Cassirer v. Kingdom of Spain

FOR PUBLICATION
UNITED STATES COURT OF APPEALS
FOR THE NINTH CIRCUIT

CLAUDE CASSIRER, 
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
KINGDOM OF SPAIN, a foreign state,
Defendant, No. 06-56325
and  D.C. No.
05-CV-03459-GAF
THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
FOUNDATION, an agency or
instrumentality of the Kingdom of
Spain,
Defendant-Appellant.


CLAUDE CASSIRER, 
Plaintiff-Appellee,
v.
KINGDOM OF SPAIN, a foreign state, No. 06-56406
Defendant-Appellant,
and  D.C. No.
CV-05-03459-GAF
THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION OPINION
FOUNDATION, an agency or
instrumentality of the Kingdom of
Spain,
Defendant.

Appeal from the United States District Court
for the Central District of California
Gary A. Feess, District Judge, Presiding

11457
11458 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Argued and Submitted
March 24, 2010—San Francisco, California

Filed August 12, 2010

Before: Alex Kozinski, Chief Judge, Pamela Ann Rymer,
Andrew J. Kleinfeld, Sidney R. Thomas, Barry G. Silverman,
William A. Fletcher, Ronald M. Gould, Richard A. Paez,
Consuelo M. Callahan, Carlos T. Bea and N. Randy Smith,
Circuit Judges.

Opinion by Judge Rymer;
Dissent by Judge Gould
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11461

COUNSEL

Thaddeus J. Stauber, (argued), Walter T. Johnson, Nixon Pea-
body LLP, Los Angeles, California, for defendants-appellants
Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection Foundation. William M. Bar-
ron, Alston & Bird LLP, New York, New York; Anthony A.
De Corso, Beck, De Corso, Daly, Kreindler & Harris, Los
Angeles, California, for defendant-appellant Kingdom of
Spain.

Stuart R. Dunwoody, Davis Wright Tremaine LLP, Seattle,
Washington, for the plaintiff-appellee.

OPINION

RYMER, Circuit Judge:

Claude Cassirer is an American citizen whose grandmoth-
er’s Pissarro painting was allegedly confiscated in 1939 by an
agent of the Nazi government in Germany because she was a
Jew. He filed suit in federal district court to recover the paint-
ing, or damages, from the Kingdom of Spain and the Thyssen-
Bornemisza Collection Foundation, an instrumentality of
Spain, which now claims to own the painting. Spain and the
Foundation moved to dismiss, asserting, among other things,
sovereign immunity pursuant to the Foreign Sovereign Immu-
nities Act (FSIA), 28 U.S.C. § 1602, et seq. The FSIA makes
a foreign state immune from suit in the courts of the United
States unless an exception applies. The district court denied
the motions, Cassirer v. Kingdom of Spain, 461 F. Supp. 2d
1157 (C.D. Cal. 2006), and also denied motions to dismiss for
lack of a case or controversy, personal jurisdiction, and proper
11462 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
venue. Spain and the Foundation appealed, raising most of
these issues.

Cassirer relies on the “international takings” or “expropria-
tion” exception in the FSIA that confers subject matter juris-
diction over a foreign state when “rights in property taken in
violation of international law” are at issue; the property is
owned “by an agency or instrumentality of the foreign state”;
and the instrumentality “is engaged in a commercial activity
in the United States.” 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(3). Spain and the
Foundation maintain that this exception is not applicable
because the painting was taken in violation of international
law by Germany, not by either of them, and because the
Foundation is not engaged in commercial activity in the
United States sufficient to trigger the exception. Spain con-
tends that Cassirer should have exhausted remedies in Ger-
many or Spain, but failed to do so. Spain also contests the
existence of a case or controversy, while the Foundation chal-
lenges the exercise of personal jurisdiction.

Our review is constrained because this is an appeal before
final judgment has been entered. Generally, we may review
only final decisions of a district court, but our jurisdiction also
extends to a small category of collateral orders that are sepa-
rate from the merits and can’t effectively be reviewed on
appeal from a final judgment. A ruling that denies sovereign
immunity is such an order. Consequently, we may hear the
appeal taken from the district court’s order denying the
motions to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction
based on sovereign immunity. But its decision declining to
dismiss the action for lack of personal jurisdiction and a case
or controversy is fully reviewable on appeal after judgment.
For this reason we have no appellate jurisdiction over these
issues, and will dismiss the appeal as to them.

On the issue of sovereign immunity, we conclude that
§ 1605(a)(3) does not require the foreign state against whom
the claim is made to be the one that took the property. We are
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11463
satisfied that the record supports the district court’s finding of
a sufficient commercial activity in the United States by the
Foundation. The statute does not mandate that the plaintiff
exhaust local remedies for jurisdiction to lie, and we do not
consider a prudential exhaustion analysis given our limited
appellate jurisdiction. This being so, we will affirm the order
that the expropriation exception applies such that the court
has subject matter jurisdiction over the action as to both Spain
and the Foundation.

I

The property at issue is an oil painting by the French
impressionist master Camille Pissarro, Rue Saint-Honoré,
après-midi, effet de pluie.1 It was completed in 1897 and sold
in 1898 to Cassirer’s great-grandfather, Julius Cassirer, who
lived in Germany. The painting remained in the family for
some forty years, eventually passing to Lilly Cassirer, Cas-
sirer’s grandmother, upon her husband’s death. She later
remarried.

In 1939 Lilly decided she had no choice but to leave Ger-
many. By that time — as the district court judicially noticed
— German Jews had been deprived of their civil rights,
including their German citizenship;2 their property was being
“Aryanized”; and the Kristallnacht pogroms had taken place
throughout the country. Permission was required both to leave
and to take belongings. The Nazi government appointed
1
Except as noted, we take the facts as alleged in the complaint as true
because we are reviewing a denial of a motion to dismiss. Altmann v.
Republic of Austria, 317 F.3d 954, 961-62 (9th Cir. 2002), amended by
327 F.3d 1246 (9th Cir. 2003), aff’d by 541 U.S. 677 (2004).
2
Citizenship matters because we have held that the takings exception,
at issue here, does not apply where the plaintiff is a citizen of the country
that expropriates his property. Chuidian v. Philippine Nat’l Bank, 912 F.2d
1095, 1105 (9th Cir. 1990). The district court’s determination that Lilly
was no longer regarded by Germany as a German citizen is not challenged
on appeal.
11464 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Munich art dealer Jakob Scheidwimmer as the official
appraiser to evaluate the works of art, including the Pissarro
painting, that Lilly wished to take with her. Scheidwimmer
refused to allow her to take the painting out of Germany and
demanded that she hand it over to him for approximately
$360. Fearing she would not otherwise be allowed to go, and
knowing she would not actually get the money because the
funds would be paid into a blocked account, Lilly complied.

Scheidwimmer traded the painting to another art dealer,
who was also persecuted and fled Germany for Holland. After
Germany invaded Holland, the Gestapo confiscated the paint-
ing and returned it to Germany, where it was sold at auction
to an anonymous purchaser in 1943. It turned up at a New
York gallery in 1952 and was sold to a St. Louis collector; it
was sold again in 1976 to a New York art dealer who, in turn,
sold it to Baron Hans-Heinrich Thyssen-Bornemisza.
Bornemisza lived in Switzerland and was a preeminent pri-
vate collector.

In 1988, Spain paid the Baron $50 million to lease his col-
lection for ten years. Five years into the lease, Spain paid the
Foundation $327 million to purchase the entire collection,
including the Pissarro painting. As part of the agreement,
Spain provided the Villahermosa Palace in Madrid to the
Foundation, free of charge, for use as the Thyssen-
Bornemisza Museum.

Claude Cassirer, Lilly’s heir, discovered in 2000 that the
painting was on display at the Thyssen-Bornemisza Museum
in Madrid. He asked Spain’s Minister for Education, Culture
and Sports, who was chair of the Foundation’s board, to
return it. The request was refused. In 2003, five members of
Congress wrote the Minister requesting return of the painting;
this request, too, was rejected. Cassirer did not try to obtain
the painting through judicial proceedings in Spain, or to pur-
sue other remedies in Spain or Germany, before bringing suit
in the United States.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11465
He filed this action against the Foundation and Spain in the
Central District of California on May 10, 2005. The complaint
avers that Germany confiscated the painting based on Lilly’s
status as a Jew and as part of its genocide against Jews; hence
the taking was in violation of international law. It alleges that
the Foundation is engaged in numerous commercial activities
in the United States that include borrowing art works from
American museums; encouraging United States residents to
visit the museum and accepting entrance fees from them; sell-
ing various items to United States citizens including images
of the painting; and maintaining a web site where United
States citizens may buy admission tickets using United States
credit cards and view the paintings on display, including Rue
Saint-Honoré, après-midi, effect de pluie. The complaint
seeks imposition of a constructive trust and return of the
painting or, alternatively, recovery of damages for conversion.

The Foundation filed a motion to dismiss based on lack of
subject matter and personal jurisdiction, and improper venue.
Spain followed with its own motion to dismiss. The district
court allowed Cassirer to conduct jurisdictional discovery into
the Foundation’s commercial activity in the United States.
Both motions were then denied. The court certified the matter
for interlocutory appeal under 28 U.S.C. § 1292(b), though
Spain and the Foundation abjured this route in favor of appeal
on the basis of the collateral order doctrine.

