State v. Bridges

IN THE SUPREME COURT OF TENNESSEE

AT JACKSON FILED
December 31, 1997

Cecil Crowson, Jr.
Appellate C ourt Clerk

STATE OF TENNESSEE, ) FOR PUBLICATION
)
Plaintiff-Appellee, ) Filed: December 31, 1997
)
v. ) HENRY CRIMINAL
)
RAY ANTHONY BRIDGES, ) Hon. Julian P. Guinn,
) Judge
)
Defendant-Appellant. )
)
) No. 02S01-9606-CC-00053
)

For Plaintiff-Appellee: For Defendant-Appellant:

John Knox Walkup Larry E. Fitzgerald
Attorney General & Reporter Memphis, Tennessee
Nashville, Tennessee

Michael E. Moore
Solicitor General
Nashville, Tennessee

Gordon W. Smith
Associate Solicitor General
Nashville, Tennessee

G. Robert “Gus” Radford
District Attorney General
Huntingdon, Tennessee

OPINION

JUDGMENT OF COURT OF CRIMINAL APPEALS
REVERSED; CONVICTION VACATED;
CHARGE DISMISSED. PER CURIAM.
 The primary issue in this appeal is whether the warrantless seizure of

cocaine from the defendant’s person during a detention and frisk was

constitutionally permissible under the “plain feel” or “plain touch” doctrine

expounded in Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366, 113 S.Ct. 2130, 124 L.Ed.2d

334 (1993). In this case, the trial court denied the defendant’s motion to

suppress, and thereafter, the defendant pled guilty to possession of cocaine with

intent to sell, but reserved the right to appeal the constitutionality of the

warrantless seizure pursuant to Tenn. R. Crim. P. 37(b)(2). 1 The Court of Criminal

Appeals affirmed the trial court’s denial of the motion to suppress. Thereafter, we

granted permission to appeal.

A majority of this Court has determined that the initial stop and frisk was

based upon reasonable suspicion supported by specific and articulable facts.

However, a majority of this Court has also concluded that the evidence

preponderates against the trial court’s finding that the officer had probable cause

to believe the object felt during the frisk was contraband. Consequently, the

judgment of the Court of Criminal Appeals upholding the trial court’s denial of the

motion to suppress is reversed. The defendant’s conviction is vacated, and the

charge is dismissed.

1
Rule 37(b)(2)(I), Tenn. R. Crim. P., provides in pertinent part as follows:
(b) An appeal lies from any order or judgment in a criminal
proceeding where the law provides for such appeal, and from any
judg me nt of c onvic tion: (2 ) Upo n a ple a of g uilty or n olo
contendere if: (I) Defendant entered into a plea agreement under
Rule 11(e) but explicitly reserved with the consent of the state and
of the cour t the rig ht to a ppe al a ce rtified ques tion o f law th at is
dispositive of the ca se. . . .

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 BACKGROUND

The proof at the suppression hearing showed that at 2:47 p.m. on

December 23, 1993, Officer D.W. Blackwell of the Paris Police Department had a

phone conversation with a confidential informant who had provided reliable

information in the past leading to a conviction on a cocaine charge. According to

the informant, the defendant, Ray Anthony Bridges, was selling crack cocaine

“right then” at a club called “Preacher’s.” The informant further said that Bridges,

was carrying cash and drugs on his person. Officer Blackwell had previously

received “half a dozen or so” tips regarding the defendant’s dealing crack cocaine

in that area. Officer Blackwell proceeded to Preacher’s, arrived approximately

thirty minutes later at 3:21 p.m, and found Bridges sitting at a table inside

Preachers engaged in conversation. Aware that Bridges previously had been

convicted of felony assault and recently had been involved in an armed altercation

with police, Officer Blackwell identified himself and ordered Bridges to stand

against the wall. Officer Blackwell then patted down the outside of Bridges

clothing to ensure he was not carrying weapons. During the patdown, Officer

Blackwell felt a small object “in the shape of a pill bottle” in the defendant’s right

jacket pocket and, recognized it as “the kind that a lot of other crack dealers will

use to keep their crack in.” Officer Blackwell seized the bottle, and upon

inspection, determined that it contained crack cocaine, and he also found a knife

in the defendant’s right pants pocket. As a result, Bridges was arrested, and a

further search was conducted of the defendant’s person, during which Officer

Blackwell discovered a plastic bag of cocaine “in the same pocket” from which the

pill bottle containing crack had been removed.

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 The trial court denied the defendant’s pretrial motion to suppress the

evidence, and, upon appeal, the Court of Criminal Appeals affirmed the denial.

For the reasons hereafter explained, a majority of this Court now concludes that

seizure of the pill bottle violated the defendant’s constitutional rights. Accordingly,

the judgment of the Court of Criminal Appeals upholding the trial court’s denial of

the motion to suppress is reversed.

STANDARD OF REVIEW

This case involves the review of a trial court’s findings of fact and law in

disposing of a motion to suppress. In State v. Odom, 928 S.W.2d 18 (Tenn.

1996), this Court clarified the standard to be applied by an appellate court when

reviewing a trial court’s findings of fact on suppression issues.

Questions of credibility of the witnesses, the
weight and value of the evidence, and resolution of
conflicts in the evidence are matters entrusted to the
trial judge as the trier of fact. The party prevailing in
the trial court is entitled to the strongest legitimate view
of the evidence adduced at the suppression hearing as
well as all reasonable and legitimate inferences that
may be drawn from that evidence. So long as the
greater weight of the evidence supports the trial court’s
findings, those findings shall be upheld. In other
words, a trial court’s findings of fact in a suppression
hearing will be upheld unless the evidence
preponderates otherwise.

Id. at 18. However, the application of the law to the facts found by the trial court is

a question of law which this Court reviews de novo. State v. Yeargan, ___ S.W.2d

___, ___ (Tenn. 1997).

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 CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS

We begin our analysis of the issue in this appeal with the text of the

applicable constitutional provisions. The Fourth Amendment 2 to the United

States Constitution provides:

Unreasonable searches and seizures. - The right of
the people to be secure in their persons, houses,
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches
and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants
shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by
oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the
place to be searched, and the persons or things to be
seized.

Similarly, Article 1, Section 7 of the Constitution of Tennessee guarantees

that the people shall be secure in their persons,
houses, papers and possessions, from unreasonable
searches and seizures; and that general warrants,
whereby an officer may be commanded to search
suspected places, without evidence of the fact
committed, or to seize any person or persons not
named, whose offences are not particularly described
and supported by evidence, are dangerous to liberty
and ought not to be granted.

The purpose of the prohibition against unreasonable searches and seizures under

the Fourth Amendment is to “safeguard the privacy and security of individuals

against arbitrary invasions of government officials.” Camara v. Municipal Court,

387 U.S. 523, 528, 87 S.Ct. 1727, 1730, 18 L.Ed.2d 930 (1967). “[A]rticle I,

section 7 is identical in intent and purpose with the Fourth Amendment.” State v.

Downey, 945 S.W.2d 102, 106 (Tenn. 1997), quoting Sneed v. State, 221 Tenn.

6, 13, 423 S.W.2d 857, 860 (1968).

2
The F ourth Am endm ent is app licable to the s tates throu gh the F ourteen th Am endm ent.
Map p v. O hio, 367 U.S. 643, 655, 81 S. Ct. 1684, 1691, 6 L.Ed.2d 1 081 (1961).

-5-
 Consequently, under both the federal and state constitutions, a warrantless

search or seizure is presumed unreasonable, and evidence discovered as a result

thereof is subject to suppression unless the State demonstrates that the search or

seizure was conducted pursuant to one of the narrowly defined exceptions to the

warrant requirement. Coolidge v. New Hampshire, 403 U.S. 443, 454-55, 91 S.Ct.

2022, 2032, 29 L.Ed.2d 564 (1971); State v. Bartram, 925 S.W.2d 227, 229-30

(Tenn. 1996).

The defendant contends that no exceptions to the warrant requirement are

applicable in this case and that Officer Blackwell had no right to detain or search

him. The State, on the other hand, argues that Officer Blackwell had probable

cause to arrest the defendant and that the search of the defendant’s person was

permissible as a search incident to an arrest, an exception to the warrant

requirement. Alternatively, the State contends that the initial detention and

patdown search were valid as a stop and frisk under Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 88

S.Ct. 1868, 20 L.Ed.2d 889 (1968), and the seizure of the evidence permissible

under the plain touch doctrine.

SEARCH INCIDENT TO A LAWFUL ARREST

Because a search incident to a lawful arrest is an exception to the warrant

requirement which would independently support the warrantless search of the

defendant’s person and seizure of the pill bottle, we first determine whether the

search and seizure in this case was pursuant to a lawful arrest. See Chimel v.

California, 395 U.S. 752, 762-63, 89 S.Ct. 2034, 2040, 23 L.Ed.2d 685 (1969);

State v. Marshall, 870 S.W.2d 532, 540 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1993).

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 Both the Fourth Amendment and Article I, Section 7, require the existence

of “probable cause” for making an arrest without a warrant. Beck v. Ohio, 379

U.S. 89, 91, 85 S.Ct. 223, 225, 13 L.Ed. 2d 142 (1964); State v. Jacumin, 778

S.W.2d 430, 431 (Tenn. 1989); see also Tenn. Code Ann. § 40-7-103(a)(officers

may make a warrantless arrest when they have probable cause to believe that the

arrestee has committed or is committing a felony). Probable cause for an arrest

without a warrant exists if, at the time of the arrest, the facts and circumstances

within the knowledge of the officers, and of which they had reasonably trustworthy

information, are “sufficient to warrant a prudent man in believing that the

[defendant] had committed or was committing an offense.” Beck, 379 U.S. at 91,

85 S.Ct. at 225; State v. Melson, 638 S.W.2d 342, 350 (Tenn. 1982). In addition,

before a finding of probable cause may be based upon an informant’s tip, the

basis of the informant’s knowledge and the informant’s credibility must also be

established. State v. Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d 430, 432-436 (Tenn. 1989). In this

case, the officer acted in response to a informant’s tip; therefore we must apply

the two-pronged test to evaluate the reliability of the tip.

In the present case the informant who provided the tip about the

defendant’s criminal activity had assisted Officer Blackwell on a case

approximately eight years earlier in which an arrest and conviction were made on

a cocaine charge. Blackwell had known this informant for a number of years and

said this informant had “always been very straightforward and very honest and

very reliable” with him. These facts minimally satisfy the credibility prong of the

Jacumin test.

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 However, the evidence is deficient as to the second prong of Jacumin. In

other words, there is no evidence of the basis of the informant’s knowledge, that

is, how the informant knew that Bridges was at Preacher’s selling cocaine.

Nonetheless, where a tip fails under either or both of the two prongs, probable

cause may still be established by independent police investigative work that

corroborates the tip to such an extent that it supports the inference that the

informant was reliable and that the informant made the charge on the basis of

information obtained in a reliable way. See Spinelli v. United States, 393 U.S.

410, 417-18, 89 S.Ct. 584, 589-90, 21 L.Ed. 2d 637 (1969); Jacumin, 778 S.W.2d

at 436. Here, the State argues that the tip was sufficiently corroborated to

overcome any deficiency. First, the State points out that Officer Blackwell had

received a half dozen prior tips that the defendant had engaged in similar illegal

activity at this specific location. Second, the State argues that Blackwell knew that

the defendant was a convicted drug dealer. Third, the State argues that Officer

Blackwell found the defendant at Preacher’s exactly as the informant had said he

would be soon after Blackwell received the tip. These facts, however, are

insufficient corroboration to allow an arrest under the circumstances of this case.

A police officer’s knowledge of a suspect’s reputation is not alone enough

to constitute probable cause to arrest. State v. Kimbro, 496 A. 2d 498, 505 (Conn.

1985). “Something more substantial than a casual rumor . . . or an accusation

based merely on an individual’s general reputation” should be shown. Spinelli,

389 U.S. at 416, 89 S.Ct. at 589. In the present case, the only fact given by the

informant corroborated by police investigation, other than defendant’s reputation,

was that the defendant was present at Preacher’s place. While this fact may

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indicate that the basis of the informant’s knowledge was eyewitness observation,

this corroboration is insufficient to establish the reliability of the informant’s tip and

therefore, probable cause.

The State has failed to establish that the information possessed by Officer

Blackwell at the time he confronted the defendant was sufficient to establish

probable cause for a warrantless arrest of the defendant; therefore, the ensuing

search of the defendant’s person cannot be validated as a search incident to a

lawful arrest as the State argues. We must next determine whether the initial

detention and frisk was valid under Terry.

