4th Cir. 1998) ("An essential element in both grand jury perjury
and the crime of making false statements is materiality."). This testi-
mony came mainly from Sarah Linden, an FBI agent working on
Benkahla’s case, who spoke at length about the set of investigations
connected to Dar al-Arqam and the network of terrorists and terrorist
organizations facilitating jihadist training abroad. The exhibits
included several dozen videos, photographs, and documents (how
many exactly is in dispute) in support of Linden’s testimony.
Benkahla argues that this evidence went well beyond what was neces-
sary to establish materiality and became "a vehicle for placing irrele-
vant and prejudicial statements and events before the jury."
Appellant’s Br. 41. He particularly objects to a taped confession from
Abu Ali that was played for the jury.
Judgments of evidentiary relevance and prejudice are fundamen-
tally a matter of trial management, for "[t]rial judges are much closer
to the pulse of a trial than we can ever be and broad discretion is nec-
essarily accorded them." United States v. Simpson, 910 F.2d 154, 157
(4th Cir. 1990) (quotation omitted). The standard of review therefore
2
Benkahla also attacks Kohlmann’s qualifications as an expert, but
those qualifications were obviously substantial and the district court
acted well within its discretion in determining that they were sufficient.
12 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
counsels deference to the discretion of trial courts: "In a criminal
appeal, we will not vacate a conviction unless we find that the district
court judge acted arbitrarily or irrationally" in admitting evidence.
United States v. Ham, 998 F.2d 1247, 1252 (4th Cir. 1993); see also
United States v. Udeozor, 515 F.3d 260, 265 (4th Cir. 2008) (requir-
ing "extraordinary circumstances" where discretion was "plainly
abused") (quotation omitted).
For Kohlmann, the relevance inquiry turns on Rule 702: His testi-
mony had to "assist the trier of fact to understand the evidence or to
determine a fact in issue." See Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharm., Inc.,
509 U.S. 579, 591 (1993). The trial court could fairly conclude that
it did. The evidence in this case was complicated, touching by neces-
sity on a wide variety of ideas, terms, people, and organizations con-
nected to radical Islam. The indictment alone refers to "jihad"; "jihad
training camp[s]" and the "organizations" participating in them;
"Lashkar-e-Taiba"; "other jihad organizations" espousing violence
toward "the United States and countries with whom the United States
was at peace"; "the Taliban"; "the territory of Afghanistan controlled
by the Taliban"; "the territory . . . across the border in Pakistan"; "the
area north of Peshawar in Pakistan"; "lectures at Dar Al-Arqam"; the
Arabic word "salaam"; and men named (or identified as) "Haroon,"
"Myunus," "Abdullah," "Ibrahim Buisir," "Muhammad Siddique,"
"Abdel Atti Al Bakai," "Emara Al Bashir Binkaid," and "Ali Al-
Timimi." Of course, the evidence required to evaluate the indictment
involved a broader frame of reference still. In these circumstances, the
trial judge could well conclude that lengthy testimony about various
aspects of radical Islam was appropriate, and indeed necessary, for the
jury "to understand the evidence" and "determine [the] fact[s]."
For Linden and the exhibits that supported her testimony, the rele-
vance inquiry turns on materiality under 18 U.S.C. §§ 1001(a) and
1623. A statement is "material," the Supreme Court has held, "if it has
a natural tendency to influence, or was capable of influencing, the
decision of the decisionmaking body to which it was addressed."
Kungys v. United States, 485 U.S. 759, 770 (1988). Thus it was Lin-
den’s task, with the help of the exhibits, to "show[ ] a nexus between
the false statements and the scope of the grand jury’s [and FBI’s]
investigation," and she had some leeway in doing so: "Given the
wide-ranging investigative function of the grand jury, the materiality
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 13
of any line of inquiry pursued by a grand jury must be broadly con-
strued." United States v. Farnham, 791 F.2d 331, 333-34 (4th Cir.
1986) (citation omitted). Here, Linden essentially testified to the
FBI’s and grand juries’ investigations of jihadist camps abroad, the
people who facilitate training at them, and the militants associated
with Dar al-Arqam. These are exactly the subjects of Benkahla’s
alleged false denials and false statements. The relevance is clear.
Thus we come to the Rule 403 heart of Benkahla’s argument
against the witnesses and exhibits. At base, his contention is that the
subject of terrorism arouses so much passion these days that its prom-
inent presence at his trial put him at risk of a jury "excited to irratio-
nal behavior." Udeozor, 515 F.3d at 264 (quotation omitted). He cites
as analogy United States v. Ham, where we reversed a trial judge
under Rule 403 for admitting evidence of child molestation in a fraud
case. 998 F.2d at 1251-54.