In this court, Cassirer filed a motion to dismiss as to issues
other than those pertaining to sovereign immunity on the
ground that appellate jurisdiction is lacking.3 The original
panel agreed that the district court’s denial of motions to dis-
miss for lack of personal jurisdiction and case or controversy
is not immediately appealable as a collateral order. Cassirer
v. Kingdom of Spain, 580 F.3d 1048, 1054-55 (9th Cir. 2009).
The panel held that § 1605(a)(3) does not require Spain to be
3
Cassirer also moved to expedite the Foundation’s appeal. We granted
this motion and sua sponte ordered the appeals to be consolidated.
11466 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
the entity that expropriated the painting in violation of inter-
national law, and that the Foundation, which owns the paint-
ing, engaged in sufficient commercial activity in the United
States to satisfy the FSIA. It further held that exhaustion is not
statutorily required; however, a majority concluded that the
district court erred in failing to conduct a prudential exhaus-
tion analysis, and remanded for it to do so. We decided to
rehear the case en banc. Cassirer v. Kingdom of Spain, 590
F.3d 981 (9th Cir. 2009).4

II

We must consider the bounds of our appellate jurisdiction
at the outset. By statute, 28 U.S.C. § 1291, we have jurisdic-
tion to review “final decisions” of the district court. A final
decision is one that ends the litigation on the merits, Am.
States Ins. Co. v. Dastar Corp., 318 F.3d 881, 884 (9th Cir.
2003), which no decision that is before us does. Still, we may
review “a small category of decisions that, although they do
not end the litigation, must nonetheless be considered
‘final.’ ” Swint v. Chambers County Comm’n, 514 U.S. 35, 42
(1995) (quoting Cohen v. Beneficial Indus. Loan Corp., 337
U.S. 541, 546 (1949)). “That small category includes only
decisions that are conclusive, that resolve important questions
separate from the merits, and that are effectively unreview-
able on appeal from the final judgment in the underlying
action.” Id.

It is well settled that sovereign immunity is within this
small category of cases from which an immediate appeal will
lie. See, e.g., Gupta v. Thai Airways Int’l, Ltd., 487 F.3d 759,
4
As part of our en banc process we asked the parties to file simultaneous
briefs as to whether this matter should be reheard en banc. Spain and the
Foundation took the position that rehearing en banc is unnecessary
because they intend to file a motion to dismiss the complaint on the
ground that the claims are time-barred under Von Saher v. Norton Simon
Museum of Art, 578 F.3d 1016 (9th Cir. 2009). We express no opinion on
the merits of this proposition.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11467
763-65 (9th Cir. 2007); In re Republic of the Philippines, 309
F.3d 1143, 1148-49 (9th Cir. 2002). The point of immunity is
to protect a foreign state that is entitled to it from being sub-
jected to the jurisdiction of courts in this country, protection
which would be meaningless were the foreign state forced to
wait until the action is resolved on the merits to vindicate its
right not to be in court at all. Thus, we have jurisdiction to
review the district court’s order denying sovereign immunity.

The same is not true of the court’s orders denying motions
to dismiss for lack of a case or controversy and personal juris-
diction. Van Cauwenberghe v. Biard, 486 U.S. 517, 526-27
(1988), and Batzel v. Smith, 333 F.3d 1018, 1023 (9th Cir.
2003), both recognize that denial of a motion to dismiss for
lack of personal jurisdiction is neither a final decision nor
appealable under the collateral order doctrine. The FSIA pres-
ents a novel situation, however, in that personal jurisdiction
over a foreign state exists under the statute if it is not immune
and if proper service has been made. 28 U.S.C. § 1330(b);
Altmann, 317 F.3d at 969. Because the one follows from the
other, the rulings arguably are so related that we should con-
sider extending our collateral order jurisdiction over sover-
eign immunity to resolve personal jurisdiction as well. See
Swint, 514 U.S. at 50-51 (discussing but not deciding whether
a court of appeals with jurisdiction over one ruling can review
related rulings that are not themselves independently review-
able). We see no reason to do so here, for the decision points
are different.

[1] The Foundation argues that exercising personal juris-
diction offends due process. To resolve this argument, we
would need to decide whether a foreign state or an instrumen-
tality of a foreign state is a “person” for purposes of the Due
Process Clause, whether the FSIA incorporates the require-
ments of “minimum contacts,” and whether the Foundation
has sufficient minimum contacts with the United States to
support general or specific jurisdiction. Its stance on sover-
eign immunity, on the other hand, turns on whether the tak-
11468 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
ings exception applies only to a foreign state that has itself
taken property in violation of international law, and whether
the Foundation has engaged in a commercial activity in the
United States. In short, a decision that a foreign state is not
entitled to sovereign immunity under the FSIA is not “inextri-
cably intertwined” with a decision that the exercise of per-
sonal jurisdiction comports with due process. See id. at 51.
Therefore, we decline to expand our collateral order jurisdic-
tion to append review of the latter to the former.

[2] Although we have not previously addressed whether
denial of a motion to dismiss for lack of a case or controversy
is an immediately appealable collateral order, other circuits
have indicated that questions of standing, case or controversy,
and ripeness are, like the question of personal jurisdiction, not
immediately appealable. See, e.g., Moniz v. City of Fort Lau-
derdale, 145 F.3d 1278, 1281 n.3 (11th Cir. 1998) (standing);
Triad Assocs., Inc. v. Robinson, 10 F.3d 492, 496-97 n.2 (7th
Cir. 1993) (same); Crymes v. DeKalb County, 923 F.2d 1482,
1484 (11th Cir. 1991) (ripeness); Shanks v. City of Dallas,
752 F.2d 1092, 1098 n.9 (5th Cir. 1985) (case or controversy
and standing); City of Detroit v. Grinnell Corp., 495 F.2d 448,
474-75 (2d Cir. 1974) (ripeness and standing), abrogated on
other grounds by Goldberger v. Integrated Res., Inc., 209
F.3d 43 (2d Cir. 2000). We routinely consider these issues on
appeal from a final judgment, see, e.g., Oregon v. Legal
Servs. Corp., 552 F.3d 965, 969 (9th Cir. 2009), and are not
persuaded that the district court’s order refusing to dismiss
this action for lack of a case or controversy should be imme-
diately appealable. While a favorable ruling would remove
Spain from the lawsuit just as immunity would do, so too
would prevailing on a myriad of other pretrial motions.
Achieving an effectively similar result is no reason to bring
denial of such motions within the “small category” of deci-
sions that merit immediate review, otherwise the category
would be small no longer.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11469
[3] Accordingly, we have no appellate jurisdiction to
review the district court’s denial of motions to dismiss for
lack of personal jurisdiction and a case or controversy.

III

As both the Supreme Court and we have explained the gen-
esis of the FSIA at length, see Republic of Austria v. Altmann,
541 U.S. 677, 688-91 (2004); Verlinden B.V. v. Central Bank
of Nigeria, 461 U.S. 480, 486-89 (1983); Siderman de Blake
v. Republic of Argentina, 965 F.2d 699, 705-06 (9th Cir.
1992), we will not do so again except to say that in 1976,
Congress codified the “restrictive principle” of sovereign
immunity with “a comprehensive statute containing a ‘set of
legal standards governing claims of immunity in every civil
action against a foreign state or its political subdivisions,
agencies, or instrumentalities.’ ” Altmann, 541 U.S. at 691
(quoting Verlinden, 461 U.S. at 488). The “restrictive princi-
ple,” then embraced by most nation states, recognized immu-
nity for public acts, that is to say, acts of a governmental
nature typically performed by a foreign state, but not for acts
of a private nature even though undertaken by a foreign state.
Commercial activity is a good example of conduct that would
ordinarily be engaged in by a private entity. If a foreign state
is not entitled to immunity, then it is liable on claims for relief
just like a private individual. 28 U.S.C. § 1606.

“The language and history of the FSIA clearly establish
that the Act was not intended to affect the substantive law
determining the liability of a foreign state or instrumentality
. . . .” First Nat’l City Bank v. Banco Para El Comercio, 462
U.S. 611, 620 (1983); H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at 12 (1976),
as reprinted in 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 6604, 6610 (“The bill is
not intended to affect the substantive law of liability.”).5 Put
differently, the FSIA simply limits the jurisdiction of Ameri-
5
The House bill was passed in lieu of the Senate bill, so the House
Report is the operative legislative history.
11470 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
can courts to hear claims against foreign states. It creates no
cause of action.

Sovereign immunity is a threshold issue because it goes to
the court’s subject matter jurisdiction. It is a question of law
that we review de novo, although to the extent informed by
factual findings made by the district court, those findings are
reviewed for clear error.

Under the statutory scheme, a district court has subject mat-
ter jurisdiction over claims against a foreign state with respect
to which the foreign state is not entitled to immunity. 28
U.S.C. § 1330(a).6 A foreign state is immune except as speci-
fied in the FSIA. 28 U.S.C. § 1604.7 The FSIA has a number
of exceptions,8 but Cassirer invokes only the “expropriation”
exception in § 1605(a)(3). Section 1605(a)(3) provides that a
foreign state is not immune in any case

in which rights in property taken in violation of
international law are in issue and that property or
6
Section 1330(a) provides:
The district courts shall have original jurisdiction without regard
to amount in controversy of any nonjury civil action against a
foreign state as defined in section 1603(a) of this title as to any
claim for relief in personam with respect to which the foreign
state is not entitled to immunity either under sections 1605-1607
of this title or under any applicable international agreement.
7
Section 1604 provides:
Subject to existing international agreements to which the United
States is a party at the time of enactment of this Act a foreign
state shall be immune from the jurisdiction of the courts of the
United States and of the States except as provided in sections
1605 to 1607 of this chapter.
8
There are exceptions for waiver, id. § 1605(a)(1); commercial activity,
id. § 1605(a)(2); expropriation, id. § 1605(a)(3); succession, id. § 1605(a)
(4); personal injury in the United States, id. § 1605(a)(5); arbitration, id.
§ 1605(a)(6); maritime liens, id. § 1605(b); terrorism, id. § 1605A; and
counterclaims, id. § 1607.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11471
any property exchanged for such property is present
in the United States in connection with a commercial
activity carried on in the United States by the foreign
state; or that property or any property exchanged for
such property is owned or operated by an agency or
instrumentality of the foreign state and that agency
or instrumentality is engaged in a commercial activ-
ity in the United States[.]

So far as the first condition is concerned, a taking offends
international law when it does not serve a public purpose,
when it discriminates against those who are not nationals of
the country, or when it is not accomplished with payment of
just compensation. See Siderman, 965 F.2d at 711-12; West v.
Multibanco Comermex, S.A., 807 F.2d 820, 831-33 (9th Cir.
1987). As we noted in Siderman, both the House Report on
the FSIA and the Restatement of Foreign Relations Law
reflect a similar understanding.9 “At the jurisdictional stage,
we need not decide whether the taking actually violated inter-
national law; as long as a ‘claim is substantial and non-
frivolous, it provides a sufficient basis for the exercise of our
jurisdiction.’ ” Siderman, 965 F.3d at 711 (quoting West, 807
F.2d at 826). On appeal, neither Spain nor the Foundation
contends that Germany’s actions with respect to the painting
were not a taking in violation of international law.