REASONABLE SUSPICION

It is well-established that a police officer may make an investigatory stop

when the officer has a reasonable suspicion, supported by specific and articulable

facts, that a criminal offense has been or is about to be committed. Terry, 392

U.S. at 21, 88 S.Ct. at 1880; Yeargan, __ S.W.2d at __; State v. Watkins, 827

S.W.2d 293, 294 (Tenn. 1992). Likewise, a frisk is warranted under Terry if the

police officer has a reasonable suspicion based on specific and articulable facts

that the suspect is armed. Id., 392 U.S. at 27, 88 S.Ct. at 1883.

As the United States Supreme Court recognized in Alabama v. White, 496

U.S. 325, 330, 110 S.Ct. 2412, 2416, 110 L.Ed. 2d 301 (1990):

[r]easonable suspicion is a less demanding standard
than probable cause not only in the sense that
reasonable suspicion can be established with

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 information that is different in quantity or content than
that required to establish probable cause, but also in
the sense that reasonable suspicion can arise from
information that is less reliable than that required to
show probable cause.

(Emphasis added.)

In determining whether a police officer’s reasonable
suspicion is supported by specific and articulable facts,
a court must consider the totality of the circumstances.
United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 417, 101 S.Ct.
690, 695, 66 L.Ed. 2d 621, 629 (1981). This includes,
but is not limited to, objective observations, information
obtained from other police officers or agencies,
information obtained from citizens, and the pattern of
operation of certain offenders. Id., 449 U.S. at 418,
101 S.Ct. at 694, 66 L.Ed. 2d at 629. A court must
also consider the rational inferences and deductions
that a trained police officer may draw from the facts
and circumstances known to him. Terry, 392 U.S. at
21, 88 S.Ct. at 1880, 20 L.Ed. 2d at 906.

Watkins, 827 S.W.2d at 294.

In this case, the officer’s decision to initiate an investigatory stop and frisk

of the defendant was based upon 1) information obtained from a confidential

informant who had provided reliable information in the past, 2) “half a dozen or so”

other tips regarding Bridges dealing drugs in the same area, and 3) the officer’s

own observation of Bridges at the location which had been designated by the

informant only thirty minutes earlier. The informant’s tip did not strictly satisfy the

basis of knowledge portion of the two-prong test of reliability under Jacumin, 778

S.W.2d at 436, and was insufficient to support a finding of probable cause.

However, the tip, in conjunction with Officer Blackwell’s independent

corroboration, was sufficiently reliable to provide reasonable suspicion.

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 An investigative stop may be based on the tip of an informant if the

information manifests “enough indicia of reliability” to justify the stop. State v.

Pully, 863 S.W.2d 29, 31 (Tenn. 1993); Adams v. Williams, 407 U.S. 143, 146-

147, 92 S.Ct. 1921, 1923-1924, 32 L.Ed. 2d 612 (1972). When an informant

reports an incident at or near the time of its occurrence, a court can often assume

that the report is first hand and thus reliable. Pully, 863 S.W.2d at 32.

Furthermore, a hurried description from a source who insists on immediate action

suggesting the source is an eyewitness is sufficient for further investigation.

Lawson v. United States, 360 A.2d 38, 40 (D.C. App. 1976). In the present case

Officer Blackwell was told by the informant that the defendant was at “Preacher’s”

selling “crack cocaine right then,” and that Bridges was carrying the drug on his

person. Very soon after receiving the tip, Officer Blackwell found the defendant at

“Preacher’s,” where the informant had told him the defendant would be. Officer

Blackwell previously had received tips from other persons indicating that Bridges

routinely sold crack cocaine in that area. The corroboration of the tip, indicating

an eye-witness basis of knowledge, and the informant’s demonstrated past

credibility are sufficient to satisfy the two-pronged test of reliability. In addition,

these “specific and articulable facts” are sufficient to support a finding of

reasonable suspicion justifying the investigatory stop under Terry.

Once a valid stop has been made, police may pat a suspect’s outer clothing

if the police have a reasonable, particularized suspicion that the suspect is armed.

Terry, 392 U.S. at 27, 88 S.Ct. at 1883; Hughes v. State, 588 S.W.2d 296, 304

(Tenn. 1979). “The purpose of this limited search is not to discover evidence of

crime, but to allow the officer to pursue his investigation without fear of violence.”

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Adams, 407 U.S. at 146, 92 S.Ct. at 1923. Officer Blackwell knew that Bridges

was a convicted felon and drug dealer who had recently been charged with a

violent offense involving a weapon. In addition, Officer Blackwell was familiar with

the defendant’s armed attempt to flee police. This knowledge provided a

reasonable, particularized suspicion that the defendant was armed and

dangerous. For the protection of himself and others in the area, therefore, Officer

Blackwell was entitled to conduct a carefully limited search of the outer clothing of

the defendant in an attempt to discover weapons that might be used to assault

him. See Terry, 392 U.S. at 30, 88 S.Ct. at 1884-1885. Accordingly, a majority of

this Court holds that the “stop and frisk” of Bridges was justified under Terry.

Having so determined, we must next consider the legality of the seizure of the pill

bottle containing cocaine.

PLAIN FEEL DOCTRINE

In Minnesota v. Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366, 113 S.Ct. 2130, 124 L.Ed. 2d 334

(1993), the United States Supreme Court held that if an officer detects contraband

through the sense of touch during a valid Terry frisk, the officer may seize the

contraband. In that case, two police officers observed Dickerson leaving an

apartment building known to be a “notorious ‘crack house.’” As a result of

Dickerson’s suspicious behavior when he saw the officers observing him, and the

community reputation of the building as a haven for cocaine traffic, the officers

stopped him and conducted a patdown search. During the search, one of the

officers felt a small lump in the front pocket of Dickerson’s jacket. After further

manipulation of the lump, the officer decided it was a “lump of crack cocaine in

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cellophane.” The officer then removed from Dickerson’s pocket a small plastic

bag containing one fifth of one gram of crack cocaine. Dickerson was arrested

and charged with possession of a controlled substance. Before trial, he moved to

suppress the cocaine. Upon the trial court’s denial of his motion, Dickerson was

convicted of possession of a controlled substance. However, the conviction was

overturned upon the conclusion of the Minnesota Court of Appeals and Supreme

Court that the cocaine should have been suppressed. The United States

Supreme Court granted certiorari review and affirmed the decision of the

Minnesota Supreme Court.

Although concluding that the evidence should have been suppressed, the

United States Supreme Court held that contraband detected through the sense of

touch during a valid patdown search may be admitted into evidence. In

enunciating the “plain feel” doctrine, the Court analogized to the “plain view”

doctrine. Specifically, the Court in Dickerson held that

If a police officer lawfully pats down a suspect’s outer clothing and
feels an object whose contour or mass makes its identity
immediately apparent, there has been no invasion of the suspect’s
privacy beyond that already authorized by the officer’s search for
weapons; if the object is contraband, its warrantless seizure would
be justified by the same practical considerations that inhere in the
plain view context.

Id., 508 U.S. at ___, 113 S.Ct. at 2137 (footnote omitted).

In rejecting the contention that “plain feel” is not comparable to “plain view”

because the sense of touch is inherently less reliable than the sense of sight, the

Court stated:

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 The very premise of Terry, after all, is that officers will
be able to detect the presence of weapons through the
sense of touch and Terry upheld precisely such a
seizure. Even if it were true that the sense of touch is
generally less reliable than the sense of sight, that only
suggests that officers will less often be able to justify
seizures of unseen contraband. Regardless of
whether the officer detects the contraband by sight or
by touch, however, the Fourth Amendment’s
requirement that the officer have probable cause to
believe that the item is contraband before seizing it
ensures against excessively speculative seizures.

508 U.S. at ___, 113 S.Ct. at 2137 (emphasis added).

Based upon the facts of Dickerson, the Court identified the dispositive

question, as “whether the officer who conducted the search was acting within the

lawful bounds marked by Terry at the time he gained probable cause to believe

the lump in respondent’s jacket was contraband.” 508 U.S. at ___, 113 S.Ct. at

2138. Finding that the police officer overstepped the bounds of a search for

weapons authorized by Terry, the Court stated:

Here, the officer’s continued exploration of
respondent’s pocket after having concluded that it
contained no weapon was unrelated to ‘[t]he sole
justification of the search [under Terry:] . . . the
protection of the police officer and others nearby.” It
therefore amounted to the sort of evidentiary search
that Terry expressly refused to authorize, and that we
have condemned in subsequent cases.

Id., 508 U.S. at ___, 113 S.Ct. at 2139 (internal citations omitted).

Based upon the decision in Dickerson then, seizure of contraband under

the “plain feel” doctrine is appropriate if 1) a prior valid reason exists for the

intrusion, i.e., the patdown must be permissible under Terry; 2) the contraband is

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detected while the Terry search for weapons legitimately is still in progress; and,

3) the incriminating nature of the object perceived by the officer’s sense of touch is

immediately apparent giving the officer probable cause to believe the object is

contraband prior to its seizure. Dickerson, 508 U.S. at ___, 113 S.Ct. at 2137;

See also Arizona v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321, 107 S.Ct. 1149, 94 L.Ed. 2d 347 (1987);

Texas v. Brown, 460 U.S. 730, 741-742, 103 S.Ct. 1535, 1543, 75 L.Ed.2d 502

(1983); State v. Jones, 653 A.2d 1040, 1047-1050 (Md. App. 1995); see generally

3 LaFave, Search & Seizure §7.5(b) (3d ed. 1996).

Clearly the first two prerequisites are met in this case. For the reasons

previously stated the patdown was permissible under Terry. In addition, nothing in

this record indicates that the officer exceeded the scope of a valid Terry search for

weapons in his patdown of the defendant’s person when he detected the bottle.

Compare Minnesota v. Dickerson, supra; State v. Wonders, 929 P.2d 792 (Kan.

App. 1996)(officer continued pat down of defendant’s pocket after he determined

that it did not contain a weapon).

Legality of the seizure in this case turns on the third prerequisite. The

dispositive issue is whether Officer Blackwell’s tactile perception of the pill bottle

gave him probable cause to believe the object he felt was contraband before he

seized it. Probable cause exists when the facts and circumstances within the

officer’s knowledge are sufficient to warrant a person of reasonable caution in the

belief that the item may be contraband. Brown, 460 U.S. at 742, 103 S.Ct. at

1543. Probable cause “does not demand any showing that such a belief be

correct or more likely true than false.” Id. In determining whether probable cause

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exists, courts must consider the totality of the circumstances including the officer’s

testimony and factual knowledge based upon prior law enforcement experience.

See State v. Rushing, 935 S.W.2d 30, 33 (Mo.banc. 1996); see also State v.

Trine, 673 A.2d 1098, 1100 (Conn. 1996). Courts should not surrender their

common sense assessment of the sensory capacities of human touch to an

officer’s assertion that he or she “immediately knew” the nature of the object

touched. See e.g., Jones v. State, 682 A.2d 248, 252 (Md. 1996) (“it’s not just a

question of being an expert and coming in and saying the magic words”). The

officer’s subjective belief that the object is contraband is not sufficient unless it is

objectively reasonable in light of all the circumstances known at the time of the

search. Trine, 673 A.2d at 1109. An officer’s testimony is a factor in determining

the legality of a seizure under the plain feel doctrine, but it is not dispositive and

does not end a court’s inquiry. Wonders, 929 P.2d at 799.

Applying these principles to the record in this case, a majority of this Court

has determined that Officer Blackwell did not have probable cause to believe that

the object he felt was contraband, and that he did not have probable cause to

believe that the bottle contained contraband. In an affidavit filed as an exhibit to

the suppression hearing Officer Blackwell described the patdown of the defendant

as follows:

For my protection I immediately identified myself and
frisked Bridges for weapons. When I touched his right
jacket pocket I immediately recognized a pill bottle, in
that pocket, that is used by the majority of crack
dealers to hold their crack cocaine. I continued the
frisk and found a knife in Bridges’ back pocket. The pill
bottle contained crack cocaine. I charged him and also
found a small bag of crack cocaine in the same pocket.

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In addition, Officer Blackwell testified at the suppression hearing, recounting the

discovery of the pill bottle during the patdown as follows: “[w]hen I was frisking him

I felt and immediately felt the pill bottle and knew that it was the kind that a lot of

other dealers will use to keep their crack in.”

While Officer Blackwell said that he “immediately recognized” the item as a

pill bottle, unless he was clairvoyant, he could not have discerned the contents

from merely touching the container. Such a bottle, or one resembling it by touch,

may enclose legal medication, candy, pins, film or any number of other small

items. Officer Blackwell’s testimony does not specify the objective basis upon

which he relied for identification of the container itself or its possible contents as

contraband. The record contains little evidence of Officer Blackwell’s experience

in drug cases and no evidence as to how he connected the container with the

possession of cocaine. Compare, Trine 673 A.2d at 1111-12 (officer testified as

to his experience with narcotics); People v. Champion, 549 N.W.2d 849, 859

(Mich. 1996) (officer’s testimony about 20 years of experience in narcotics work).