Undoubtedly, some of what Kohlmann and Linden had to say, and
some of what the exhibits showed, was alarming. Undoubtedly the
evidence’s scope was wide. But the jury in this case acquitted
Benkahla of several alleged falsehoods — not exactly the mark of
irrational fervor. Cf. United States v. Chandia, 514 F.3d 365, 375 (4th
Cir. 2008) (finding the claim that evidence of terrorism spurred an
emotional conviction "discredited to a significant extent by the jury’s
rejection of one of the four counts charged"). And more importantly,
Rule 403 is not an injunction to exclude prejudicial evidence but a
mandate, entrusted mainly to the trial court, to weigh prejudice
against probative value. See United States v. Hammoud, 381 F.3d
316, 341 (4th Cir. 2004) ("The mere fact that the evidence will dam-
age the defendant’s case is not enough — the evidence must be
unfairly prejudicial, and the unfair prejudice must substantially out-
weigh the probative value of the evidence." (quotation omitted,
emphasis in original)), vacated on unrelated grounds, 543 U.S. 1097
(2005). In this case, the relevance of the challenged evidence cannot
be doubted, and the same qualities that made it relevant gave it a pro-
bative value that the trial judge could fairly think outweighed its prej-
udicial risk. To reverse that judge for an abuse of discretion would
betray too much distrust of the ability of the adversary process to
reach just results when the evidence on both sides is in.
14 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
The trial judge managed the proceedings in this case with care and
skill, and we see no abuse of discretion in the testimony and exhibits
admitted.
IV.
Finally, Benkahla claims that the district court should not in his
case have applied the terrorism enhancement of U.S. Sentencing
Guidelines Manual § 3A1.4 (2007). Under Gall v. United States, "a
district court should begin all sentencing proceedings by correctly cal-
culating the applicable Guidelines range" and then decide whether "an
outside-Guidelines sentence is warranted." 552 U.S. _, 128 S. Ct. 586,
596-97 (2007). The appellate court must then "review the sentence
under an abuse-of-discretion standard" with an eye toward both "pro-
cedural" and "substantive reasonableness." Id. at 597. Here, Benkahla
argues that the terrorism enhancement led the district court to the
wrong starting point.
The Guideline, adopted November 1, 1995, states:
§ 3A1.4. Terrorism
(a) If the offense is a felony that involved, or was intended
to promote, a federal crime of terrorism, increase by 12
levels; but if the resulting offense level is less than level 32,
increase to level 32.
(b) In each such case, the defendant’s criminal history cate-
gory from Chapter Four (Criminal History and Criminal
Livelihood) shall be Category VI.
Two relevant application notes follow:
1. "Federal Crime of Terrorism" Defined. — For purposes
of this guideline, "federal crime of terrorism" has the
meaning given that term in 18 U.S.C. § 2332b(g)(5).
2. Harboring, Concealing, and Obstruction Offenses. —
For purposes of this guideline, an offense that involved
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 15
. . . obstructing an investigation of a federal crime of
terrorism, shall be considered to have involved, or to
have been intended to promote, that federal crime of
terrorism.
Application Note 1 took shape in response to the Antiterrorism and
Effective Death Penalty Act of 1996. See U.S. Sentencing Guidelines
Manual app. C, amend. 539 (2007). The statute it refers to, 18 U.S.C.
§ 2332b(g)(5) (2006), states:
[T]he term "Federal crime of terrorism" means an offense
that —
(A) is calculated to influence or affect the conduct of gov-
ernment by intimidation or coercion, or to retaliate
against government conduct; and
(B) is a violation of . . . 2339A (relating to providing
material support to terrorists), 2339B (relating to pro-
viding material support to terrorist organizations) . . . .
Application Note 2 was passed in response to the USA Patriot Act of
2001 "to clarify that § 3A1.4 may apply in the case of offenses that
occurred after the commission of the federal crime of terrorism." U.S.
Sentencing Guidelines Manual app. C, amdt. 637 (2007).
In light of these provisions, applying § 3A1.4 in Benkahla’s case
seems straightforward. He was convicted of obstruction offenses.
Application Note 2 says that obstruction offenses qualify for the
enhancement so long as the thing obstructed qualifies as an investiga-
tion into a "federal crime of terrorism." Application Note 1 tells us
that the term "federal crime of terrorism" has a statutory definition.
The statute, 18 U.S.C. § 2332b(g)(5), defines it in two parts. Benkahla
obstructed a grand jury investigation into violations of §§ 2339A and
2339B, which satisfies the second part. And the violations involved
jihadist camps training people to fight the governments of India, Rus-
sia, and the United States, which satisfies the first.
Nonetheless, Benkahla presents several arguments against applying
the enhancement to him. First, with reference to the United States v.
16 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
Booker line of cases, Benkahla contends that applying the enhance-
ment depended on finding as a matter of fact that he "actually
obstructed an investigation of a federal crime of terrorism." Appel-
lant’s Br. 22. The trial court, not the jury, found that fact. His sen-
tence plainly would not survive reasonableness review, he argues, but
for that fact. And therein lies the problem, for if a sentence depends
on judge-found facts to survive reasonableness review, he contends,
it violates the Sixth Amendment.