So far as the commercial activity prong is concerned, just
the second clause is pertinent here as there is no dispute the
painting is not “present in the United States.” Thus, there is
9
The House Report describes the phrase “taken in violation of interna-
tional law” as including expropriations that are “arbitrary or discrimina-
tory in nature,” or done “without payment of the prompt adequate and
effective compensation required by international law.” 965 F.2d at 712
(quoting H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at 19-20). The Restatement provides that
a foreign state is responsible for injury from a taking that “(a) is not for
a public purpose, or (b) is discriminatory, or (c) is not accompanied by
provision for just compensation. . . .” Restatement (Third) of Foreign
Relations Law of the United States § 712 (1987).
11472 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
jurisdiction under § 1605(a)(3) if the Foundation, which
admittedly owns the painting and concedes it is an instrumen-
tality of Spain for purposes of the statute, “is engaged in a
commercial activity in the United States.” “A ‘commercial
activity’ means either a regular course of commercial conduct
or a particular commercial transaction or act. The commercial
character of an activity shall be determined by reference to the
nature of the course of conduct or particular transaction or act,
rather than by reference to its purpose.” 28 U.S.C. § 1603(d).

With this by way of background, we turn to the questions
that are dispositive here: whether § 1605(a)(3) covers a claim
against Spain and the Foundation when neither was the for-
eign state that took the painting in violation of international
law; whether the Foundation is engaged in a sufficient com-
mercial activity in the United States; and whether exhaustion
of remedies is required as a prerequisite to jurisdiction.

A

The Foundation’s lead point, joined by Spain, is that the
takings exception applies only to the foreign state that expro-
priated the property and not to some later purchaser who was
not complicit in the taking. More specifically, the Foundation
contends that because the language of § 1605(a)(3) does not
identify the taker, the text can as easily be read to imply a tak-
ing “by the foreign state” as a taking “by any foreign state.”

[4] We agree with the district court that the plain language
of the statute does not require that the foreign state against
whom the claim is made be the entity which took the property
in violation of international law. Section 1605(a)(3) simply
excepts from immunity “a foreign state” in any case “in which
rights in property taken in violation of international law are
in issue.” (emphasis added). The text is written in the passive
voice, which “focuses on an event that occurs without respect
to a specific actor.” Dean v. United States, 129 S. Ct. 1849,
1853 (2009) (so observing with respect to the phrase “if the
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11473
firearm is discharged”); see Watson v. United States, 552 U.S.
74, 80-81 (2007) (noting that use of the phrase “to be used”
reflects “agnosticism . . . about who does the using”). Thus,
the text already connotes “any foreign state.” It would have
to be rewritten in order to carry the meaning the Foundation
ascribes to it. That is, the statute would need to say that a for-
eign state is not immune in a case “in which rights in property
taken by the foreign state in violation of international law are
in issue.”

[5] In the normal event our task is over when a statute is
clear on its face. Zuni Pub. Sch. Dist. No. 89 v. Dep’t of
Educ., 550 U.S. 81, 93 (2007). The rule is no different with
the FSIA. See, e.g., Af-Cap, Inc. v. Chevron Overseas
(Congo) Ltd., 475 F.3d 1080, 1087-88 (9th Cir. 2007) (“In
interpreting the FSIA, we first look to the plain meaning of
the language employed by Congress.” (internal quotation
marks and citation omitted)); Phaneuf v. Republic of Indone-
sia, 106 F.3d 302, 308 (9th Cir. 1997) (observing in an FSIA
case that “[w]e assume . . . ‘the ordinary meaning of [the stat-
utory] language accurately expresses the legislative pur-
pose’ ” (quoting Export Group v. Reef Indus., Inc., 54 F.3d
1466, 1473 (9th Cir. 1995))). Thus, we take the plain meaning
of the text to be the meaning that Congress intended. As the
words and grammatical construct in § 1605(a)(3) are clear, we
understand that Congress meant for jurisdiction to exist over
claims against a foreign state whenever property that its
instrumentality ends up claiming to own had been taken in
violation of international law, so long as the instrumentality
engages in a commercial activity in the United States.10
10
The dissent invokes “another principle of statutory construction,” dis.
op. at 11500, which we disagree is applicable. It is that statutes in deroga-
tion of the common law are to be strictly construed. In the dissent’s view,
the common law gives sovereign nations like Spain a sovereign immunity.
For this it relies on the Supreme Court’s statement in Samantar v. Youseuf,
130 S. Ct. 2278 (2010), that “[t]he doctrine of foreign sovereign immunity
developed as a matter of common law long before the FSIA was enacted
in 1976.” Id. at 2284. But the Court also made clear that “[a]fter the enact-
ment of the FSIA, the Act — and not the pre-existing common law —
indisputably governs the determination of whether a foreign state is enti-
tled to sovereign immunity.” Id. at 2285.
11474 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Although the Foundation argues that evolution of the tak-
ings exception undermines this interpretation, it points to
nothing in the legislative history which “clearly indicates that
Congress meant something other than what it said.” Carson
Harbor Vill., Ltd. v. Unocal Corp., 270 F.3d 863, 877 (9th
Cir. 2001) (describing the standard) (internal quotation marks
omitted). Instead, relying on two Fifth Circuit decisions,
Vencedora Oceanica Navigacion, S.A. v. Compagnie Nation-
ale Algerienne de Navigation, 730 F.2d 195, 204 (5th Cir.
1984), and de Sanchez v. Banco Central de Nicaragua, 770
F.2d 1385, 1395 (5th Cir. 1985), and § 455 of the Restatement
(Third), it claims that courts and commentators have long
understood that the exception applies only to states that have
done the taking. Vencedora was concerned with whether
Algeria or an Algerian-owned corporation that had towed an
abandoned vessel “owned or operated” it; in that context, the
court stated that the legislative history of the FSIA indicates
that § 1605(a)(3) was intended to reach any foreign agency
that expropriated property or is using expropriated property
taken by another branch of the foreign state. 730 F.2d at 204
(citing 1976 U.S.C.C.A.N. 6604, 6618).11 The court held that
11
The cited portion of the House Report explains the expropriation
exception and states:
(a)(3) Expropriation claims.— Section 1605(a)(3) would, in two
categories of cases, deny immunity where “rights in property
taken in violation of international law are in issue.” The first cate-
gory involves cases where the property in question or any prop-
erty exchanged for such property is present in the United States,
and where such presence is in connection with a commercial
activity carried on in the United States by the foreign state, or
political subdivision, agency or instrumentality of the foreign
state. The second category is where the property, or any property
exchanged for such property, is (I) owned or operated by an
agency or instrumentality of a foreign state and (ii) that agency
or instrumentality is engaged in a commercial activity in the
United States. Under the second category, the property need not
be present in connection with a commercial activity of the agency
or instrumentality.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11475
the Algerian-owned corporation did not assume control of the
vessel for the benefit of the Algerian government. Vencedora
thus speaks to a different issue; the court had no occasion to
comment on whether the taker and the defendant must be the
same. The statement upon which the Foundation relies does
not, in any event, say the opposite; that is, it does not say that
§ 1605(a)(3) applies only to the state that has done the wrong-
ful expropriating. De Sanchez does nothing more than quote
Vencedora.12 Neither persuades us that Congress clearly
meant something other than what it said in § 1605(a)(3). Nor
does the Restatement,13 which paraphrases what the FSIA pro-
vides but sheds no light on congressional intent.

The term “taken in violation of international law” would include
the nationalization or expropriation of property without payment
of the prompt adequate and effective compensation required by
international law. It would also include takings which are arbi-
trary or discriminatory in nature. Since, however, this section
deals solely with issues of immunity, it in no way affects existing
law on the extent to which, if at all, the “act of state” doctrine
may be applicable. See 22 U.S.C. 2370(e)(2).
H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at 19-20.
12
It does so in explicating the so-called “Hickenlooper Exception” to the
act of state doctrine. The “Hickenlooper Exception” is a shorthand refer-
ence to 22 U.S.C. § 2370(e)(2), which prohibited courts from declining on
the ground of the act of state doctrine to determine the merits in cases
where a claim to property is asserted based on a taking “by an act of that
state in violation of the principles of international law.” Whether or not
§ 1605(a)(3) was intended to parallel or incorporate the concepts of the
Hickenlooper Exception, as the dissent suggests, the observation is inap-
posite because the act of state doctrine is a substantive defense on the mer-
its that is distinct from immunity. See Samantar, 130 S. Ct. at 2290-91.
Besides this, the Hickenlooper Exception shows that Congress knows how
to write “that state” when it wants to.
13
Section 455 provides:
(3) Courts in the United States have jurisdiction with respect to
claims to property taken by a foreign state in violation of interna-
tional law if
...
11476 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Our reading of the text is buttressed by the articulated pur-
pose of the FSIA to immunize foreign states for their public,
but not for their commercial, acts. As Congress declared:
“Under international law, states are not immune from the
jurisdiction of foreign courts insofar as their commercial
activities are concerned.” 28 U.S.C. § 1602 (Findings and
Declaration of Purpose). Consistent with this purpose,
§ 1605(a)(3) restricts jurisdiction over an entity of a foreign
state that owns property taken in violation of international law
to those engaged in commercial activity in the United States.
No other restriction is manifest.14

The Foundation asks us to compare § 1605(a)(3) with
§ 1605(a)(4), which is known as the “succession” exception,