Under the proof in this record, it is evident that it was not immediately

apparent to Officer Blackwell that the bottle contained contraband until it was

removed from the defendant’s pocket. This, however, is the very type of further

manipulation forbidden by Dickerson. See United States v. Ross, 827 F.Supp. at

719 (matchbox); State v. Parker, 622 So.2d 791, 795 (La. App. 1993) (matchbox);

State v. Abrams, 471 S.E.2d 716, 718 (S.C. App 1996) (Tylenol bottle); Campbell

v. State, 864 S.W.2d 223, 226 (Tex. App. 1993) (film canister); Davis v. State, 829

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S.W.2d 218, 220 (Tex. Crim. App. 1992) (matchbox);3 contra Champion, 549

N.W.2d at 858-59 (pill bottle in groin); Rushing, 935 S.W.2d at 30 (cylindrical

medicine bottle).

Over a quarter of a century ago, the United States Supreme Court warned

that “the ‘plain view’ doctrine may not be used to extend a general exploratory

search from one object to another until something incriminating at last emerges.”

Coolidge, 403 U.S. at 466, 91 S.Ct. at 2038. This admonition applies equally to

the plain feel doctrine. Applying the plain feel doctrine with the exacting limitations

stated in Dickerson, it is clear that the warrantless seizure in this case was not

constitutionally permissible.4

CONCLUSION

A majority of this Court has determined that the initial stop and frisk was

justified by reasonable suspicion supported by specific and articulable facts.

However, a majority of this Court also concludes that the evidence preponderates

against the trial court’s finding that the officer had probable cause to believe the

3
Compare cases where the officer actually felt the contraband itself or felt the contraband
through packa ging that did not conc eal the co ntents’ na ture, e.g., United States v. Craft, 30 F.3d
1044, 10 45 (8th C ir. 1994) (b ulges of heroine p acka ges aro und de fendan t’s ankles ); United States
v. Hughes, 15 F.3d 798, 802 (8th Cir. 19 94) (“sm all lumps ” of crac k coc aine); Trine, 673 A.2d at
1111 (ro ck of c ocaine in pocke t); Peo ple v. M itche ll, 650 N.E.2d 1014, 1024 (Ill. 1995) (piece of
“rock” cocaine inside bag gie); State v. Wilson, 437 S.E.2 d 387 , 389 (N.C . App . 199 3) (“lu mp s” in
pack age in bre ast poc ket); Comm onwealth v. Dorsey, 654 A.2d 1086, 1087 (Pa. Super. 1995)
(“lump ” in plastic ba g); State v. Buchanan, 504 N.W.2d 400, 404 (Wis. App. 1993) (plastic bag
containin g coca ine in waistb and).

4
The defendant did not contend that the Tennessee Constitution affords greater protection
against searches and seizures than does the federal constitution with regard to the plain feel
doctrine. The plain feel doctrine as formulated by the United States Supreme Court in Dickerson is
consis tent with princ iples enu nciated b y this Court in inte rpreting A rticle I, Section 7. See e.g., State
v. Roode, 643 S.W .2d 6 51, 6 53 (T enn . 198 2). C ons equ ently, th at do ctrine , with its spec ific
limitations w ill be applied in ap propriate cases in this state.

-18-
object felt during the frisk was contraband. Consequently, the judgment of the

Court of Criminal Appeals upholding the trial court’s denial of the defendant’s

motion to suppress is reversed. The defendant’s conviction is vacated, and the

charge is dismissed.

PER CURIAM

Drowota, J. - Separate Concurring/Dissenting Opinion

Reid, J. - Separate Concurring/Dissenting Opinion

Holder, J. - Not Participating

-19-
 IN THE SUPREME COURT OF TENNESSEE

AT JACKSON
FILED
December 31, 1997

Cecil Crowson, Jr.
Appellate C ourt Clerk

STATE OF TENNESSEE, ) FOR PUBLICATION

)

Plaintiff-Appellee, ) Filed: December 31, 1997

)

v. ) HENRY CRIMINAL

)

RAY ANTHONY BRIDGES, ) Hon. Julian P. Guinn,

) Judge

)

Defendant-Appellant. )

)

) No. 02S01-9606-CC-00053

)

CONCURRING/DISSENTING OPINION

I agree with the majority that the initial stop and frisk of this defendant was
constitutionally permissible under Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 21, 88 S.Ct. 1868,

1880, 20 L.Ed.2d 889, 906 (1968). However, in my view, seizure of the

contraband also was constitutionally permissible in accordance with the “plain

feel” doctrine. Therefore, I respectfully dissent from the majority’s decision and

would affirm the Court of Criminal Appeals’ judgment upholding the trial court’s

denial of the defendant’s motion to suppress and his subsequent conviction.

PLAIN FEEL DOCTRINE

While the facts of this case and the parameters of the plain feel doctrine

are accurately stated in the majority opinion, I do not agree with the application of

the doctrine to the facts. As the majority recognizes, legality of the seizure in this

case turns on whether Officer Blackwell had probable cause to believe the object

he felt was contraband before he seized it. When the facts and circumstances

within the officer’s knowledge are sufficient to warrant a person of reasonable

caution in the belief that the item may be contraband, probable cause exists.

Texas v. Brown, 460 U.S. 730, 742, 103 S.Ct. 1535, 1543, 75 L.Ed.2d 502 (1983).

Probable cause “does not demand any showing that such a belief be correct or

more likely true than false. A ‘practical, nontechnical’ probability that incriminating

evidence is involved is all that is required.” Id. The United States Supreme Court

has explained the assessment of probable cause as follows.

The process does not deal with hard certainties,
but with probabilities. Long before the law of
probabilities was articulated as such, practical people
formulated certain common-sense conclusions about
human behavior; jurors as factfinders are permitted to
do the same--and so are law enforcement officers.
Finally, the evidence thus collected must be seen and

-21-
 weighed not in terms of library analysis by scholars, but
as understood by those versed in the field of law
enforcement.

Brown, 460 U.S. at 742, 103 S.Ct. at 1543, quoting United States v. Cortez, 449

U.S. 411, 418, 101 S.Ct. 690, 695, 66 L.Ed.2d 621 (1981). In evaluating probable

cause, therefore, courts must consider the totality of the circumstances including

the officer’s testimony and factual knowledge based upon prior law enforcement

experience. See State v. Rushing, 935 S.W.2d 30, 33 (Mo.banc. 1996); see also

State v. Trine, 673 A.2d 1098, 1100 (Conn. 1996).

Whether, under the plain feel doctrine, an officer may seize an object

routinely used to package or contain drugs is an issue upon which courts have

split. Some courts hold that only contraband or evidence which is itself

recognized by the officer may be seized. See e.g., Commonwealth v. Stackfield,

651 A.2d 558, 562 (Pa. Super. 1994). Other courts have held that objects may be

seized under the plain feel doctrine if the officer has probable cause to believe

that the object contains contraband. See Trine, 673 A.2d at 1103; State v.

Champion, 549 S.W.2d 849, 860 (Mich. 1996); Rushing, 935 S.W.2d at 33. The

majority adopts the second approach, but concludes that Officer Blackwell did not

have probable cause to believe the item detected contained contraband. I

disagree with the majority’s finding and would hold that the officer had probable

cause to believe the object detected during the patdown contained contraband.

This is not a situation where an officer frisks an unknown person on the

street and senses an object shaped like a pill bottle. As the majority recognizes,

-22-
pill bottles do not always contain contraband, and may contain legal substances.

However, in this case, Officer Blackwell had received information from a reliable

informant that Bridges was selling crack cocaine, “ and that Bridges was carrying

the drug on his person.” While conducting a lawful Terry frisk of the defendant,

Officer Blackwell detected an object which, according to his testimony, he

“immediately recognized” to be a pill bottle of the type ordinarily used by crack

dealers to store their product. Though he does not explicitly say so, the implicit

conclusion to be drawn from his testimony is that his recognition of the pill bottle

as one ordinarily used to store illegal contraband was based upon his prior

experience in drug cases.5 Had Officer Blackwell been acting without the

informant’s tip that the defendant was dealing crack cocaine and was carrying the

drug on his person, the seizure of the pill bottle, perhaps, would be constitutionally

suspect. We do not have that case before us, however. After carefully reviewing

the evidence in this record, I am of the opinion that, considering the facts and

circumstances, including the tip, Officer Blackwell had sufficient information to

warrant a person of reasonable caution in the belief that the item he detected

contained contraband. See Champion, supra (pill bottle in groin); Rushing, supra,

(Life Saver Hole candy container in front pants pocket); see also United States v.

Craft, 30 F.3d 1044, 1045 (8th Cir. 1994) (bulges of heroine packages around

defendant’s ankles); United States v. Hughes, 15 F.3d 798, 802 (8th Cir. 1994)

(“small lumps” of crack cocaine); Trine, 673 A.2d at 1111 (rock of cocaine in

pocket); People v. Mitchell, 650 N.E.2d 1014, 1024 (Ill. 1995) (piece of “rock”

cocaine inside baggie); State v. Wilson, 437 S.E.2d 387, 389 (N.C. App. 1993)

5
The record in this case is by no means a textbook example or a model of clarity. No
imp licit co nclu sion wou ld hav e bee n nec ess ary ha d the State , at the supp ress ion he aring , sim ply
asked Officer Blackwell to describe his experience in prior drug cases.

-23-
(“lumps” in package in breast pocket); Commonwealth v. Dorsey, 654 A.2d 1086,

1087 (Pa. Super. 1995) (“lump” in plastic bag); State v. Buchanan, 504 N.W.2d

400, 404 (Wis. App. 1993) (plastic bag containing cocaine in waistband).

CONCLUSION

Because I am of the opinion that seizure of the contraband was

constitutionally permissible under the plain feel doctrine, I respectfully dissent from

the majority decision. I would affirm the Court of Criminal Appeals’ decision

upholding the trial court’s denial of the defendant’s motion to suppress and the

defendant’s subsequent conviction.

______________________________
FRANK F. DROWOTA III,
JUSTICE

-24-
 1

2 F O R P U B L I C A T I O N

3

4 I N T H E S U P R E M E C O U R T O F T E N N E S S E E

5

6 A T J A C K S O N

7

8

9 S T A T E O F T E N N E S S E E , ( FILED
10 (
December 31, 1997
11 P l a i n t i f f - A p p e l l e e , (
Cecil Crowson, Jr.
Appellate C ourt Clerk
12 (

13 ( H e n r y C r i m i n a l

14 (

15 v . ( H o n . J u l i a n P . G u i n n , J u d g e

16 (

17 ( S . C t . N o . 0 2 S 0 1 - 9 6 0 6 - C C - 0 0 0 5 3

18 R A Y A N T H O N Y B R I D G E S , (

19 (

20 D e f e n d a n t - A p p e l l a n t . (

21

22

23

24

25 C O N C U R R I N G A N D D I S S E N T I N G O P I N I O N

26

27

28
 1 T h i s c a s e p r e s e n t s f o r r e v i e w t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e C o u r t o f

2 C r i m i n a l A p p e a l s a f f i r m i n g t h e t r i a l c o u r t ’ s o r d e r w h i c h o v e r r u l e d

3 t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s m o t i o n t o s u p p r e s s e v i d e n c e o b t a i n e d d u r i n g a s t o p

4 a n d f r i s k o f t h e d e f e n d a n t . T h e d e f e n d a n t p l e a d e d g u i l t y t o o n e

5 c o u n t o f p o s s e s s i o n o f c o c a i n e w i t h i n t e n t t o s e l l . P u r s u a n t t o

6 T e n n . R . C r i m . P . 3 7 ( b ) ( 2 ) , a n o r d e r w a s e n t e r e d r e s e r v i n g f o r

7 a p p e a l t h e i s s u e o f t h e w a r r a n t l e s s s e a r c h , d e t e r m i n e d t o b e

8 d i s p o s i t i v e o f t h e c a s e . T h e C o u r t o f C r i m i n a l A p p e a l s a f f i r m e d t h e

9 d e f e n d a n t ’ s c o n v i c t i o n . I n r e a c h i n g i t s d e c i s i o n , t h e c o u r t h e l d

10 t h a t t h e s e i z u r e o f e v i d e n c e f o u n d o n t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s p e r m i s s i b l e

11 u n d e r t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” o r “ p l a i n t o u c h ” d o c t r i n e e x p o u n d e d i n

12 M i n n e s o t a v . D i c k e r s o n , 5 0 8 U . S . 3 6 6 , 1 1 3 S . C t . 2 1 3 0 , 1 2 4 L . E d . 2 d

13 3 3 4 ( 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e C o u r t g r a n t e d t h e R u l e 1 1 a p p l i c a t i o n t o a d d r e s s

14 t h e l e g a l i t y o f t h e s e i z u r e a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ”

15 d o c t r i n e .