This argument is too creative for the law as it stands. Sentencing
judges may find facts relevant to determining a Guidelines range by
a preponderance of the evidence, so long as that Guidelines sentence
is treated as advisory and falls within the statutory maximum autho-
rized by the jury’s verdict. Indeed, "many individual Guidelines apply
higher sentences in the presence of special facts" and "[i]n many
cases, the sentencing judge, not the jury, will determine the existence
of those facts." Rita v. United States, 551 U.S. _, 127 S. Ct. 2456,
2465 (2007). That "does not violate the Sixth Amendment," however,
because "[a]s far as the law is concerned, the judge could disregard
the Guidelines and apply the same sentence . . . in the absence of the
special facts." Id. at 2465-66; see also United States v. Battle, 499
F.3d 315, 322-23 (4th Cir. 2007) ("When applying the Guidelines in
an advisory manner, the district court can make factual findings using
the preponderance of the evidence standard."). The point is thus that
the Guidelines must be advisory, not that judges may find no facts.
Here, in a case in which the district court slashed the defendant’s
Guidelines sentence in half, no one could doubt that the Guidelines
were advisory. There is no Sixth Amendment violation.
Benkahla next argues that Application Note 2 contradicts Guideline
§ 3A1.4, and we should therefore hold Application Note 2 invalid.
See Stinson v. United States, 508 U.S. 36, 43 (1993) ("[If] commen-
tary and the guideline it interprets are inconsistent in that following
one will result in violating the dictates of the other, the Sentencing
Reform Act itself commands compliance with the guideline."). The
two must contradict, he claims, because a person can obstruct an
investigation into a federal crime of terrorism without necessarily
committing, in § 3A1.4’s words, "a felony that involved, or was
intended to promote, a federal crime of terrorism."
UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA 17
In general, we have a duty to harmonize Guidelines and commen-
tary. See Stinson, 508 U.S. at 44-46; United States v. Pedragh, 225
F.3d 240, 244-45 (2d Cir. 2000). One might wonder, in the abstract,
whether obstructing an investigation into a federal crime of terrorism
necessarily "involve[s]" a federal crime of terrorism, but plainly one
could think that it does, and Application Note 2 decides the matter.
Indeed, the language of Application Note 2 is identical in all material
respects to the language of § 3A1.4 itself. There is no inconsistency
of any kind.
Finally, Benkahla claims that Application Note 2, even if constitu-
tional and consistent with § 3A1.4, does not apply to him. The argu-
ment rests less on Application Note 2 itself than on two conclusions
of law the district court came to in the course of its sentencing deci-
sion. The court reasoned that to qualify for the enhancement,
Benkahla had to actually obstruct a terrorism investigation (not just
attempt to obstruct one), and that the investigation itself had to be
specific and targeted, oriented to particular terrorism offenses rather
than to general intelligence-gathering. See United States v. Benkahla,
501 F. Supp. 2d 748, 751-54, 756 (E.D. Va. 2007). Benkahla echoes
these conclusions of law, but contrary to the district court, insists that
the investigation in his case was too general, and his obstruction too
ineffectual, for the enhancement to apply.
There is no need to review the district court’s legal conclusions.
Whether those conclusions are correct or incorrect, the court’s factual
findings clearly support applying the enhancement. See Gall, 128 S.
Ct. at 597 (holding that appellate courts review district courts’ sen-
tencing facts for clear error). All the evidence indicates that Benkahla
attended a jihadist training camp abroad, was acquainted with a net-
work of people involved in violent jihad and terrorism, and lied about
both. Moreover, the sentencing judge, after a meticulous review of the
evidence, concluded that "[i]n the same investigation in which Defen-
dant was questioned, eight individuals to whom he was connected
went to foreign jihad training camps and one was convicted of solicit-
ing treason to fight against the United States." Benkahla, 501 F. Supp.
2d at 755. Testimony secured from some of those individuals led to
"convictions for specific terrorist acts in Australia, France, and
England." Id. And "[m]ost notable . . . at the time Defendant was
questioned, Ali Al-Timimi and Ahmed Abu-Ali were yet to be
18 UNITED STATES v. BENKAHLA
indicted." Id. Benkahla "had relationships with both." Id. The district
court also found that Benkahla’s falsehoods not only delayed some
parts of the investigation, but wholly frustrated others. When
Benkahla was questioned, "the Government did not know the details
about Lashkar-e-Taiba training camps, training techniques, curricu-
lum, and locations," the court wrote. Id. at 757. In addition, "because
of Defendant’s false or intentionally misleading answers, the Govern-
ment still does not know the identity or whereabouts of the persons
about whom Defendant was questioned, their involvement with
Lashkar-e-Taiba, and their role in aiding persons to obtain jihad train-
ing." Id.
This factual amplitude stands in contrast to the situation in United
States v. Chandia, 514 F.3d 365 (4th Cir. 2008), on which Benkahla
relies. There we vacated and remanded an application of the terrorism
enhancement because the district court "appeared to assume (errone-
ously) that the enhancement automatically applies to a material sup-
port conviction" and so "did not make any factual findings related to
the intent element." Id. at 376. Here, the district court made extensive
factual findings and the terrorism enhancement is doing just what it
ought to do: Punishing more harshly than other criminals those whose
wrongs served an end more terrible than other crimes.
We therefore approve the application of the terrorism enhancement
to Benkahla. As the government has not appealed the district’s court’s
downward departure or variance, we do not address it.
V.
For the foregoing reasons, the judgment is in all respects
AFFIRMED.