(b) the property (or the proceeds thereof) is owned or oper-
ated by an instrumentality of the state and that instrumental-
ity is engaged in commercial activity in the United States.
Restatement (Third) § 455. The comment, upon which the Foundation also
relies, states that
the FSIA provides that if the property was taken by the foreign
state in violation of international law, and if the property is . . .
owned or operated by an instrumentality of the foreign state that
is engaged in commercial activity in the United States, there is a
sufficient basis for jurisdiction to adjudicate claims to the prop-
erty.
14
Nor does the literal language strike us as so absurd that Congress
couldn’t possibly have meant to provide a forum for adjudicating claims
to property previously taken in violation of international law that is cur-
rently held by a different foreign state or its instrumentality, when the req-
uisite nexus of commercial activity exists in the United States. Doing so
is consistent with the familiar notion that a purchaser cannot get good title
if property has been stolen at any place along the line, which is the general
rule at common law. See, e.g., Marilyn E. Phelan, Scope of Due Diligence
Investigation in Obtaining Title to Valuable Artwork, 23 Seattle U. L. Rev.
631, 633-34 (2000) (“[O]ne who purchases, no matter how innocently,
from a thief, or all subsequent purchasers from the thief, acquires no title
in the property. Title always remains with the true owner.”); see also
U.C.C. § 2-403 (seller can only transfer the title that it possesses).
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11477
and to follow how we construed that exception in Republic of
Philippines, 309 F.3d at 1150-51. Section 1605(a)(4) exempts
a foreign state from immunity in any case “in which rights in
property in the United States acquired by succession . . . are
in issue.” As the Foundation points out, the word “acquired”
is not followed by the phrase “by the foreign state,” yet this
is the meaning we gave to the exception in Republic of Philip-
pines. In that case, creditors of the Estate of Ferdinand E.
Marcos sought to collect Marcos assets held by Merrill
Lynch; Merrill Lynch filed an interpleader action to resolve
conflicting claims, naming, among possible claimants, the
Republic of the Philippines. The Republic asserted sovereign
immunity; the creditors relied on the succession exception
even though the Republic had not acquired any right in the
assets by succession. The creditors argued that jurisdiction
nevertheless attached because the statute requires only that
rights acquired by succession be in issue, not necessarily the
rights of the sovereign. We concluded that the exception
applies only when the foreign state’s interest is as a successor
to a private party. In so doing, we relied in part on legislative
history which explains that immunity may not be claimed
under this exception when the suit against the foreign state
relates to property that it has obtained by gift or inheritance
and that is located or administered in the country where suit
is brought, because in this capacity — asserting rights in an
estate — “ ‘the foreign state claims the same right which is
enjoyed by private persons.’ ” Id. at 1151 (quoting H.R. Rep.
No. 94-1487, at 20). In other words, to conform to the FSIA’s
declared purpose, we read § 1605(a)(4) as exempting a for-
eign state only if it were claiming rights as a successor
because it is only in that role that it is acting like a private per-
son. By contrast, § 1605(a)(3) on its face confers jurisdiction
over a foreign state only if the foreign state that is sued claims
to own illegally confiscated property and acts like a private
person by engaging in a commercial activity in the United
States. Section 1605(a)(3), therefore, is already consonant
with the purpose of the FSIA.
11478 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Finally, the Foundation posits that bizarre consequences
unintended by Congress will occur if § 1605(a)(3) is inter-
preted as granting jurisdiction against foreign entities regard-
less of who did the expropriating or when, and regardless of
whether the defendant was a good faith purchaser.15 We can-
not say whether floodgates might open, but in any event,
jurisdictional boundaries are for Congress to set, not for
courts to write around. This said, restraints are in place that
deflect the risk. The FSIA is purely jurisdictional; it doesn’t
speak to the merits or to possible defenses that may be raised
to cut off stale claims or curtail liability. In addition, the stat-
ute constrains its own reach by restricting jurisdiction to
rights in property, taken in violation of international law, that
is now in the hands of a foreign state or its instrumentality,
when that instrumentality is engaged in a commercial activity
in the United States. And decisional law further limits the uni-
verse of potential claimants, for instance, by excluding nation-
als of the expropriating country from the scope of
§ 1605(a)(3). See, e.g., Siderman, 965 F.2d at 711; Chuidian,
912 F.2d at 1105.16
15
Whether Spain was a good faith purchaser is not, of course, before us.
The bona fides of its acquisition will no doubt be raised in defense on the
merits, but is not a factor in the jurisdictional calculus. Likewise, the dis-
sent’s concern that a taking by one country can waive the sovereign immu-
nity of “some innocent nation that comes upon the property later through
legitimate means,” dis. op. at 11499, is premature. The Restatement sec-
tions upon which it relies speak to potential liability, not to immunity from
suit. See Restatement (Second) of Foreign Relations Law of the United
States §§ 164, 183 (1965); Restatement (Third) §§ 207, 712. They simply
indicate that a state is responsible under international law for injury that
is attributable to it or for which it failed to take reasonable preventive or
punitive measures. But this case is not yet to the stage where these princi-
ples are in play.
16
The dissent faults us for taking no heed of the fact that there may be
“important diplomatic implications” of our decision. Dis. op. at 11496.
However, this case involves a private dispute of the sort that Congress had
in mind when enacting the FSIA. Moreover, as the Supreme Court
recently explained, one of the two primary purposes described in § 1602
was “to transfer primary responsibility for deciding ‘claims of foreign
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11479
[6] In sum, the statute states that the property at issue must
have been “taken in violation of international law.” It does not
state “taken in violation of international law by the foreign
state being sued.” The legislative history does not clearly indi-
cate that Congress meant something other than what it said.
Indeed, the text would have to be redrafted to say what the
Foundation wishes it said. For these reasons, we conclude that
§ 1605(a)(3) does not require that the foreign state against
whom suit is brought be the foreign state that took the prop-
erty at issue in violation of international law.17

B

The Foundation maintains that its activities in the United
States are de minimis, and lack the requisite connection to the
property in question. It submits that the district court incor-
rectly held that the activity need not be “commercial” in the
ordinary sense, or be related to the expropriated property, or
be substantial.

[7] It is clear that activity need not be motivated by profit
to be commercial for purposes of the FSIA. Joseph v. Office
of the Consulate Gen. of Nigeria, 830 F.2d 1018, 1024 (9th
Cir. 1987). As § 1603(d) provides, the commercial character
of an activity depends on its nature rather than its purpose.

states to immunity’ from the State Department to the courts.” Samantar,
130 S. Ct. at 2285; see also id. at 2291 n.19 (“The Department sought and
supported the elimination of its role with respect to claims against foreign
states and their agencies or instrumentalities.”). Although we could have
invited a statement of interest from the State Department, as the dissent
suggests, Spain itself did not seek one and manifested no interest at oral
argument in soliciting the Department’s views.
17
This comports with what happened in Altmann. While we did not
directly decide the issue, we allowed the suit to go forward against Austria
and the government-owned Austrian Gallery though it was alleged that the
Klimt paintings at issue in that case had been confiscated in part by Ger-
man Nazis. See 317 F.3d at 968.
11480 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Thus, it does not matter that the Foundation’s activities are
undertaken on behalf of a non-profit museum to further its
cultural mission. See Sun v. Taiwan, 201 F.3d 1105, 1107-08
(9th Cir. 2000) (holding that Taiwan’s promotion and opera-
tion of a cultural tour was commercial activity despite being
free and having been done to foster understanding). The
important thing is that the actions are “the type of actions by
which a private party engages in trade and traffic or com-
merce.” Republic of Argentina v. Weltover, Inc., 504 U.S.
607, 614 (1992) (internal quotation marks omitted); Sider-
man, 965 F.2d at 708 (“The central question is ‘whether the
activity is of a kind in which a private party might engage.’ ”
(quoting Joseph, 830 F.2d at 1024)).

[8] After allowing jurisdictional discovery on the issue, the
district court found that the Foundation engages in commer-
cial activities in the United States that include: buying books,
posters, and post cards; purchasing books about Nazi expro-
priation of works of art; selling posters and books, and licens-
ing reproductions of images; paying United States citizens to
write for exhibit catalogs; shipping gift shop items to purchas-
ers in the United States, including a poster of the Pissarro
painting; recruiting writers and speakers to provide services at
the museum; permitting a program to be filmed at the
museum that included the Pissarro painting and was shown on
Iberia Airlines flights between Spain and the United States;
placing advertisements in magazines distributed in the United
States, and sending press releases, brochures, and general
information to Spain’s tourism offices in the United States, at
least one of which mentions the Pissarro by name; distributing
the museum bulletin, “Perspectives,” to individuals in the
United States; borrowing and loaning artworks, though not
the painting; and maintaining a website through which United
States citizens sign up for newsletters, view the collection —
including the Pissarro painting — and purchase advance
admission tickets through links to third-party vendors. Cas-
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11481
sirer, 461 F. Supp. 2d at 1173-75. These findings are sup-
ported in the record and are not clearly erroneous.18

The Foundation faults the district court for having failed to
require a nexus between the activity and the lawsuit, as well
as a quantum of activity that has a substantial connection with
the United States. It suggests that Congress meant to meld tra-
ditional concepts of personal jurisdiction with subject matter
jurisdiction under the FSIA. However, the second clause of
§ 1605(a)(3) contains no requirement that a lawsuit arise out
of specific activity having to do with the property in the
United States, that is, there is no express analogue to the tradi-
tional doctrine of specific jurisdiction, nor does it explicitly
require any particular level of activity or conduct commensu-
rate to that normally contemplated for general jurisdiction. In
this, § 1605(a)(3) differs from the “commercial activity”
exception in § 1605(a)(2), which does provide that a foreign
state is not immune from jurisdiction where “the action is
based upon a commercial activity carried on in the United
States by the foreign state” or upon an act committed else-
where that “causes a direct effect in the United States.” See,
e.g., Gates v. Victor Fine Foods, 54 F.3d 1457, 1463 (9th Cir.
1995) (applying § 1605(a)(2) and indicating the focus for pur-
poses of the “commercial activity” exception is on specific
acts that form the basis of the suit). The difference between
the two exceptions shows that Congress knew how to draw
upon traditional notions of personal jurisdiction when it
wanted to, and did.19 Beyond this, the statute says nothing par-
18
We have previously embraced a burden-shifting analysis under which
the plaintiff has the initial burden of showing that an FSIA exception
applies. If carried, the burden shifts to the defendant to show by a prepon-
derance of the evidence that the exception does not apply. See Siderman,
965 F.2d at 707-08. The parties do not mention this framework, discuss
its applicability to this part of the § 1603(a)(3) analysis, or argue that it
affects the outcome in any way.
19
The second clause of § 1605(a)(3) also differs from the first. The first
clause, which pertains to commercial activities of the foreign state itself,
11482 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
ticularly helpful about what constitutes “a” commercial activ-
ity that is either a “regular course of commercial conduct” or
a “particular commercial transaction or act.” Instead, Con-
gress left it to the courts to flesh out on a case-by-case basis.