16

17 I

18

19 T h e p r o o f a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n h e a r i n g s h o w s t h a t a t 2 : 4 7

20 p . m . o n D e c e m b e r 2 3 , 1 9 9 3 , O f f i c e r D . W . B l a c k w e l l o f t h e P a r i s

21 P o l i c e D e p a r t m e n t m a d e a t e l e p h o n e c a l l t o a c o n f i d e n t i a l i n f o r m a n t

22 w h o h a d p r o v i d e d r e l i a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e p a s t . T h e i n f o r m a n t

23 t o l d O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t , R a y A n t h o n y B r i d g e s , w a s

24 s e l l i n g c r a c k c o c a i n e “ r i g h t t h e n ” a t a c l u b c a l l e d “ P r e a c h e r ’ s ” i n

25 t h e “ B o t t o m . ” O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l t e s t i f i e d t h a t h e h a d p r e v i o u s l y

26 r e c e i v e d “ h a l f a d o z e n o r s o ” t i p s t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s d e a l i n g i n

27 d r u g s i n t h a t a r e a . B l a c k w e l l w a s a w a r e t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t h a d

28 p r e v i o u s l y b e e n c o n v i c t e d o f f e l o n y a s s a u l t a n d h a d b e e n i n v o l v e d i n

- 2 6 -
 1 a r e c e n t a r m e d a l t e r c a t i o n w i t h t h e p o l i c e . T h i r t y m i n u t e s a f t e r

2 m a k i n g t h e c a l l , O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l f o u n d t h e d e f e n d a n t s e a t e d a t a

3 t a b l e i n P r e a c h e r ’ s e n g a g e d i n c o n v e r s a t i o n . B l a c k w e l l i d e n t i f i e d

4 h i m s e l f a n d o r d e r e d t h e d e f e n d a n t t o s t a n d a g a i n s t t h e w a l l w h e r e h e

5 “ p a t t e d h i m d o w n ” f o r w e a p o n s . D u r i n g t h e p a t d o w n , B l a c k w e l l f e l t

6 a s m a l l o b j e c t “ i n t h e s h a p e o f a p i l l b o t t l e ” i n t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s

7 r i g h t j a c k e t p o c k e t a n d , i n h i s w o r d s , “ k n e w t h a t i t w a s t h e k i n d

8 t h a t a l o t o f o t h e r c r a c k d e a l e r s w i l l u s e t o k e e p t h e i r c r a c k i n . ”

9 B l a c k w e l l s e i z e d t h e b o t t l e w h i c h u p o n i n s p e c t i o n w a s f o u n d t o

10 c o n t a i n c r a c k c o c a i n e . B l a c k w e l l a l s o f o u n d a “ k n i f e , ” n o t

11 o t h e r w i s e d e s c r i b e d , i n t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s p a n t s p o c k e t . T h e r e c o r d

12 c o n t a i n s n o d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p i l l b o t t l e , o r t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

13 t h e r e o f , r o u n d , s q u a r e , l a r g e , s m a l l , s o f t , h a r d , o r o t h e r . T h e

14 d e f e n d a n t t h e n w a s p l a c e d u n d e r a r r e s t . A s t h e r e s u l t o f a f u r t h e r

15 s e a r c h o f t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s p e r s o n , O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l d i s c o v e r e d a

16 p l a s t i c b a g o f c o c a i n e “ i n t h e s a m e p o c k e t . ”

17

18 I I

19

20 T h i s c a s e i n v o l v e s t h e r e v i e w o f a t r i a l c o u r t ’ s f i n d i n g s

21 o f f a c t a n d c o n c l u s i o n s o f l a w i n d i s p o s i n g o f a m o t i o n t o s u p p r e s s .

22 I n S t a t e v . O d o m , 9 2 8 S . W . 2 d 1 8 ( T e n n . 1 9 9 6 ) , t h e C o u r t r e s t a t e d t h e

23 s t a n d a r d t o b e a p p l i e d b y a n a p p e l l a t e c o u r t w h e n r e v i e w i n g a t r i a l

24 c o u r t ’ s f i n d i n g s o f f a c t o n s u p p r e s s i o n i s s u e s .

25

26 Q u e s t i o n s o f c r e d i b i l i t y o f t h e w i t n e s s e s ,
27 t h e w e i g h t a n d v a l u e o f t h e e v i d e n c e , a n d
28 r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l i c t s i n t h e e v i d e n c e a r e
29 m a t t e r s e n t r u s t e d t o t h e t r i a l j u d g e a s t h e
30 t r i e r o f f a c t . T h e p a r t y p r e v a i l i n g i n t h e

- 2 7 -
 1 t r i a l c o u r t i s e n t i t l e d t o t h e s t r o n g e s t
2 l e g i t i m a t e v i e w o f t h e e v i d e n c e a d d u c e d a t t h e
3 s u p p r e s s i o n h e a r i n g a s w e l l a s a l l r e a s o n a b l e
4 a n d l e g i t i m a t e i n f e r e n c e s t h a t m a y b e d r a w n f r o m
5 t h a t e v i d e n c e . S o l o n g a s t h e g r e a t e r w e i g h t o f
6 t h e e v i d e n c e s u p p o r t s t h e t r i a l c o u r t ’ s
7 f i n d i n g s , t h o s e f i n d i n g s s h a l l b e u p h e l d . I n
8 o t h e r w o r d s , a t r i a l c o u r t ’ s f i n d i n g s o f f a c t i n
9 a s u p p r e s s i o n h e a r i n g w i l l b e u p h e l d u n l e s s t h e
10 e v i d e n c e p r e p o n d e r a t e s o t h e r w i s e .
11
12
13
14 I d . a t 2 3 . H o w e v e r , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e l a w t o t h e f a c t s f o u n d

15 b y t h e t r i a l c o u r t i s a q u e s t i o n o f l a w w h i c h t h i s C o u r t r e v i e w s d e

16 n o v o . B e a r e C o . v . T e n n e s s e e D e p t . o f R e v e n u e , 8 5 8 S . W . 2 d 9 0 6 , 9 0 7

17 ( T e n n . 1 9 9 3 ) .

18

19 I I I

20

21 I c o n c u r i n t h e p e r c u r i a m d e c i s i o n t h a t t h e r e w a s n o t

22 p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o a r r e s t t h e d e f e n d a n t .

23

24 W h i l e t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r g r a n t i n g t h e a p p l i c a t i o n i n

25 t h i s c a s e w a s t o a d d r e s s t h e r u l i n g o f t h e C o u r t o f C r i m i n a l A p p e a l s

26 o n t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” d o c t r i n e , t h i s i s s u e c a n n o t b e r e a c h e d w i t h o u t

27 f i r s t a d d r e s s i n g t h e c h a l l e n g e r a i s e d r e g a r d i n g t h e l e g a l i t y o f

28 O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l ’ s i n i t i a l d e t e n t i o n a n d f r i s k o f t h e d e f e n d a n t .

29 A s i s c l e a r f r o m t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n i n

30 D i c k e r s o n , t h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e i s a n e x t e n s i o n o f t h e p l a i n v i e w

31 d o c t r i n e a n d i s b a s e d o n t h e s a m e r a t i o n a l e . M i n n e s o t a v .

32 D i c k e r s o n , 5 0 8 U . S . a t _ _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 7 . B e f o r e a n o f f i c e r

33 i s a u t h o r i z e d t o s e i z e e v i d e n c e i n p l a i n v i e w , t h e i n i t i a l i n t r u s i o n

34 t h a t b r i n g s t h e p o l i c e w i t h i n p l a i n v i e w o f t h e e v i d e n c e m u s t b e

- 2 8 -
 1 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y v a l i d . S e e C o o l i d g e v . N e w H a m p s h i r e , 4 0 3 U . S .

2 4 4 3 , 4 6 5 - 4 6 6 , 9 1 S . C t . 2 0 2 2 , 2 0 3 7 - 3 8 , 2 9 L . E d . 2 d 5 6 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

3 C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e

4 d e f e n d a n t ’ s d e t e n t i o n a n d t h e “ p a t d o w n ” o f h i s p e r s o n b e f o r e

5 r e a c h i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e s e i z u r e u n d e r t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ”

6 d o c t r i n e .

7

8 O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l a c t e d w i t h o u t a w a r r a n t . T h e F o u r t h
6
9 A m e n d m e n t t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s C o n s t i t u t i o n a n d A r t i c l e I , S e c t i o n
7
10 7 , o f t h e T e n n e s s e e C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o h i b i t u n r e a s o n a b l e s e a r c h e s a n d

11 s e i z u r e s . W a r r a n t l e s s s e a r c h e s a r e p r e s u m e d t o b e u n r e a s o n a b l e a n d

12 c a n n o t b e s u s t a i n e d u n l e s s t h e y f a l l i n t o o n e o f t h e n a r r o w l y

13 d e f i n e d e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t . S t a t e v . Y e a r g a n ,

14 _ _ _ _ _ S . W . 2 d _ _ _ _ _ , _ _ _ _ _ ( T e n n . 1 9 9 5 ) ( R e i d , J . , c o n c u r r i n g ) [ s l i p o p . a t

15 7 ] ; S t a t e v . B a r t r a m , 9 2 5 S . W . 2 d 2 2 7 , 2 2 9 - 2 3 0 ( T e n n . 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e

16 d e f e n d a n t c o n t e n d s t h a t n o e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t a r e

17 a p p l i c a b l e i n h i s c a s e a n d t h a t O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l h a d n o r i g h t t o

18 d e t a i n o r s e a r c h h i m . T h e S t a t e , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a r g u e s t h a t

19 O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l h a d p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o a r r e s t t h e d e f e n d a n t a n d

20 t h a t t h e s e a r c h o f t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s p e r s o n w a s p e r m i s s i b l e a s a

6
T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t p r o v i d e s t h a t “ [ t ] h e r i g h t o f t h e p e o p l e t o
b e s e c u r e i n t h e i r p e r s o n s , h o u s e s , p a p e r s , a n d e f f e c t s , a g a i n s t
u n r e a s o n a b l e s e a r c h e s a n d s e i z u r e s , s h a l l n o t b e v i o l a t e d , a n d n o
w a r r a n t s s h a l l i s s u e , b u t u p o n p r o b a b l e c a u s e , s u p p o r t e d b y o a t h o r
a f f i r m a t i o n , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s c r i b i n g t h e p l a c e t o b e s e a r c h e d , a n d
t h e p e r s o n s o r t h i n g s t o b e s e i z e d . ” T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t i s a p p l i c a b l e
t o t h e s t a t e s t h r o u g h t h e F o u r t e e n t h A m e n d m e n t . M a p p v . O h i o , 3 6 7 U . S .
6 4 3 , 6 5 5 , 8 1 S . C t . 1 6 8 4 , 1 6 9 1 , 6 L . E d . 2 d 1 0 8 1 ( 1 9 6 1 ) .

7
A r t i c l e I , S e c t i o n 7 , o f t h e T e n n e s s e e C o n s t i t u t i o n p r o v i d e s
“ [ t ] h a t t h e p e o p l e s h a l l b e s e c u r e i n t h e i r p e r s o n s , h o u s e s , p a p e r s a n d
p o s s e s s i o n s , f r o m u n r e a s o n a b l e s e a r c h e s a n d s e i z u r e s ; a n d t h a t g e n e r a l
w a r r a n t s , w h e r e b y a n o f f i c e r m a y b e c o m m a n d e d t o s e a r c h s u s p e c t e d p l a c e s ,
w i t h o u t e v i d e n c e o f t h e f a c t c o m m i t t e d , o r t o s e i z e a n y p e r s o n o r p e r s o n s
n o t n a m e d , w h o s e o f f e n c e s a r e n o t p a r t i c u l a r l y d e s c r i b e d a n d s u p p o r t e d b y
e v i d e n c e , a r e d a n g e r o u s t o l i b e r t y a n d o u g h t n o t t o b e g r a n t e d . ”

- 2 9 -
 1 s e a r c h i n c i d e n t t o a n a r r e s t , a n e x c e p t i o n t o t h e w a r r a n t
8
2 r e q u i r e m e n t . I n t h e a l t e r n a t i v e , t h e S t a t e c o n t e n d s t h a t t h e

3 d e t e n t i o n a n d s e a r c h w e r e v a l i d a s a s t o p a n d f r i s k u n d e r T e r r y v .

4 O h i o , 3 9 2 U . S . 1 , 8 8 S . C t . 1 8 6 8 , 2 0 L . E d . 2 d 8 8 9 ( 1 9 6 8 ) . T h e

5 C o u r t o f C r i m i n a l A p p e a l s a g r e e d w i t h t h e S t a t e ’ s s e c o n d a r g u m e n t

6 a n d f o u n d t h a t t h e d e t e n t i o n a n d s e a r c h w e r e v a l i d u n d e r T e r r y .