We have considered the question before. In Siderman, we
concluded that the Sidermans’ allegations concerning Argen-
tina’s solicitation and entertainment of American guests at an
expropriated hotel and the hotel’s acceptance of American
credit cards and traveler’s checks were sufficient at the juris-
dictional stage to show that Argentina was engaged in a com-
mercial activity in the United States. 965 F.2d at 712. In
Altmann, we likewise held that the Gallery, which was an
instrumentality of the Austrian government and owned the
Klimt paintings allegedly confiscated from the plaintiff’s fam-
ily, engaged in a commercial activity in the United States.
This was based on allegations (assumed to be true) that the
Gallery authored, edited and published in the United States a
book about the women in Klimt paintings and a guidebook
with photographs of the stolen paintings; and it advertised
Gallery exhibitions in this country. 317 F.3d at 969. The pub-
lication and sale of these materials, and marketing of a Klimt
exhibition in the United States, were commercial activities in
themselves, and also were a means of attracting Americans to
the Gallery.

[9] Here, the Foundation has had many contacts with the
United States, including some that encourage Americans to
visit the museum where the Pissarro is featured, and some that
relate to the painting itself. While the Foundation engaged in

requires that those activities be “carried on” in the United States. Section
1603(e) defines “commercial activity carried on in the United States by a
foreign state” as “commercial activity carried on by such state and having
substantial contact with the United States.” The second clause, applicable
here, relates to a “commercial activity” in which an instrumentality of a
foreign state engages, and is subject to the broader definition of “commer-
cial activity” in § 1603(d), which does not mention “substantial contact.”
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11483
somewhat more activity in the United States than sufficed in
Siderman and somewhat less than occurred in Altmann, we
cannot say its endeavors fall short of being a commercial
activity for jurisdictional purposes under the second prong of
§ 1605(a)(3).

C

Spain proposes that Cassirer was required to exhaust judi-
cial remedies available in Germany or Spain before suing in
the United States under the expropriation exception.20 It par-
ticularly objects to the district court’s use of the exclusio
unius doctrine to infer from the presence of an exhaustion
requirement in § 1605(a)(7) — enacted in 1996 — but the
absence of one in § 1605(a)(3) — enacted in 1976 — that
Congress intended not to include an exhaustion requirement
in § 1605(a)(3).21 We recognize that extrapolating congressio-
nal intent for an earlier-enacted statute from a later-enacted
statute is problematic. See, e.g., Cipollone v. Liggett Group,
Inc., 505 U.S. 504, 520 (1992) (questioning whether the intent
of an earlier Congress can be inferred from the views of a
subsequent one). We do not do so here; rather, we rely on the
plain language of § 1605(a)(3) which contains no exhaustion
requirement. This was the district court’s primary conclusion,
and it is one with which we agree.

[10] “Where Congress specifically mandates, exhaustion is
required. But where Congress has not clearly required exhaus-
tion, sound judicial discretion governs.” McCarthy v. Madi-
20
The Foundation makes no exhaustion argument, and does not join
Spain’s. Nor does the record disclose what remedies are available in either
country.
21
The requirement in former subsection (a)(7) was to arbitrate. Although
not germane to our decision, we note that the arbitration requirement that
was part of § 1605(a)(7) disappeared when that subsection was repealed,
and reenacted in different form, in § 1605A. See National Defense Autho-
rization Act for Fiscal Year 2008, Pub. L. No. 110-181, § 1083(b)
(1)(A)(iii), 122 Stat. 3, 341 (2008) (repealing 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(7)).
11484 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
gan, 503 U.S. 140, 144 (1992) (internal citations omitted),
superseded by statute on other grounds as stated in Booth v.
Churner, 532 U.S. 731, 739 (2001). The expropriation excep-
tion says nothing at all about exhaustion of remedies. It does
not, for example, condition immunity on a claimant’s having
first presented his claim to the courts of the country being
sued, or to the courts of the country that did the taking, or to
any international tribunal. Spain identifies no language in the
FSIA that would obligate Cassirer to exhaust. It follows that
exhaustion is not a statutory prerequisite to jurisdiction.22

Neither does Spain point to anything in the legislative his-
tory that clearly indicates Congress meant to impose any such
obligation. To the contrary, Congress intended to create a
comprehensive, and exclusive, set of legal standards govern-
ing claims of immunity in every civil action against a foreign
state.23 As the preface to the House Report’s section-by-
22
The Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit has expressed its belief that
“this is likely correct.” Agudas Chasidei Chabad of U.S. v. Russian Fed’n,
528 F.3d 934, 948 (D.C. Cir. 2008). In that case it was unnecessary to
decide the issue definitively as the remedy Russia identified was inade-
quate in any event. However, the court did observe that “nothing in
§ 1605(a)(3) suggests that plaintiff must exhaust foreign remedies before
bringing suit in the United States.” Id.
23
The Supreme Court has often emphasized the importance of the com-
prehensiveness of this scheme in interpreting the FSIA. See, e.g., Verlin-
den, 461 U.S. at 488 (noting that Congress passed the FSIA with “a
comprehensive set of legal standards” to free the government from case-
by-case diplomatic pressures; to clarify the governing standards; and to
assure litigants that decisions are made on purely legal grounds); Altmann,
541 U.S. at 699 (“Quite obviously, Congress’ purposes in enacting such
a comprehensive jurisdictional scheme would be frustrated if, in posten-
actment cases concerning preenactment conduct, courts were to continue
to follow the same ambiguous and politically charged standards that the
FSIA replaced.” (internal quotation marks omitted)); Weltover, 504 U.S.
at 610 (noting that the FSIA “establishes a comprehensive framework”);
Mesa v. California, 489 U.S. 121, 136 (1989) (describing the FSIA as “a
‘comprehensive scheme’ comprising both pure jurisdictional provisions
and federal law capable of supporting Art. III ‘arising under’ jurisdiction”
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11485
section analysis indicates, the FSIA “sets forth the sole and
exclusive standards to be used in resolving questions of sov-
ereign immunity raised by foreign states before Federal and
State courts in the United States.” H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at
12 (emphasis added). Further, the Report states, “[t]he pur-
pose of the [FSIA] is to provide when and how parties can
maintain a lawsuit against a foreign state . . . in the courts of
the United States.” Id. at 6 (emphasis added). These objec-
tives would be undercut were courts to read requirements into
the statute that Congress itself has not clearly prescribed.

Spain nevertheless commends us to the views on exhaus-
tion in Greenpeace, Inc. (U.S.A.) v. State of France, 946 F.
Supp. 773, 782-84 (C.D. Cal. 1996); Millicom Int’l Cellular
v. Republic of Costa Rica, 995 F. Supp. 14, 23 (D.D.C. 1998);
and Justice Breyer’s concurrence in Altmann, 541 U.S. at 714.
We are not, however, persuaded they are apposite.

Greenpeace involved seizure of a ship, and held that the
claimant could not complain that a taking or other economic
injury has not been fairly compensated — and so violates
international law — unless the claimant had first exhausted
domestic remedies in the foreign state that allegedly caused
the injury. Millicom involved anti-competitive activity but
relied on Greenpeace for the same rule. Cassirer’s jurisdic-
tional theory is different, however; he asserts that the taking
was in violation of international law because it was part of
Germany’s genocide against Jews.24

(quoting Verlinden, 461 U.S. at 496)); Argentine Republic v. Amerada
Hess Shipping Corp., 488 U.S. 428, 434-38 (1989) (determining that the
FSIA provides the sole basis for obtaining jurisdiction over a foreign state
in federal court, even if provisions of another jurisdictional statute might
apply, and referring to the House Report, which indicates that the primary
purpose of the Act was to “set[ ] forth comprehensive rules governing sov-
ereign immunity,” H.R. Rep. 94-1487, at 12).
24
There can be no serious question this is a non-frivolous contention.
See, e.g., Altmann, 317 F.3d at 968 (assuming the facts as alleged were
11486 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Altmann is no more on point. The issue of exhaustion was
not raised on appeal to our court and the Supreme Court did
not grant certiorari on any issue other than whether the FSIA
applied to claims that arose before it was enacted. The Court
held that it did, rejecting the dissent’s concern that doing so
would open foreign nations to vast liability for expropriation
claims that occurred long ago. Responding to the same con-
cern, Justice Breyer mentions several principles that might
prevent this from happening, among them, “a plaintiff may
have to show an absence of remedies in the foreign country
sufficient to compensate for any taking.”25 541 U.S. at 714.
Justice Breyer’s comment does not bear on the existence of
mandatory statutory exhaustion for, as he says, an absence of
remedies may need to be shown and a plaintiff who litigates

true, the Klimt paintings were “wrongfully and discriminatorily appropri-
ated in violation of international law”); see also Bernstein v. N.V.
Nederlandsche-Amerikaansche, Stoomvaart-Maatschappij, 210 F.2d 375,
375-76 (2d Cir. 1954) (per curiam) (quoting State Department Press
Release No. 296, April 27, 1949, entitled “Jurisdiction of United States
Courts Re Suits for Identifiable Property Involved in Nazi Forced Trans-
fers,” that publishes an April 13, 1949, letter from Jack B. Tate, Acting
Legal Advisor of the Department of State, reiterating the government’s
“opposition to forcible acts of dispossession of a discriminatory and con-
fiscatory nature practiced by the Germans on the countries or peoples sub-
ject to their controls”; stating the government’s “policy to undo the forced
transfers”; and setting forth the policy of the executive branch with respect
to claims asserted in the United States for restitution of such property, “to
relieve American courts from any restraint upon the exercise of their juris-
diction to pass upon the validity of the acts of Nazi officials”).
25
As in Greenpeace and Millicom, this observation also has to do with
a taking unaccompanied by just compensation. Justice Breyer draws on
substantive Fifth Amendment law as set out in City of Monterey v. Del
Monte Dunes at Monterey, Ltd., 526 U.S. 687, 721 (1999), and Kirby For-
est Industries, Inc. v. United States, 467 U.S. 1, 10 (1984), which requires
exhaustion of postdeprivation remedies because there cannot be constitu-
tional injury until a state fails to provide just compensation. However, a
taking may violate international law when it does not serve a public pur-
pose or is discriminatory in nature — the kind of taking that Cassirer has
pled for purposes of jurisdiction in this case — as well as when it is not
accompanied by just compensation.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11487
in the United States in disregard of remedies in the expropriat-
ing nation “may have trouble showing a ‘tak[ing] in violation
of international law.’ ” Id. (quoting § 1605(a)(3)) (emphasis
added). Thus, we do not read his concurrence as intimating
that § 1605(a)(3) statutorily mandates exhaustion for jurisdic-
tion to lie.26