7

8 T h e S t a t e ’ s f i r s t a r g u m e n t m u s t b e a d d r e s s e d b e c a u s e i f

9 t h e C o u r t f i n d s t h a t t h e s e a r c h w a s i n c i d e n t t o a l a w f u l a r r e s t ,

10 t h i s e x c e p t i o n t o t h e w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t w o u l d i n d e p e n d e n t l y

11 s u p p o r t t h e s e a r c h o f t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s p e r s o n a n d t h e s e i z u r e o f t h e

12 c o n t a i n e r , a n d t h e “ s t o p a n d f r i s k ” a n d “ p l a i n f e e l ” i s s u e s w o u l d b e
9
13 m o o t . S e e C h i m e l v . C a l i f o r n i a , 3 9 5 U . S . 7 5 2 , 7 6 2 - 6 3 , 8 9 S . C t .

14 2 0 3 4 , 2 0 4 0 , 2 3 L . E d . 2 d 6 8 5 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; S t a t e v . M a r s h a l l , 8 7 0 S . W . 2 d

15 5 3 2 , 5 4 0 ( T e n n . C r . A p p . 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t a n d A r t i c l e I ,

16 S e c t i o n 7 , r e q u i r e t h e e x i s t e n c e o f “ p r o b a b l e c a u s e ” f o r m a k i n g a n

17 a r r e s t w i t h o u t a w a r r a n t . B e c k v . O h i o , 3 7 9 U . S . 8 9 , 9 1 , 8 5 S . C t .

18 2 2 3 , 2 2 5 , 1 3 L . E d . 2 d 1 4 2 ( 1 9 6 4 ) ; S t a t e v . M e l s o n , 6 3 8 S . W . 2 d 3 4 2 ,

19 3 5 0 ( T e n n . 1 9 8 2 ) , c e r t . d e n i e d , 4 5 9 U . S . 1 1 3 7 , 1 0 3 S . C t . 7 7 0 , 7 4

20 L . E d . 2 d 9 8 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; s e e a l s o T e n n . C o d e A n n . § 4 0 - 7 - 1 0 3 ( a )

21 ( o f f i c e r s m a y m a k e a w a r r a n t l e s s a r r e s t w h e n t h e y h a v e p r o b a b l e

22 c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a r r e s t e e h a s c o m m i t t e d o r i s c o m m i t t i n g a

8
T h e S t a t e d i d n o t p r e s e n t t h i s a r g u m e n t i n t h e C o u r t o f C r i m i n a l
A p p e a l s ; h o w e v e r , t h i s w a s t h e p r i m a r y a r g u m e n t m a d e t o t h e t r i a l c o u r t ,
w h i c h f o u n d t h e “ a r r e s t a n d f r i s k ” o f t h e d e f e n d a n t s u p p o r t e d b y
“ a r t i c u l a b l e f a c t s . ” T h e t r i a l c o u r t m a d e n o f i n d i n g c o n c e r n i n g t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” d o c t r i n e .

9
W h e n a n a r r e s t i s m a d e , a n o f f i c e r m a y s e a r c h t h e p e r s o n a r r e s t e d
i n o r d e r t o r e m o v e a n y w e a p o n s t h a t t h e a r r e s t e e m i g h t t r y t o u s e t o
r e s i s t a r r e s t o r e f f e c t a n e s c a p e . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e o f f i c e r m a y “ s e a r c h
f o r a n d s e i z e a n y e v i d e n c e o n t h e a r r e s t e e ’ s p e r s o n i n o r d e r t o p r e v e n t
i t s c o n c e a l m e n t o r d e s t r u c t i o n . ” C h i m e l v . C a l i f o r n i a , 3 9 5 U . S . a t 7 6 2 -
6 3 , 8 9 S . C t . a t 2 0 4 0 .

- 3 0 -
 1 f e l o n y ) . I n o r d e r t o h a v e p r o b a b l e c a u s e f o r a n a r r e s t w i t h o u t a

2 w a r r a n t , a t t h e t i m e o f t h e a r r e s t t h e f a c t s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s

3 w i t h i n t h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e o f f i c e r s a n d o f w h i c h t h e y h a v e

4 r e a s o n a b l y t r u s t w o r t h y i n f o r m a t i o n m u s t b e “ s u f f i c i e n t t o w a r r a n t a

5 p r u d e n t m a n i n b e l i e v i n g t h a t t h e [ d e f e n d a n t ] h a d c o m m i t t e d o r w a s

6 c o m m i t t i n g a n o f f e n s e . ” B e c k , 3 7 9 U . S . a t 9 1 , 8 5 S . C t . a t 2 2 5 ;

7 S t a t e v . M e l s o n , 6 3 8 S . W . 2 d a t 3 5 0 .

8

9 H e r e , t h e w a r r a n t l e s s a r r e s t w a s b a s e d u p o n i n f o r m a t i o n

10 p r o v i d e d b y a n i n f o r m a n t . T h e t e s t t o d e t e r m i n e p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o

11 m a k e t h e a r r e s t i s t h e s a m e a s t h a t u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e r e

12 i s p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o i s s u e a s e a r c h w a r r a n t . S e e S t a t e v . Y e a r g a n ,

13 _ _ _ _ _ S . W . 2 d a t _ _ _ _ _ ( R e i d , J . , c o n c u r r i n g ) [ s l i p o p . a t 1 2 ] ; s e e

14 e . g . , S t a t e v . P u l l y , 8 6 3 S . W . 2 d 2 9 , 3 1 ( T e n n . 1 9 9 3 ) . T h e o f f i c e r

15 m u s t k n o w t h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t i s c r e d i b l e o r h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s

16 r e l i a b l e a n d t h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t h a s a b a s i s f o r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t

17 t h e p e r s o n w a s i n v o l v e d i n c r i m i n a l c o n d u c t . S t a t e v . J a c u m i n , 7 7 8

18 S . W . 2 d 4 3 0 , 4 3 2 ( T e n n . 1 9 8 9 ) . I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , O f f i c e r

19 B l a c k w e l l t e s t i f i e d t h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t h a d p r o v i d e d r e l i a b l e

20 i n f o r m a t i o n t o h i m i n a p r i o r i l l e g a l d r u g c a s e . B l a c k w e l l a l s o

21 t e s t i f i e d t h a t h e h a d k n o w n t h i s i n f o r m a n t f o r a n u m b e r o f y e a r s a n d

22 t h a t t h i s p e r s o n h a d “ a l w a y s b e e n v e r y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d a n d v e r y

23 h o n e s t a n d v e r y r e l i a b l e ” w i t h h i m . T h e s e f a c t s m a y m i n i m a l l y

24 s a t i s f y t h e f i r s t p r o n g o f t h e t e s t i n J a c u m i n .

25

26 H o w e v e r , t h e r e c o r d d e f i n i t e l y i s d e f i c i e n t a s t o t h e

27 s e c o n d p r o n g o f J a c u m i n . T h e i n f o r m a n t d i d n o t t e l l O f f i c e r

28 B l a c k w e l l t h e b a s i s o f h i s k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a t

- 3 1 -
 1 P r e a c h e r ’ s s e l l i n g c o c a i n e .

2

3 T h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t h a s d e m o n s t r a t e d g e n e r a l
4 r e l i a b i l i t y i n t h e p a s t , i s . . . n o i n d e x o f
5 t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n h e
6 p a s s e s o n ; h e m a y h a v e r e c e i v e d i t f r o m a
7 t o t a l l y u n r e l i a b l e s o u r c e . T h e r e b e i n g n o
8 p r e s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t s p e a k s w i t h
9 p e r s o n a l k n o w l e d g e , t h e b a s i s o f k n o w l e d g e t e s t
10 i s , t h e r e f o r e , i n t e n d e d t o w e e d o u t , a s n o t o f
11 s u f f i c i e n t q u a l i t y , d a t a r e c e i v e d b y t h e
12 i n f o r m a n t f r o m o t h e r s w h o h a v e n o t t h e m s e l v e s
13 o b s e r v e d f a c t s s u g g e s t i v e o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y .
14 . . . O t h e r w i s e p r i v a c y a n d l i b e r t y m a y b e
15 i n v a d e d b y a w a r r a n t l e s s s e a r c h o r a r r e s t b a s e d
16 s o l e l y o n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i n f o r m a n t a n d n o t
17 a t a l l o n t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , i . e . ,
18 i t s s u g g e s t i v e n e s s o f c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y .
19
20
21
22 P e o p l e v . E l w e l l , 4 0 6 N . E . 2 d 4 7 1 , 4 7 4 - 4 7 5 ( N . Y . 1 9 8 0 ) ( c i t a t i o n s

23 o m i t t e d ) .

24

25 N o n e t h e l e s s , w h e r e a t i p f a i l s u n d e r e i t h e r o r b o t h o f t h e

26 t w o p r o n g s , p r o b a b l e c a u s e m a y s t i l l b e e s t a b l i s h e d b y i n d e p e n d e n t

27 p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i v e w o r k t h a t c o r r o b o r a t e s t h e t i p t o s u c h a n

28 e x t e n t t h a t i t s u p p o r t s t h e i n f e r e n c e t h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t w a s

29 r e l i a b l e a n d t h a t t h e i n f o r m a n t m a d e t h e c h a r g e o n t h e b a s i s o f

30 i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d i n a r e l i a b l e w a y . S e e S p i n e l l i v . U n i t e d

31 S t a t e s , 3 9 3 U . S . 4 1 0 , 4 1 7 - 1 8 , 8 9 S . C t . 5 8 4 , 5 8 9 - 9 0 , 2 1 L . E d . 2 d

32 6 3 7 ( 1 9 6 9 ) ; J a c u m i n , 7 7 8 S . W . 2 d a t 4 3 6 . H e r e , t h e S t a t e a r g u e s t h a t

33 t h r e e p i e c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n i n d e p e n d e n t l y c o r r o b o r a t e d t h e t i p

34 e n o u g h t o o v e r c o m e a n y d e f i c i e n c y . F i r s t , t h e S t a t e p o i n t s o u t t h a t

35 B l a c k w e l l r e c e i v e d a h a l f d o z e n p r i o r t i p s t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t h a d

36 e n g a g e d i n s i m i l a r i l l e g a l a c t i v i t y a t t h i s l o c a t i o n . S e c o n d , t h e

37 S t a t e a r g u e s t h a t B l a c k w e l l k n e w t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a c o n v i c t e d

- 3 2 -
 1 d r u g d e a l e r . T h i r d , t h e S t a t e a r g u e s t h a t O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l f o u n d

2 t h e d e f e n d a n t a t P r e a c h e r ’ s s o o n a f t e r h e r e c e i v e d t h e t i p . T h e s e

3 f a c t s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t c o r r o b o r a t i o n t o j u s t i f y a n a r r e s t o f t h e

4 d e f e n d a n t .

5

6 A b a s i s o f k n o w l e d g e c a n n o t b e i n f e r r e d f r o m t h e

7 c o r r o b o r a t i o n o f f a c t s r e l a t e d o n l y t o i n n o c e n t a c t i v i t y o r m a t t e r s

8 o p e n a n d o b v i o u s t o a n y o n e . S e e S t a t e v . K i m b r o , 4 9 6 A . 2 d 4 9 8

9 ( C o n n . 1 9 8 5 ) ; S t a t e v . R a h e e m , 4 6 4 S o . 2 d 2 9 3 , 2 9 7 ( L a . 1 9 8 5 ) ; S t a t e

10 v . R u f f i n , 4 4 8 S o . 2 d 1 2 7 4 , 1 2 7 8 ( L a . 1 9 8 4 ) ; P e o p l e v . E l w e l l , 4 0 6

11 N . E . 2 d a t 4 7 5 . L i k e w i s e , a p o l i c e o f f i c e r ’ s k n o w l e d g e o f a

12 s u s p e c t ’ s r e p u t a t i o n i s n o t e n o u g h t o c o n s t i t u t e p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o

13 a r r e s t . S t a t e v . K i m b r o , 4 9 6 A . 2 d a t 5 0 5 . “ S o m e t h i n g m o r e

14 s u b s t a n t i a l t h a n a c a s u a l r u m o r . . . o r a n a c c u s a t i o n b a s e d m e r e l y

15 o n a n i n d i v i d u a l ’ s g e n e r a l r e p u t a t i o n ” m u s t b e s h o w n . S p i n e l l i v .