This brings us to Sarei v. Rio Tinto, PLC, 550 F.3d 822
(9th Cir. 2008) (en banc), which was rendered after the dis-
trict court’s decision in this case and in which we discussed
whether prudential exhaustion should apply to claims under
the Alien Tort Statute (ATS).27 There, residents of Papua New
Guinea alleged various crimes against humanity and environ-
mental torts arising out of Rio Tinto’s mining operations in
Papua New Guinea. Recognizing that the Supreme Court had
signaled in Sosa v. Alvarez-Machain, 542 U.S. 692, 733 n.21
(2004), that a prudential or judicially-imposed exhaustion
requirement “would certainly” be considered in an appropri-
ate case under the ATS, we held that Sarei was such a case.
However, neither Sosa nor Sarei offers any basis for reading
a mandatory exhaustion requirement into § 1605(a)(3). Both
26
Spain and Justice Breyer additionally allude to comment f of § 713 of
the Restatement (Third), which states that “[u]nder international law, ordi-
narily a state is not required to consider a claim by another state for an
injury to its national until that person has exhausted domestic remedies,
unless such remedies are clearly sham or inadequate, or their application
is unreasonably prolonged.” Restatement (Third) § 713 cmt. f. On its face
this section applies only to claims by one state against another where inter-
ests of comity are most compelling. Section 1605(a)(3), by contrast,
applies to claims by an individual against a foreign state of which he is
not a citizen. But even if applicable to claims other than those by one state
against another, and even if imbedded in international law, this section
merely reflects “ordinary” practice. The FSIA does not incorporate it, and
the legislative history doesn’t mention it. In short, this source does not
clearly indicate that Congress meant to require exhaustion even though it
did not say so.
27
The ATS confers jurisdiction on United States courts over “any civil
action by an alien for a tort only, committed in violation of the law of
nations or a treaty of the United States.” 28 U.S.C. § 1350.
11488 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
the Supreme Court in Sosa and we in Sarei were discussing
prudential, or discretionary, exhaustion, not statutory or man-
datory exhaustion that may condition jurisdiction. Unlike stat-
utory exhaustion, which, if clearly imposed by Congress, is
mandatory and may also be jurisdictional, “[j]udicially-
imposed or prudential exhaustion is not a prerequisite to the
exercise of jurisdiction, but rather is ‘one among related doc-
trines — including abstention, finality, and ripeness — that
govern the timing of federal-court decisionmaking.’ ” Sarei,
550 F.3d at 828 (quoting McCarthy, 503 U.S. at 144).

For this reason, we do not consider whether exhaustion may
apply to the claims asserted in this case. We have answered
the question before us — whether Spain is entitled to sover-
eign immunity under the FSIA. Necessarily, to do so we had
to decide whether exhaustion is a statutory prerequisite to
jurisdiction. We have determined that it is not: the expropria-
tion exception does not mandate exhaustion. The district court
went no further, nor do we. See Burlington N. & Santa Fe Ry.
Co. v. Vaughn, 509 F.3d 1085, 1088 (9th Cir. 2007) (deciding
claim of tribal sovereign immunity on interlocutory appeal but
declining to exercise jurisdiction over a claim based on denial
of exhaustion of tribal remedies); cf. Lauro Lines S.R.L. v.
Chasser, 490 U.S. 495, 501 (1989) (rejecting immediate
appeal from an interlocutory order denying a motion to dis-
miss based on a forum non conveniens clause because a claim
that a party may only be sued in a particular forum is vindica-
ble on appeal after final judgment).

[11] In conclusion, § 1605(a)(3) does not require local
remedies to be exhausted before a court may determine
whether subject matter jurisdiction exists, i.e., whether a for-
eign state is immune from suit. As the statutory criteria are
met, the expropriation exception applies to Spain. We express
no opinion beyond this. Undoubtedly, Spain and the Founda-
tion will pursue numerous defenses, but these are beyond the
scope of our present jurisdiction. We simply hold that the dis-
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11489
trict court has power to entertain Cassirer’s claim against
Spain as well as the Foundation.

IV

Conclusion

Having determined that our appellate jurisdiction does not
extend to the district court’s denial of motions to dismiss for
lack of personal jurisdiction and a case or controversy, we
dismiss the appeal as to these issues.

We conclude that Cassirer’s suit falls within the “expropri-
ation” exception to sovereign immunity, 28 U.S.C.
§ 1605(a)(3), which means that the courts of the United States
have subject matter jurisdiction to entertain it. He has asserted
a substantial and non-frivolous claim of a taking in violation
of international law by Germany. We agree with the district
court that Spain and the Foundation are not immune simply
because neither was the taker. The Foundation, which claims
to own the Pissarro that was taken from Cassirer’s grand-
mother, has engaged in various activities in the United States
— some of which relate to the painting and encourage Ameri-
cans to visit the museum — that show a commercial activity
for purposes of § 1605(a)(3).

[12] We also hold that § 1605(a)(3) does not mandate
exhaustion of remedies as a prerequisite to jurisdiction. We
decline to consider at this stage of proceedings whether pru-
dential exhaustion may be invoked to affect when a decision
on the merits may be made. Accordingly, we affirm the dis-
trict court’s order denying motions by Spain and the Founda-
tion to dismiss for lack of subject matter jurisdiction.

DISMISSED IN PART; AFFIRMED IN PART.
11490 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
GOULD, Circuit Judge, with whom KOZINSKI, Chief Judge,
joins, dissenting:

I would reverse and remand with instructions for the dis-
trict court to dismiss, on the theory that the Foreign Sovereign
Immunities Act (“FSIA”), under 28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(3), has
not waived the sovereign immunity of Spain or its instrumen-
tality the Foundation. Hence I respectfully dissent. I have mis-
givings because the genocidal regime of Nazi Germany
renders Cassirer, as an heir with purported rights to a Pissaro
painting stolen by the Nazis, a most sympathetic claimant.
And I dissent with trepidation because the vast majority of
judges on this panel of eleven would not reverse outright on
the view that the sovereign immunity of Spain and its Founda-
tion has not been waived by § 1605(a)(3) of the FSIA.1 But
two wrongs do not make a right, and, notwithstanding the
Nazis’ campaign of genocide against Jews and theft of their
property, if Spain was not complicit in the Nazis’ taking of
the Pissaro,2 I do not believe that our Congress would have
1
One might ask, when there is such a firm supermajority for a position,
what is the value of a dissent? The answer is that I pen this dissent to
explain my views, because a dissent is a matter of individual judicial state-
ment and individual judicial conscience. The majority’s opinion is reason-
able, even persuasive, but only within the limits it sets by invoking the
plain-meaning rule. If the language was as plain to me as the majority per-
ceives it to be, I would adopt a similar view and shrug off a concern that
Congress has blundered. However, I view the language as ambiguous and
I view traditional modes of statutory interpretation as pointing in a differ-
ent direction, for the reasons that follow. These views may be considered
by the bench of another court, by the interested bar, or by other interested
persons.
2
Although Franco was somewhat ambivalent in conduct relating to Fas-
cist Germany and Fascist Italy, perhaps because of their help in Spain’s
Civil War, Franco’s regime in Spain never supported Nazi persecution of
Jews and, instead, Spain was a safe haven for Jews fleeing Nazi Germany
or occupied France. Indeed it has been estimated that Franco’s policies
during World War II saved the lives of tens of thousands of European
Jews. Chaim U. Lipschitz, Franco, Spain, the Jews, and the Holocaust 4
(1984).
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11491
intended its loss of sovereign immunity under the pertinent
provision of the FSIA. Viewing § 1605(a)(3) as ambiguous, I
conclude, all things considered, that it does not effectuate a
waiver of sovereign immunity in this case as against Spain or
the Foundation.

We start with the precise language of § 1605(a)(3):

A foreign state shall not be immune from the juris-
diction of courts of the United States or of the States
in any case . . . in which rights in property taken in
violation of international law are in issue . . . .”

28 U.S.C. § 1605(a)(3).

Where “the intent of Congress is clear and unambiguously
expressed by the statutory language,” no doubt the analysis
ought to end there. Zuni Pub. Sch. Dist. No. 89 v. Dep’t of
Educ., 550 U.S. 81, 93 (2007). The statute does not expressly
say that the property must be taken “by the foreign state” (as
Spain and the Foundation contend). But neither does the stat-
ute expressly say the property must be taken “by any foreign
state” (as Cassirer contends). This lack of clarity is sufficient
to conclude that the statute is ambiguous and subject to
review of the legislative history for evidence of congressional
intent. See United States v. Daas, 198 F.3d 1167, 1174 (9th
Cir. 1999); see also Vencedora Oceanica Navigacion, S.A. v.
Compagnie Nationale Algerienne De Navigation (C.N.A.N.),
730 F.2d 195, 205 (5th Cir. 1984) (Higginbotham, J., concur-
ring in part and dissenting in part) (“The FSIA presents a
peculiarly twisted exercise in statutory draftsmanship. . . .
Congress chose to make the exceptions in sections 1605-07
purposefully ambiguous, having decided to put their faith in
the U.S. Courts, and thus attempted to provide only very mod-
est guidance to the judiciary.” (internal punctuation omitted)).
In my view, the district court, our prior panel, and now our
en banc panel are mistaken in their judgment thinking this
statutory term unambiguous.
11492 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
Prior to our en banc panel’s decision today, it does not
appear that any federal appellate court, apart from our prior
panel whose opinion was taken en banc and is not precedent,
has explicitly ruled on this issue. A few district-court deci-
sions had previously agreed in approach with our prior
panel’s conclusion that the plain language does not require
that the foreign-state defendant be the party that allegedly
expropriated the property. These decisions, stressing the pas-
sive voice in § 1605(a)(3), as well as the prior panel opinion
adopting this same line, are not persuasive to me. Altmann v.
Republic of Austria, 142 F. Supp. 2d 1187, 1202 (C.D. Cal.
2001), was conclusory. Anderman v. Federal Republic of Aus-
tria, 256 F. Supp. 2d 1098, 1109-10 (C.D. Cal. 2003), from
the same district court, just cited it. Our prior panel’s opinion
was also summary in nature.

The en banc majority similarly concludes that the plain lan-
guage of the statue decides this issue. Maj. op. at 11472-73.
According to the majority, because the text of the statute is
written in the passive voice, Congress would have to rewrite
the statute to include the language “by the foreign state” in
order to give it the meaning that Spain ascribes to it. Id. at
11473. Having decided that plain meaning dictates its result,
the en banc majority then examines the legislative history but
only to determine if it “clearly indicates that Congress meant
something other than what it said.” Id. at 11474 (quoting Car-
son Harbor Vill., Ltd. v. Unocal Corp., 270 F.3d 863, 877
(9th Cir. 2001) (en banc)). That legislative history, according
to the en banc majority, does not overcome the hurdle of plain
meaning, because it in part emphasizes that a sovereign state’s
commercial activities lie outside its otherwise sovereign
immunity. Id. at 11476-78. Because I do not think the mean-
ing of the text is so plain, as Congress would similarly have
to rewrite the statute to include the language “by any foreign
state” in order to give it the meaning that Cassirer ascribes to
it, and because I view the legislative history as dictating
another result, the “plain meaning” does not in my view set
such a high hurdle for the legislative history to overcome.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11493
Several voices that should command our attention, and
more respect than is given by the majority, have stated the
view that the waiver provision of § 1605(a)(3) applies to the
state that has wrongfully expropriated property in violation of
international law. The Fifth Circuit, for example, has said that
“the legislative history of the FSIA indicates that section
1605(a)(3) was intended to subject to United States jurisdic-
tion any foreign agency or instrumentality that has national-
ized or expropriated property without compensation, or that is
using expropriated property taken by another branch of the
state.” Vencedora Oceanica, 730 F.2d at 204. The D.C. Cir-
cuit has also recently said that § 1605(a)(3) “effectively
requir[es] that the plaintiff assert a certain type of claim: that
the defendant (or its predecessor) has taken the plaintiff’s
rights in property (or those of its predecessor in title) in viola-
tion of international law.” Agudas Chasidei Chabad of U.S. v.
Russian Fed’n, 528 F.3d 934, 941 (D.C. Cir. 2008). Although
these statements might be viewed as in the nature of dicta
because the issue that we face was not squarely confronted,
I do not view these statements as misleading dicta; rather,
they point us in the correct direction. This is the view pre-
sented in the American Law Institute’s language in the
Restatement, which also supports the interpretation that the
defendant must be the foreign state that allegedly expropriated
the property. Here is the Restatement of the ALI:

[T]he FSIA provides that if the property was taken
by the foreign state in violation of international law,
and if the property is . . . owned or operated by an
instrumentality of the foreign state that is engaged in
commercial activity in the United States, there is a
sufficient basis for jurisdiction to adjudicate claims
to the property.

Restatement (Third) of Foreign Relations Law of the United
States § 455 cmt. c (1987) (emphasis added).
11494 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
I do not need to reach the proposed rationales that would
turn decision on exhaustion.3 Instead, we must first focus on
whether Spain and the Foundation have taken property in vio-
lation of international law. Given that the statute is ambigu-
ous, I would apply the usual tools of statutory construction
and conclude that § 1605(a)(3) means that the property at
issue must be taken in violation of international law by the
foreign state defendant whose sovereign immunity shall be
lost.

Considering the legislative history, the following points
support my interpretation and that of the Fifth Circuit and
D.C. Circuit in their dicta and the Restatement position: The
FSIA incorporates the concepts of the “Hickenlooper Amend-
ment,” which provided in pertinent part that disputes over
expropriated property were justiciable when rights in property
were asserted on the basis of a taking “by an act of that state
in violation of the principles of international law.” See 28
U.S.C. § 2370(e)(2) (1982) (emphasis added); De Sanchez v.
Banco Central de Nicaragua, 770 F.2d 1385, 1395 (5th Cir.
1985) (“Section 1605(a)(3) of the FSIA . . . parallels the so-
called ‘Hickenlooper Exception’ to the act of state doctrine
. . . . Like the Hickenlooper Exception, Section 1605(a)(3)
was intended to subject to United States jurisdiction any for-
eign agency or instrumentality that has nationalized or expro-
priated property without compensation, or that is using
expropriated property taken by another branch of the state.”
(quotation marks omitted and emphasis added)).
3
If, contrary to my position, it were definitively decided that subject
matter jurisdiction exists under the FSIA in so far as § 1605(a)(3) permits
proceeding against any sovereign despite that the property was taken in
violation of international law by a different sovereign, then I would con-
clude that exhaustion would be required by the statute, under § 1605(a)(3),
as part and parcel of determining whether there had a been a taking in vio-
lation of international law. In this sense a requirement of exhaustion is
embedded within the statute’s exception for takings in violation of interna-
tional law. However, believing that a waiver of sovereign immunity arises
only as against a sovereign that took property in violation of international
law, I do not have to reach this position.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11495
“Congress intended the FSIA to be consistent with interna-
tional law . . . .” Trajano v. Marcos (In re Estate of Ferdinand
E. Marcos Human Rights Litigation), 978 F.2d 493, 497-98
(9th Cir. 1992). The central premise of the FSIA is that “deci-
sions on claims by foreign states to sovereign immunity are
best made by the judiciary on the basis of a statutory regime
which incorporates standards recognized under international
law.” H.R. Rep. No. 94-1487, at 14 (1976), reprinted in 1976
U.S.C.C.A.N. 6604, 6613. Section 1605(a)(3) “is based upon
the general presumption that states abide by international law
and, hence, violations of international law are not ‘sovereign’
acts.” West v. Multibanco Comermex, S.A., 807 F.3d 820, 826
(9th Cir. 1987). When customary international law concludes
that an act by a foreign state, that is, the taking of property in
violation of international law, is no longer a sovereign act, the
foreign state is no longer entitled to sovereign immunity.
International law therefore supports the exercise of jurisdic-
tion over foreign states that have themselves taken property in
violation of international law; it does not support the exercise
of jurisdiction over sovereign entities that have legitimately
acquired property that was at some other time and by some
other foreign state taken in violation of international law. To
conclude otherwise would provide U.S. courts with unbridled
jurisdiction over any sovereign foreign state that has in its
possession property that was at one time taken in violation of
international law by another foreign state. It would not matter
if the expropriation occurred seventy years ago, as in this
case, or seven hundred years ago. Congress would not have
intended such a result.

The productive inquiry here is to ask what Congress
intended by § 1605(a)(3), or, some might say, what Congress
would have intended if the case presented had been expressly
considered.4 Because I do not believe that Congress would
4
Benjamin Cardozo in The Nature of the Judicial Process states:
The ascertainment of intention may be the least of a judge’s trou-
bles in ascribing meaning to a statute. “The fact is,” says Gray in
11496 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
have intended Spain to suffer loss of its sovereign immunity
by this provision if it had no complicity in the unlawful tak-
ing, I do not join the position of the majority.5

Also, the majority takes no heed of the fact that there may
be important diplomatic implications of its decision. Rather
than asking the United States Department of Justice and
United States Department of State to weigh in on the question
whether the majority’s statutory interpretation has diplomatic
implications for the United States, the majority rushes head-
long to give a procedural remedy to Cassirer. As I’ve said at
the outset, Cassirer is a sympathetic claimant, being a victim
of Nazi theft, yet that in itself is not sufficient to warrant a
United States—led World Court approach, as the majority’s
position permits. U.S. foreign policy has rebuffed such a posi-
tion, as the United States withdrew, with limited exceptions,
from the International Court of Justice in 1986 and has not

his lectures on the “Nature and Sources of the Law,” “that the
difficulties of so-called interpretation arise when the legislature
has had no meaning at all; when the question which is raised on
the statute never occurred to it; when what the judges have to do
is, not to determine what the legislature did mean on a point
which was present to its mind, but to guess what it would have
intended on a point not present to its mind, if the point had been
present.”
Benjamin N. Cardozo, The Nature of the Judicial Process 15 (Bibliolife
2009) (1921) (internal footnote omitted). A similar idea is expressed by
Sir William Blackstone in his esteemed Commentaries on the Laws of
England, where, in discussing “equity,” he states:
For, since in laws all cases cannot be foreseen or expressed, it is
necessary that, when the general decrees of the law come to be
applied to particular cases, there should be somewhere a power
vested of defining those circumstances, which (had they been
foreseen) the legislator himself would have expressed.”
William Blackstone, 1 Commentaries on the Laws of England 61 (1765).
5
Congress, of course, could amend its language in § 1605(a)(3) to be
explicit about whether it means to waive sovereign immunity of an inno-
cent nation like Spain when it is in possession of a property taken by some
other person or nation in violation of international law.
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11497
joined the International Criminal Court, which was founded in
2002. Sean D. Murphy, Principles of International Law 135
(2006); Jennifer Elsea, Congressional Research Service,
Report for Congress, U.S. Policy Regarding the International
Criminal Court 2 (Aug. 29, 2006).

The majority’s view is not prudent unless sanctioned by the
Department of State, and may be not prudent even if it had the
State Department’s approval.6 There is no showing of any
manifest need in justice to give Cassirer a forum in the United
States for a free shot against Spain, for absent any prior
attempt at exhaustion of remedies in Spanish courts, there is
no showing that he would meet with a sovereign immunity
barrier there.