16 U n i t e d S t a t e s , 3 8 9 U . S . a t 4 1 6 , 8 9 S . C t . a t 5 8 9 . I n t h e p r e s e n t

17 c a s e , t h e o n l y f a c t g i v e n b y t h e i n f o r m a n t a n d c o r r o b o r a t e d b y

18 p o l i c e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , o t h e r t h a n d e f e n d a n t ’ s r e p u t a t i o n , w a s t h a t

19 t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s p r e s e n t a t P r e a c h e r ’ s p l a c e . T h i s f a c t d o e s n o t

20 i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s e n g a g i n g i n a n y i l l e g a l a c t i v i t y

21 t h a t w o u l d f u r n i s h p r o b a b l e c a u s e f o r a n a r r e s t ; n o r d o e s t h i s f a c t

22 “ p e r m i t t h e s u s p i c i o n s e n g e n d e r e d b y t h e i n f o r m a n t ’ s r e p o r t t o r i p e n

23 i n t o a j u d g m e n t t h a t a c r i m e w a s p r o b a b l y b e i n g c o m m i t t e d . ” U n i t e d

24 S t a t e s v . S p i n e l l i , 3 9 3 U . S . a t 4 1 8 , 8 9 S . C t . a t 5 9 0 .

25

26 T h e i n f o r m a t i o n p o s s e s s e d b y O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l a t t h e t i m e

27 h e c o n f r o n t e d t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o e s t a b l i s h p r o b a b l e

28 c a u s e f o r a w a r r a n t l e s s a r r e s t o f t h e d e f e n d a n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e

- 3 3 -
 1 s e a r c h o f t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s p e r s o n c a n n o t b e v a l i d a t e d a s a s e a r c h

2 i n c i d e n t t o a l a w f u l a r r e s t .

3

4 I V

5

6 I d i s s e n t f r o m t h e p e r c u r i a m o p i n i o n f i n d i n g t h a t t h e

7 a p p r e h e n s i o n o f t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a v a l i d i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p .

8

9 P r o b a b l e c a u s e i s n o t t h e o n l y b a s i s o n w h i c h a p e r s o n m a y

10 b e d e t a i n e d b y a p o l i c e o f f i c e r w i t h o u t a w a r r a n t . I f t h e f a c t s a n d

11 c i r c u m s t a n c e s d o n o t w a r r a n t t h e r e a s o n a b l e b e l i e f t h a t a c r i m e h a s

12 b e e n o r i s b e i n g c o m m i t t e d a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e i s n o t p r o b a b l e

13 c a u s e f o r a r r e s t , t h o s e f a c t s a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s m a y b e e x a m i n e d t o

14 d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y p e r m i t a n i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p . T h i s C o u r t h a s

15 p r e v i o u s l y r e v i e w e d d e c i s i o n s i n w h i c h t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s f o r p r o b a b l e

16 c a u s e a n d f o r i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p s w e r e d i s c u s s e d a n d n o t e d t h e

17 d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e t w o p r i n c i p l e s . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a n

18 a r r e s t a n d a n i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p i s s t a t e d i n S t a t e v . P u l l y , 8 6 3

19 S . W . 2 d 2 9 , 3 0 ( T e n n . 1 9 9 3 ) :

20

21 I n g e n e r a l , a l t h o u g h t h
e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t
22 r e q u i r e s " p r o b a b l e c a u s
e " b e f o r e a n a r r e s t i s
23 d e e m e d t o b e r e a s o n a b l e
, t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f
24 s e i z u r e s l e s s i n t r u s i v e t h a n a f u l l - s c a l e a r r e s t
25 i s j u d g e d b y w e i g h i n g t
h e g r a v i t y o f t h e p u b l i c
26 c o n c e r n , t h e d e g r e e t o w h i c h t h e s e i z u r e
27 a d v a n c e s t h a t c o n c e r n , a n d t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e
28 i n t r u s i o n i n t o i n d i v i d u a l p r i v a c y .
29
30
31
32 C o n s e q u e n t l y , u n d e r e x i g e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s , a p o l i c e o f f i c e r m a y m a k e

33 a n i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p w h e n t h e o f f i c e r h a s a r e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n ,

- 3 4 -
 1 s u p p o r t e d b y s p e c i f i c a n d a r t i c u l a b l e f a c t s , t h a t a c r i m i n a l o f f e n s e

2 h a s b e e n o r i s a b o u t t o b e c o m m i t t e d . I d .

3

4 R e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a n i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p m a y b e

5 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y r e a s o n a b l e e v e n t h o u g h a n a r r e s t w o u l d n o t b e

6 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y r e a s o n a b l e w a s n o t i n t e n d e d t o b e a r e l a x a t i o n o f

7 c o n s t i t u t i o n a l p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t i n t r u s i o n s b y t h e s t a t e . I n s t e a d ,

8 i t i s a r e c o g n i t i o n t h a t a l i m i t e d i n t r u s i o n u n d e r e x i g e n t

9 c i r c u m s t a n c e s m a y b e j u s t i f i e d a s c o n s t i t u t i o n a l l y r e a s o n a b l e .

10 S t a t e v . Y e a r g a n , _ _ _ _ _ S . W . 2 d a t _ _ _ _ _ ( R e i d , J . , c o n c u r r i n g ) [ s l i p

11 o p . a t 9 ] . T w o e s s e n t i a l c o n d i t i o n s c h a r a c t e r i z e a v a l i d

12 i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p , e x i g e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s a n d l i m i t e d i n t r u s i o n .

13 A f t e r r e v i e w i n g d e c i s i o n s f r o m o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s i n w h i c h

14 i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p s w e r e f o u n d t o b e j u s t i f i e d , t h e C o u r t i n P u l l y

15 s t a t e d : " T h e s e c a s e s s h o w t h a t t h e g r a v i t y o f t h e p e r c e i v e d h a r m i s

16 a c r u c i a l e l e m e n t i n a s s e s s i n g t h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f a n

17 i n v e s t i g a t i v e T e r r y s t o p . ” S t a t e v . P u l l y , 8 6 3 S . W . 2 d a t 3 3 . T h e

18 C o u r t t h e n a p p r o v e d t h i s s t a t e m e n t f r o m a c o n c u r r i n g o p i n i o n i n

19 U n i t e d S t a t e s v . M e n d e n h a l l , 4 4 6 U . S . 5 4 4 , 5 6 1 , 1 0 0 S . C t . 1 8 7 0 ,

20 1 8 8 1 , 6 4 L . E d . 2 d 4 9 7 ( 1 9 8 0 ) ( P o w e l l , J . , c o n c u r r i n g ) :

21

22 T h e r e a s o n a b l e n e s s o f a s t o p t u r n s o n t h e f a c t s
23 a n d c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f e a c h c a s e . I n p a r t i c u l a r ,
24 t h e C o u r t h a s e m p h a s i z e d ( i ) t h e p u b l i c i n t e r e s t
25 s e r v e d b y t h e s e i z u r e , ( i i ) t h e n a t u r e a n d s c o p e
26 o f t h e i n t r u s i o n , a n d ( i i i ) t h e o b j e c t i v e f a c t s
27 u p o n w h i c h t h e l a w e n f o r c e m e n t o f f i c e r r e l i e d i n
28 l i g h t o f h i s k n o w l e d g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e .
29
30
31
32 S t a t e v . P u l l y , 8 6 3 S . W . 2 d a t 3 4 .

33

- 3 5 -
 1 R e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n m a y j u s t i f y a l i m i t e d i n t r u s i o n i n t o

2 t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s s e c u r i t y w h e r e t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s r e q u i r e i m m e d i a t e

3 a c t i o n b y t h e p o l i c e o f f i c e r . T h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t

4 s t a t e d i n A l a b a m a v . W h i t e , 4 9 6 U . S . 3 2 5 , 3 3 0 , 1 1 0 S . C t . 2 4 1 2 ,

5 2 4 1 6 , 1 1 0 L . E d . 2 d 3 0 1 ( 1 9 9 0 ) , t h a t ,

6

7 [ r ] e a s o n a b l e s u sp i c i o n i s a l e s s d e m a n d i n g
8 s t a n d a r d t h a n p ro b a b l e c a su e n o t o n l y i n t h e
9 s e n s e t h a t r e a s on a b l e s u s ip c i o n c a n b e
10 e s t a b l i s h e d w i t h i n f o r m a t oi n t h a t i s d i f f e r e n t
11 i n q u a n t i t y o r co n t e n t t h na t h a t r e q u i r e d t o
12 e s t a b l i s h p r o b a bl e c a u s e , b u t a l s o i n t h e s e n s e
13 t h a t r e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n c a n a r i s e f r o m
14 i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s l e s s r e l i a b l e t h a n t h a t
15 r e q u i r e d t o s h o w p r o b a b l e c a u s e .

16

17 W h i l e t h e i n f o r m a n t ’ s t i p a n d O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l ’ s o w n

18 k n o w l e d g e a n d i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e n o t s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a f i n d i n g

19 o f p r o b a b l e c a u s e u n d e r J a c u m i n , t h e y m a y b e s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e

20 t h a t r e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n w h i c h i s o n e r e q u i r e m e n t f o r a n

21 i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p . R e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n m a y b e b a s e d o n t h e t i p o f

22 a k n o w n i n f o r m a n t ; w h e n t h e i n f o r m e r g i v e s t h e o f f i c e r i n f o r m a t i o n

23 “ i m m e d i a t e l y v e r i f i a b l e a t t h e s c e n e , ” ” t h e i n f o r m a t i o n m a y c a r r y

24 ‘ e n o u g h i n d i c i a o f r e l i a b i l i t y ’ ” t o j u s t i f y t h e s t o p w h e r e t h e r e i s

25 “ a n i m m e d i a t e t h r e a t o f d a n g e r . ” S t a t e v . P u l l y , 8 6 3 S . W . 2 d a t 3 1

26 ( q u o t i n g A d a m s v . W i l l i a m s , 4 0 7 U . S . 1 4 3 , 1 4 6 - 1 4 7 , 9 2 S . C t . 1 9 2 1 ,

27 1 9 2 3 - 1 9 2 4 , 3 2 L . E d . 2 d 6 1 2 ( 1 9 7 2 ) ) . T h e t e s t a d o p t e d b y J a c u m i n i s

28 h e l p f u l i n d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r “ s p e c i f i c a n d a r t i c u l a b l e f a c t s ”

29 j u s t i f y t h e r e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n n e c e s s a r y f o r a n i n v e s t i g a t i v e

30 s t o p . I d . a t 3 2 . F o r e x a m p l e , u n d e r a r e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n

31 a n a l y s i s , w h e n a n i n f o r m a n t r e p o r t s a n i n c i d e n t a t o r n e a r t h e t i m e

32 o f i t s o c c u r r e n c e , a c o u r t o f t e n c a n a s s u m e t h a t t h e r e p o r t i s f i r s t

- 3 6 -
 1 h a n d a n d t h u s r e l i a b l e . I d . F u r t h e r m o r e , a h u r r i e d d e s c r i p t i o n

2 f r o m a s o u r c e w h o i n s i s t s o n i m m e d i a t e a c t i o n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e

3 s o u r c e i s a n e y e w i t n e s s a n d m a y b e s u f f i c i e n t c a u s e f o r f u r t h e r

4 i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I d .

5

6 I n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e , O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l w a s t o l d b y t h e

7 i n f o r m a n t t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a t “ P r e a c h e r ’ s ” s e l l i n g “ c r a c k

8 c o c a i n e r i g h t t h e n . ” S o o n a f t e r r e c e i v i n g t h e t i p , O f f i c e r

9 B l a c k w e l l f o u n d t h e d e f e n d a n t a t “ P r e a c h e r ’ s , ” w h e r e t h e i n f o r m a n t

10 h a d t o l d h i m t h e d e f e n d a n t w o u l d b e . I f t h e r e w a s “ t h e n e e d f o r

11 i m m e d i a t e p o l i c e a c t i o n i n r e s p o n s e t o s e r i o u s t h r e a t s o f h a r m , ” t h e

12 i n f o r m a n t ’ s t i p w o u l d j u s t i f y a n i n v e s t i g a t i v e s t o p . I d . a t 3 3 .

13 H o w e v e r , t h e i n f o r m a n t d i d n o t r e p o r t t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a r m e d ,

14 t h o u g h t h e o f f i c e r h a d r e a s o n t o s u s p e c t h e m i g h t b e , n o r d i d t h e

15 i n f o r m a n t r e p o r t t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t i n t e n d e d t o d o a n y t h i n g t h a t

16 w o u l d c r e a t e a n i m m e d i a t e d a n g e r . T h e r e c o r d s h o w s t h a t t h e

17 d e f e n d a n t w a s s e a t e d a t a t a b l e i n a p u b l i c p l a c e e n g a g e d i n

18 c o n v e r s a t i o n . D e s p i t e p r i o r i n c i d e n t s o f v i o l e n t c o n d u c t a n d e v e n

19 t h o u g h t h e o f f i c e r s u s p e c t e d t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s i n p o s s e s s i o n o f

20 i l l e g a l d r u g s , t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s n o t a t t h e t i m e O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l

21 e n t e r e d t h e c l u b e n g a g e d i n a n y s u s p i c i o u s b e h a v i o r o r u n u s u a l

22 c o n d u c t w h i c h r e q u i r e d o r j u s t i f i e d h i s i m m e d i a t e d e t e n t i o n . T h e

23 e v i d e n c e , c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e l i g h t m o s t f a v o r a b l e t o t h e p r o s e c u t i o n ,

24 d o e s n o t s h o w t h a t O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l h a d s p e c i f i c a n d a r t i c u l a b l e

25 f a c t s o r i n f e r e n c e s f r o m f a c t s s u f f i c i e n t t o g e n e r a t e a r e a s o n a b l e

26 c o n c l u s i o n t h a t a c r i m e h a d b e e n , w a s , o r w a s a b o u t t o b e c o m m i t t e d .