Further, other maxims of statutory interpretation are per-
suasive contrary to the majority’s interpretation. First,
because there is ambiguity in interpretation, we should not
adopt an interpretation that would violate the Constitution.
United States v. Buckland, 289 F.3d 558, 564 (9th Cir. 2002)
(en banc) (“[E]very reasonable construction must be resorted
to, in order to save a statute from unconstitutionality. . . . [I]f
an otherwise acceptable construction of a statute would raise
serious constitutional problems, and where an alternative
interpretation of the statute is ‘fairly possible,’ we are obli-
gated to construe the statute to avoid such problems.” (cita-
tions omitted)). Here, Cassirer’s due is to get the painting
stolen by the Nazis or compensation for it. But Spain’s due is
to have its sovereignty and sovereign immunity respected
because, as I first noted, two wrongs don’t make a right. We
6
The record does not show any statement of position on proper scope
of § 1605(a)(3) to our court from the United States Department of Justice
or the United States Department of State. I am not able to discern if the
State Department is merely slumbering through this matter, or if, for its
own purposes, it is studiously avoiding comment and maintaining a con-
scious silence at this stage of the case. However, in fairness to the State
Department, and the Department of Justice, our court has not heretofore
invited their comment on this issue.
11498 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
should conclude that to strip Spain of its immunity because of
a Nazi wrongdoing is a due process violation, because Spain
is losing the sovereignty due to it with no showing or even
allegation of complicity in wrong. In suggesting that there is
a due process problem in the court’s interpretation, I am see-
ing a procedural problem. As a matter of procedural due pro-
cess, it is hard to see how we could suggest rationally that
Spain should have to answer questions about whether Nazi
Germany’s taking of the painting, so many decades ago,
offended international law. I am at a loss to understand how
Spain could be expected to have any first-hand knowledge of
what Nazi Germany did and why. Spain of course is aware of
the general course of Nazi persecution of Jews, from the
Nuremberg War Trials, but how can we say that Spain has
any first-hand knowledge of Nazi Germany’s taking of the
Pissaro painting at issue here? If the majority interprets its
jurisdictional grant under § 1605(a)(3) to be invoked when
there is unconstitutional action of any person taking a prop-
erty, no matter what country, no matter when, this puts an
unreasonable procedural burden on a nation like Spain with-
out knowledge of the events creating jurisdiction, and I think
that is a procedural due process problem.

Second, it has long been understood that statutes should not
be construed to violate the law of nations if any other inter-
pretation is possible. See Murray v. The Schooner Charming
Betsy, 6 U.S. (2 Cranch) 64, 118 (1804). As stated by Chief
Justice Marshall in that case:

[A]n act of Congress ought never to be construed to
violate the law of nations if any other possible con-
struction remains, and consequently can never be
construed to violate neutral rights, or to affect neu-
tral commerce, further than is warranted by the law
of nations as understood in this country.

Id. at 118. It is my position that saying a taking by Nazi Ger-
many in violation of international law waives the sovereign
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11499
immunity of some innocent nation that comes upon the prop-
erty later through legitimate means is a position that would
not be accepted under international law.7 See Restatement
(Second) of Foreign Relations Law of the United States § 164
(1965) (“A state is responsible under international law for
injury to an alien caused by conduct subject to its jurisdiction,
that is attributable to the state and wrongful under interna-
tional law.” (emphasis added); id. § 183 (explaining that a
state is responsible under international law for injury to the
property of an alien caused by conduct that is itself not attrib-
utable to the state if the injury resulted from the state not tak-
ing reasonable measures to prevent the conduct causing the
injury or not reasonably attempting to impose a penalty on the
person responsible for the conduct); Restatement (Third) of
Foreign Relations Law of the United States § 207 (“A state is
responsible for any violation of its obligations under interna-
tional law . . . .” (emphasis added)); id. § 712 (“A state is
responsible under international law for injury resulting from
. . . a taking by the state of the property of a national of
7
The majority contends that it is “premature” to consider whether Spain
is a good faith purchaser. Maj. op. at 11478 n.15. Yet we must consider
whether Congress intended to waive the sovereign immunity of such a
good faith purchaser, since Cassirer does not allege in the complaint that
Spain acquired the painting in bad faith or in violation of international
law. Cassirer alleges at most that Spain has “wrongfully detained” the
painting after the Nazis took the painting in violation of international law.
Nor are we to rely simply on the allegations in the complaint to determine
subject matter jurisdiction. We must instead look to facts outside the
pleadings to determine whether we have jurisdiction. Robinson v. United
States, 586 F.3d 683, 685 (9th Cir. 2009) (“No presumptive truthfulness
attaches to plaintiff’s allegations. Once challenged, the party asserting
subject matter jurisdiction has the burden of proving its existence.”) (cita-
tions omitted); see also McCarthy v. United States, 850 F.2d 558, 560 (9th
Cir. 1988) (“[W]hen considering a motion to dismiss pursuant to Rule
12(b)(1) the district court is not restricted to the face of the pleadings, but
may review any evidence, such as affidavits and testimony, to resolve fac-
tual disputes concerning the existence of jurisdiction.”); Charles Alan
Wright & Arthur R. Miller, 5B Federal Practice and Procedure § 1350
(3d ed. 2004). We know of no such facts in the record showing that Spain
has itself taken the painting in violation of international law.
11500 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
another state . . . .” (emphasis added)). As we stated recently
in Serra v. Lappin, the principle from The Schooner Charm-
ing Betsy is only a tool to aid our search for congressional
intent, because Congress, if it wanted to do so, could legislate
beyond the limits of international law. 600 F.3d 1191, 1198
(9th Cir. 2010). As we explained in Cabrera-Alvarez v. Gon-
zales, “Congress has the power to legislate beyond the limits
posed by international law.” 423 F.3d 1006, 1009 (9th Cir.
2005) (quotation marks omitted). The question is, in enacting
§ 1605(a)(3), did Congress mean to so infringe international
law in its very provision finding violation of international law
a basis for waiver of sovereign immunity?

There is still another principle of statutory construction that
is applicable here. Specifically, we have sometimes recog-
nized that statutes in derogation of the common law are to be
strictly construed. United States v. Texas, 507 U.S. 529, 534
(1993) (“[S]tatutes which invade the common law . . . are to
be read with a presumption favoring the retention of long-
established and familiar principles, except when a statutory
purpose to the contrary is evident”); Grace Line, Inc. v. Todd
Shipyards Corp., 500 F.2d 361, 371 (9th Cir. 1974) (“Any
such rule of law, being in derogation of the common law,
must be strictly construed, for no statute is to be construed as
altering the common law, farther than its words import.”
(quotation marks omitted)). We can say that the common law
gives sovereign nations like Spain a sovereign immunity. The
United States Supreme Court recently recognized this in
Samantar v. Yousuf, where it stated, “The doctrine of foreign
sovereign immunity developed as a matter of common law
long before the FSIA was enacted in 1976.” 560 U.S. ___,
No. 08-1555, slip op. at 4 (2010) (citing Verlinden B.V. v.
Cent. Bank of Nigeria, 461 U.S. 480, 486 (1983)). When the
FSIA establishes a comprehensive system for finding excep-
tions to sovereign immunity in its specified categories, thus
outlining when sovereign immunity should be considered to
have been waived permitting suit against foreign nations in
the United States, these statutory exceptions to sovereign
 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION 11501
immunity, being in derogation of common law, must be
strictly construed, not expansively construed. If we give a
strict construction to § 1605(a)(3), I think we logically would
say that it is intended to cover violations of international law
by the nation whose sovereignty is waived. But the majority,
saying it covers violations of international law by anyone, is
giving this provision, in derogation of the common law con-
cept of sovereign immunity, an expansively unreasonable
construction.

History and reason and comity all are allied in supporting
that in this case Spain’s sovereignty should be respected.

History tells us that nations have a sovereign immunity that
has been broadly respected by other countries in their legal
systems and in the system of international law. See Stacy
Humes-Schulz, Limiting Sovereign Immunity in the Age of
Human Rights, 21 Harv. Hum. Rts. J. 105, 109-10 (2008)
(“State sovereignty and sovereign immunity fall into the cate-
gory of customary international law . . . . [S]tates will gener-
ally accord other states immunity out of the belief that this is
an unwritten but obligatory international rule.”); Charles S.
Rhyne, International Law 80 (1971) (“Corollary to a state’s
right of independence and equality is its immunity from suit
in foreign courts by foreign nationals. . . . In most states, this
immunity from suit remains an absolute privilege.”); see also
Verlinden, 461 U.S. at 486-88 (“For more than a century and
a half, the United States generally granted foreign sovereigns
complete immunity from suit in the courts of this country.
[Even under the FSIA, a] foreign state is normally immune
from the jurisdiction of federal and state courts . . . subject to
a set of exceptions . . . .”).

Reason tells us that § 1605(a)(3) should here be interpreted
in a way that respects Spain’s sovereign immunity. First and
foremost, reason tells us that two wrongs don’t make a right,
so a Nazi taking in violation of international law cannot rea-
sonably be viewed as invoking waiver of sovereign immunity
11502 CASSIRER v. THYSSEN-BORNEMISZA COLLECTION
by a Spain that was not complicit in the taking. The language
of the statute is ambiguous on its face, it does not say a taking
by the foreign state, it does not say a taking by any one. Sev-
eral important principles of statutory construction, that we
shouldn’t interpret this statute in a way violating our Constitu-
tion’s Due Process Clause, that we shouldn’t interpret this
statute in a way violating international law, and that we
should give strict construction to waivers of sovereign immu-
nity because they are in derogation of common law, all sup-
port a more modest interpretation of § 1605(a)(3) than that
advanced by the majority.

The principle of comity tells us the same thing. “Comity is
the recognition which one nation allows within its territory to
the legislative, executive or judicial acts of another nation.”
Dependable Highway Express, Inc. v. Navigators Ins. Co.,
498 F.3d 1059, 1067 (9th Cir. 2007) (quotation marks omit-
ted). Thus it seems to me that because Spain is a sovereign
with immunity from suit, we should respect that unless we
have better reason than merely a deserving victim of Nazi
aggression. Equally important, and I think a part of comity, is
the common sense notion of the golden rule. We should not
do to other nations what we would not want other nations to
do to us. I am concerned that by indulging now the sympa-
thetic claim of Cassirer as a Jewish heir with entitlement to
priceless art stolen by Nazi Germany, but doing so at the cost
of fairness to Spain and disrespect of its sovereignty, we will
likely sow the seeds of maltreatment of the United States and
its officials in foreign courts.

Hence, I respectfully dissent.