27 A n d , f u r t h e r , t h e s u s p e c t e d c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y i n t h i s c a s e ,

28 p o s s e s s i o n o f i l l e g a l d r u g s , i s d i f f e r e n t i n p r i n c i p l e f r o m t h e

- 3 7 -
1 s u s p e c t e d a r m e d r o b b e r y i n T e r r y a n d t h e a g g r a v a t e d a s s a u l t o r

2 m u r d e r a n t i c i p a t e d i n P u l l y . T h e c r i m i n a l a c t i v i t y s u s p e c t e d d i d

3 n o t c o n s t i t u t e a n i m m e d i a t e t h r e a t o f h a r m t o t h e o f f i c e r o r o t h e r s .

4 T h e r e w a s n o n e e d f o r i m m e d i a t e p o l i c e a c t i o n . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e

5 i n i t i a l d e t e n t i o n o f t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s n o t j u s t i f i e d .

6

7 W h e r e t h e i n v e s t i g a t i v e d e t e n t i o n i s j u s t i f i e d , t h e p o l i c e

8 o f f i c e r m a y p a t a s u s p e c t ’ s o u t e r c l o t h i n g i f t h e o f f i c e r h a s a

9 r e a s o n a b l e , p a r t i c u l a r i z e d s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h e s u s p e c t i s a r m e d .

10 T e r r y v . O h i o , 3 9 2 U . S . a t 2 7 , 8 8 S . C t . a t 1 8 8 3 ; H u g h e s v . S t a t e ,

11 5 8 8 S . W . 2 d 2 9 6 , 3 0 4 ( T e n n . 1 9 7 9 ) . “ T h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s l i m i t e d

12 s e a r c h i s n o t t o d i s c o v e r e v i d e n c e o f c r i m e , b u t t o a l l o w t h e

13 o f f i c e r t o p u r s u e h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w i t h o u t f e a r o f v i o l e n c e . ”

14 A d a m s v . W i l l i a m s , 4 0 7 U . S . a t 1 4 6 , 9 2 S . C t . a t 1 9 2 3 . O f f i c e r

15 B l a c k w e l l k n e w t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a c o n v i c t e d f e l o n a n d d r u g

16 d e a l e r . H e k n e w t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t h a d r e c e n t l y b e e n c h a r g e d w i t h a

17 v i o l e n t o f f e n s e i n v o l v i n g a w e a p o n a n d w a s f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e

18 d e f e n d a n t ’ s a r m e d a t t e m p t t o f l e e p o l i c e . E v e n t h o u g h t h e d e f e n d a n t

19 w a s n o t i n f a c t a r m e d , t h i s k n o w l e d g e p r o v i d e d a r e a s o n a b l e ,

20 p a r t i c u l a r i z e d s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s a r m e d a n d d a n g e r o u s .

21 H o w e v e r , t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i z e d s u s p i c i o n c a n n o t b e t h e b a s i s f o r t h e

22 i n i t i a l s t o p .

23

24 A v a l i d i n v e s t i g a t o r y s t o p m u s t b e j u s t i
f i e d a t
25 i t s i n c e p t i o n a n d m u s t b e r e a s o n a b l y r e l
a t e d i n
26 s c o p e t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s t h a t j u s t i f i e
d
27 i n t e r f e r e n c e b y t h e p o l i c e w i t h a p e r s o n
’ s
28 s e c u r i t y . J u s t i f i c a t i o n m u s t b e b a s e d o
n a n
29 o b j e c t i v e m a n i f e s t a t i o n t h a t t h e p e r s o n s t o p p e d
30 w a s o r w a s a b o u t t o b e e n g a g e d i n c r i m i n a l
31 a c t i v i t y a s j u d g e d b y t h o s e v e r s e d i n t h e f i e l d
32 o f l a w e n f o r c e m e n t w h e n v i e w e d u n d e r t h e

- 3 8 -
 1 t o t a l i t y o f t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s . T h e d e t a i n i n g
2 o f f i c e r m u s t h a v e h a d a p a r t i c u l a r i z e d a n d
3 o b j e c t i v e b a s i s f o r t h e s u s p i c i o n o f c r i m i n a l
4 a c t i v i t y .
5
6

7 P e o p l e v . C h a m p i o n , 5 4 9 N . W . 2 d 8 4 9 , 8 5 3 ( M i c h . 1 9 9 6 ) ( c i t a t i o n s

8 o m i t t e d ) .

9

10 T h e S t a t e a t a s u p p r e s s i o n h e a r i n g h a s t h e b u r d e n o f

11 s h o w i n g b y a p r e p o n d e r a n c e o f t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e s e a r c h w a s

12 c o n d u c t e d w i t h i n a r e c o g n i z e d e x c e p t i o n t o t h e w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t .

13 S t a t e v . W a t k i n s , 8 2 7 S . W . 2 d 2 9 3 , 2 9 5 ( T e n n . 1 9 9 2 ) . T h e S t a t e h a s

14 f a i l e d t o c a r r y t h a t b u r d e n i n t h e p r e s e n t c a s e .

15

16 T h e c o n c l u s i o n i s t h a t s i n c e t h e r e w a s n o v a l i d b a s i s f o r

17 O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l ’ s i n i t i a l d e t e n t i o n o f t h e d e f e n d a n t a n d ,

18 c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e r e w a s n o a u t h o r i t y f o r t h e s e a r c h w h i c h p r o d u c e d

19 t h e c o n t r a b a n d , t h e t r i a l c o u r t e r r e d i n n o t s u p p r e s s i n g t h e

20 e v i d e n c e .

21

22 V

23

24 I c o n c u r i n t h e p e r c u r i a m d e c i s i o n t h a t e v e n i f t h e

25 d e t e n t i o n o f t h e d e f e n d a n t w a s l a w f u l , t h e e v i d e n c e i s n o t

26 a d m i s s i b l e u n d e r t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” d o c t r i n e . T h e C o u r t o f C r i m i n a l

27 A p p e a l s , a f t e r f i n d i n g t h e i n i t i a l d e t e n t i o n w a s v a l i d u n d e r T e r r y ,

28 u p h e l d t h e s e i z u r e u n d e r t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” d o c t r i n e o f M i n n e s o t a v .

29 D i c k e r s o n , 5 0 8 U . S . 3 6 6 , 1 1 3 S . C t . 2 1 3 0 ( 1 9 9 3 ) . I n t h a t c a s e t h e

30 U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t h e l d t h a t i f , w i t h i n t h e c o n f i n e s o f a

- 3 9 -
 1 v a l i d T e r r y f r i s k , a n o f f i c e r d e t e c t s c o n t r a b a n d t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e

2 o f t o u c h , t h e o f f i c e r m a y s e i z e t h e c o n t r a b a n d . H a v i n g f o u n d t h e

3 d e t e n t i o n w a s n o t a v a l i d T e r r y s t o p , t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” i s s u e i s m o o t

4 i n t h i s c a s e . H o w e v e r , s i n c e t h e R u l e 1 1 a p p l i c a t i o n w a s g r a n t e d

5 f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f d i s c u s s i n g t h a t i s s u e , i t s c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s n o t

6 i n a p p r o p r i a t e .

7

8 I n D i c k e r s o n , t w o p o l i c e o f f i c e r s o b s e r v e d D i c k e r s o n

9 l e a v i n g a n a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g k n o w n t o b e a “ n o t o r i o u s ‘ c r a c k

10 h o u s e . ’ ” B a s e d o n D i c k e r s o n ’ s s u s p i c i o u s b e h a v i o r w h e n h e s a w t h e

11 o f f i c e r s l o o k i n g a t h i m a n d t h e f a c t t h a t h e h a d l e f t a b u i l d i n g

12 a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o c a i n e t r a f f i c , t h e o f f i c e r s s t o p p e d h i m a n d

13 c o n d u c t e d a p a t d o w n s e a r c h , d u r i n g w h i c h o n e o f t h e o f f i c e r s f e l t a
1 0
14 s m a l l l u m p i n t h e f r o n t p o c k e t o f D i c k e r s o n ’ s j a c k e t . T h e o f f i c e r

15 m a n i p u l a t e d t h e l u m p w i t h h i s f i n g e r s a n d t h o u g h t t h a t i t f e l t l i k e

16 “ a l u m p o f c r a c k c o c a i n e i n c e l l o p h a n e . ” T h e o f f i c e r t h e n r e a c h e d

17 i n t o t h e p o c k e t a n d r e t r i e v e d a s m a l l p l a s t i c b a g c o n t a i n i n g o n e

18 f i f t h o f o n e g r a m o f c r a c k c o c a i n e . D i c k e r s o n w a s a r r e s t e d a n d

19 c h a r g e d w i t h p o s s e s s i o n o f a c o n t r o l l e d s u b s t a n c e . B e f o r e t r i a l , h e

20 m o v e d t o s u p p r e s s t h e c o c a i n e . T h e t r i a l c o u r t d e n i e d h i s m o t i o n

21 a n d h e w a s c o n v i c t e d o f p o s s e s s i o n o f a c o n t r o l l e d s u b s t a n c e . T h e

22 M i n n e s o t a C o u r t o f A p p e a l s a n d t h e M i n n e s o t a S u p r e m e C o u r t , h o w e v e r ,

23 h e l d t h a t t h e c o c a i n e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n s u p p r e s s e d . T h e S t a t e

24 a p p e a l e d t o t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t , w h i c h a f f i r m e d t h e

10
T h e v a l i d i t y o f t h e i n i t i a l d e t e n t i o n i n D i c k e r s o n w a s n o t
c o n t e s t e d . H o w e v e r , J u s t i c e S c a l i a s t a t e d , “ M y p r o b l e m w i t h t h e p r e s e n t
c a s e i s t h a t I a m n o t e n t i r e l y s u r e t h a t t h e p h y s i c a l s e a r c h - t h e “ f r i s k ” -
t h a t p r o d u c e d t h e e v i d e n c e a t i s s u e h e r e c o m p l i e d w i t h [ t h e ]
c o n s t i t u t i o n a l s t a n d a r d . ” D i c k e r s o n , 5 0 8 U . S . a t _ _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t
2 1 3 9 ( J . S c a l i a , c o n c u r r i n g ) .

- 4 0 -
 1 M i n n e s o t a S u p r e m e C o u r t .

2

3 A l t h o u g h c o n c l u d i n g t h a t t h e e v i d e n c e s h o u l d h a v e b e e n

4 s u p p r e s s e d , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t h e l d t h a t c o n t r a b a n d

5 d e t e c t e d t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e o f t o u c h d u r i n g a p a t d o w n s e a r c h m a y b e

6 a d m i t t e d i n t o e v i d e n c e . I t b a s e d i t s d e c i s i o n a d o p t i n g t h e s o -

7 c a l l e d “ p l a i n f e e l ” d o c t r i n e u p o n a n a n a l o g y t o t h e “ p l a i n v i e w ”

8 d o c t r i n e .

9

10 T h e r a t i o n a l e o f t h e p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e i s t h a t
11 i f c o n t r a b a n d i s l e f t i n o p e n v i e w a n d i s
12 o b s e r v e d b y a p o l i c e o f f i c e r f r o m a l a w f u l
13 v a n t a g e p o i n t , t h e r e h a s b e e n n o i n v a s i o n o f a
14 l e g i t i m a t e e x p e c t a t i o n o f p r i v a c y a n d t h u s n o
15 “ s e a r c h ” w i t h i n t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e F o u r t h
16 A m e n d m e n t - - o r a t l e a s t n o s e a r c h i n d e p e n d e n t o f
17 t h e i n i t i a l i n t r u s i o n t h a t g a v e t h e o f f i c e r s
18 t h e i r v a n t a g e p o i n t . S e e I l l i n o i s v . A n d r e a s , 4 6 3
19 U . S . 7 6 5 , 7 7 1 , 1 0 3 S . C t . 3 3 1 9 , 3 3 2 4 , 7 7 L . E d .
20 2 d 1 0 0 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; T e x a s v . B r o w n , [ 4 6 0 U . S . 7 3 0 ,
21 7 4 0 , 1 0 3 S . C t . 1 5 3 5 , 1 5 4 2 , 7 5 L . E d . 2 d 5 0 2
22 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ] . T h e w a r r a n t l e s s s e i z u r e o f c o n t r a b a n d
23 t h a t p r e s e n t s i t s e l f i n t h i s m a n n e r i s d e e m e d
24 j u s t i f i e d b y t h e r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t r e s o r t t o a
25 n e u t r a l m a g i st r a t e u n d e r s u c h c i r c u m s t a n c e s w o u l d
26 o f t e n b e i m p ra c t i c a b l e a n d w o u l d d o l i t t l e t o
27 p r o m o t e t h e o
b j e c t i v e s o f t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t .
28 S e e [ A r i z o n a v . H i c k s , 4 8 0 U . S . 3 2 1 , 3 2 6 - 3 2 7 , 1 0 7
29 S . C t . 1 1 4 9 , 1 1 5 3 , 9 4 L . E d . 2 d 3 4 7 ( 1 9 8 7 ) ] ;
30 C o o l i d g e v . Ne w H a m p s h i r e , 4 0 3 U . S . 4 4 3 , 4 6 7 - 4 6 8 ,
31 4 6 9 - 4 7 0 , 9 1 S. C t . 2 0 2 2 , 2 0 2 8 - 2 0 2 9 , 2 0 4 0 , 2 9 L .
32 E d . 2 d 5 6 4 ( 1 9 7 1 ) ( o p i n i o n o f S t e w a r t , J . ) ] . T h e
33 s a m e c a n b e sa i d o f t a c t i l e d i s c o v e r i e s o f
34 c o n t r a b a n d . I f a p o l i c e o f f i c e r l a w f u l l y p a t s
35 d o w n a s u s p e c t ’ s o u t e r c l o t h i n g a n d f e e l s a n
36 o b j e c t w h o s e c o n t o u r o r m a s s m a k e s i t s i d e n t i t y
37 i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t , t h e r e h a s b e e n n o i n v a s i o n
38 o f t h e s u s p e c t ’ s p r i v a c y b e y o n d t h a t a l r e a d y
39 a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e o f f i c e r ’ s s e a r c h f o r w e a p o n s ;
40 i f t h e o b j e c t i s c o n t r a b a n d , i t s w a r r a n t l e s s
41 s e i z u r e w o u l d b e j u s t i f i e d b y t h e s a m e p r a c t i c a l
42 c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h a t i n h e r e i n t h e p l a i n v i e w
43 c o n t e x t .
44
45
46

- 4 1 -
 1 I d . a t _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 7 ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) ( f o o t n o t e o m i t t e d ) .

2

3 I n D i c k e r s o n , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t r e j e c t e d t w o

4 a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t t h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e . O n e w a s t h a t t o u c h i s

5 m o r e i n t r u s i v e o f o n e ’ s p r i v a c y t h a n i s s i g h t . T h e C o u r t r e s p o n d e d

6 t h a t t h i s a r g u m e n t w a s “ i n a p p o s i t e i n l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

7 i n t r u s i o n . . . h a s a l r e a d y b e e n a u t h o r i z e d b y t h e l a w f u l s e a r c h

8 f o r w e a p o n s . ” I d . , 5 0 8 U . S . a t _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 8 . A s e c o n d

9 a r g u m e n t a g a i n s t t h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e w a s t h a t t h e s e n s e o f t o u c h

10 i s i n h e r e n t l y l e s s i m m e d i a t e a n d l e s s r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e s e n s e o f

11 s i g h t . I n r e s p o n s e , t h e C o u r t s t a t e d t h a t T e r r y i t s e l f d e m o n s t r a t e d

12 t h a t t h e s e n s e o f t o u c h i s c a p a b l e o f r e v e a l i n g t h e n a t u r e o f a n

13 o b j e c t w i t h s u f f i c i e n t r e l i a b i l i t y t o s u p p o r t a s e i z u r e .

14

15 T h e v e r y p r e m i s e o f T e r r y , a f t e r a l l , i s t h a t
16 o f f i c e r s w i l l b e a b l e t o d e t e c t t h e p r e s e n c e o f
17 w e a p o n s t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e o f t o u c h a n d T e r r y
18 u p h e l d p r e c i s e l y s u c h a s e i z u r e . E v e n i f i t
19 w e r e t r u e t h a t t h e s e n s e o f t o u c h i s g e n e r a l l y
20 l e s s r e l i a b l e t h a n t h e s e n s e o f s i g h t , t h a t o n l y
21 s u g g e s t s t h a t o f f i c e r s w i l l l e s s o f t e n b e a b l e
22 t o j u s t i f y s e i z u r e s o f u n s e e n c o n t r a b a n d .
23 R e g a r d l e s s o f w h e t h e r t h e o f f i c e r d e t e c t s t h e
24 c o n t r a b a n d b y s i g h t o r b y t o u c h , h o w e v e r , t h e
25 F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t ’ s r e q u i r e m e n t t h a t t h e o f f i c e r
26 h a v e p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e i t e m i s
27 c o n t r a b a n d b e f o r e s e i z i n g i t e n s u r e s a g a i n s t
28 e x c e s s i v e l y s p e c u l a t i v e s e i z u r e s .
29
30
31
32 I d . a t _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 7 ( e m p h a s i s a d d e d ) .

33

34 T h e C o u r t t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o a p p l y t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f t h e

35 p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e t o t h e f a c t s o f D i c k e r s o n . T h e d i s p o s i t i v e

36 q u e s t i o n , t h e C o u r t w r o t e , “ i s w h e t h e r t h e o f f i c e r w h o c o n d u c t e d t h e

- 4 2 -
 1 s e a r c h w a s a c t i n g w i t h i n t h e l a w f u l b o u n d s m a r k e d b y T e r r y a t t h e

2 t i m e h e g a i n e d p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e l u m p i n

3 r e s p o n d e n t ’ s j a c k e t w a s c o n t r a b a n d . ” I d . a t _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t

4 2 1 3 8 . T h e C o u r t f o u n d t h a t t h e o f f i c e r i n D i c k e r s o n “ o v e r s t e p p e d

5 t h e b o u n d s o f t h e ‘ s t r i c t l y c i r c u m s c r i b e d ’ s e a r c h f o r w e a p o n s

6 a l l o w e d u n d e r T e r r y . ” I d .

7

8 W h e r e , a s h e r e , “ a n o f f i c e r w h o i s e x e c u t
i n g a
9 v a l i d s e a r c h f o r o n e i t e m s e i z e s a d i f f e r
e n t
10 i t e m , ” t h i s C o u r t r i g h t l y “ h a s b e e n s e n s i
t i v e t o
11 t h e d a n g e r . . . t h a t o f f i c e r s w i l l e n l a r
g e a
12 s p e c i f i c a u t h o r i z a t i o n , f u r n i s h e d b y a w a
r r a n t
13 o r a n e x i g e n c y , i n t o t h e e q u i v a l e n t o f a g e n e r a l
14 w a r r a n t t o r u m m a g e a n d s e i z e a t w i l l . ” T e x a s v .
15 B r o w n , 4 6 0 U . S . , a t 7 4 8 , 1 0 3 S . C t . , a t 1 5 4 6 -
16 1 5 4 7 ( S t e v e n s , J . , c o n c u r r i n g i n j u d g m e n t ) .
17 H e r e , t h e o f f i c e r ’ s c o n t i n u e d e x p l o r a t i o n o f
18 r e s p o n d e n t ’ s p o c k e t a f t e r h a v i n g c o n c l u d e d t h a t
19 i t c o n t a i n e d n o w e a p o n w a s u n r e l a t e d t o “ [ t ] h e
20 s o l e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e a r c h [ u n d e r T e r r y : ]
21 . . . t h e p r o t e c t i o n o f t h e p o l i c e o f f i c e r a n d
22 o t h e r s n e a r b y . ” 3 9 2 U . S . , a t 2 9 , 8 8 S . C t . , a t
23 1 8 8 4 . I t t h e r e f o r e a m o u n t e d t o t h e s o r t o f
24 e v i d e n t i a r y s e a r c h t h a t T e r r y e x p r e s s l y r e f u s e d
25 t o a u t h o r i z e , s e e i d . , a t 2 6 , 8 8 S . C t . , a t
26 1 8 8 2 , a n d t h a t w e h a v e c o n d e m n e d i n s u b s e q u e n t
27 c a s e s . S e e M i c h i g a n v . L o n g , 4 6 3 U . S . [ 1 0 3 2 ,
28 1 0 4 9 , n . 1 4 , 1 0 3 S . C t . 3 2 6 9 , 3 4 8 0 - 3 4 8 1 , 7 7 L .
29 E d . 2 d 1 2 0 1 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ] ; S i b r o n [ v . N e w Y o r k , 3 9 2
30 U . S . 4 0 , 6 5 - 6 6 , 8 8 S . C t . 1 8 8 9 , 1 9 0 4 , 2 0 L . E d .
31 2 d 9 1 7 ( 1 9 6 8 ) ] .
32
33
34
35 I d . a t _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 8 - 3 9 .

36

37 T w o p r e r e q u i s i t e s c a n b e g a t h e r e d f r o m D i c k e r s o n f o r

38 a l l o w i n g t h e s e i z u r e o f c o n t r a b a n d d e t e c t e d t h r o u g h a p o l i c e

39 o f f i c e r ’ s s e n s e o f t o u c h d u r i n g a p r o t e c t i v e p a t d o w n s e a r c h o f a

40 s u s p e c t . F i r s t , t h e s c o p e o f t h e s e a r c h m u s t b e l i m i t e d t o t h a t

41 n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e s u s p e c t i s a r m e d . S e c o n d , t h e

- 4 3 -
1 i n c r i m i n a t i n g c h a r a c t e r o f t h e n o n - t h r e a t e n i n g c o n t r a b a n d d e t e c t e d

2 d u r i n g t h e l i m i t e d s e a r c h m u s t b e “ i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t . ” U n i t e d

3 S t a t e v . R o s s , 8 2 7 F . S u p p . 7 1 1 , 7 1 8 ( S . D . A l a . 1 9 9 3 ) , a f f ’ d , 1 9

4 F . 3 d 1 4 4 6 ( 1 1 t h C i r . 1 9 9 4 ) ; D . D . v . S t a t e , 6 6 8 N . E . 2 d 1 2 5 0 , 1 2 5 2

5 ( I n d . A p p . 1 9 9 6 ) . I n t h e i n s t a n t c a s e , a s s u m i n g t h a t t h e i n i t i a l

6 s e i z u r e w a s j u s t i f i e d , t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e p r e r e q u i s i t e s i s i n i t i a l l y

7 m e t . N o t h i n g i n t h e r e c o r d i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e o f f i c e r w e n t b e y o n d

8 t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f a T e r r y s e a r c h f o r w e a p o n s i n h i s p a t d o w n o f t h e

9 d e f e n d a n t ’ s p e r s o n u n t i l h e s e i z e d t h e b o t t l e . C o m p a r e D i c k e r s o n ,

10 5 0 8 U . S . a t _ _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 8 ; S t a t e v . W o n d e r s , 9 2 9 P . 2 d

11 7 9 2 ( K a n . A p p . 1 9 9 6 ) ( o f f i c e r c o n t i n u e d p a t d o w n o f d e f e n d a n t ’ s

12 p o c k e t a f t e r h e d e t e r m i n e d t h a t i t d i d n o t c o n t a i n a w e a p o n ) . I t i s

13 t h e l a t t e r o f t h e s e t w o p r e r e q u i s i t e s t h a t f a i l s i n t h e p r e s e n t

14 c a s e .

15

16 T o j u s t i f y s e i z u r e o f t h e p i l l b o t t l e , i t s i d e n t i t y a s

17 c o n t r a b a n d m u s t h a v e b e e n “ i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t . ” T h e t e r m

18 “ i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t ” h a s b e e n u s e d s y n o n y m o u s l y w i t h ” p r o b a b l e

19 c a u s e . ” A s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t w r o t e i n D i c k e r s o n

20 i t s e l f , “ [ i ] f . . . t h e p o l i c e l a c k p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t

21 a n o b j e c t i n p l a i n v i e w i s c o n t r a b a n d w i t h o u t c o n d u c t i n g s o m e

22 f u r t h e r s e a r c h o f t h e o b j e c t - - i . e . , i f ‘ i t s i n c r i m i n a t i n g c h a r a c t e r

23 [ i s n o t ] “ i m m e d i a t e l y a p p a r e n t , ” ’ - - t h e p l a i n - v i e w d o c t r i n e c a n n o t

24 j u s t i f y i t s s e i z u r e . ” I d , 5 0 8 U . S . a t _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 7

25 ( c i t a t i o n s o m i t t e d ) . S e e a l s o A r i z o n a v . H i c k s , 4 8 0 U . S . a t 3 2 9 ,

26 1 0 7 S . C t . a t 1 1 5 4 ; T e x a s v . B r o w n , 4 6 0 U . S . a t 7 4 1 - 7 4 2 , 1 0 3 S . C t .

27 a t 1 5 4 3 ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; S t a t e v . J o n e s , 6 5 3 A . 2 d 1 0 4 0 , 1 0 4 7 - 1 0 5 0 ( M d . A p p .

28 1 9 9 5 ) ; s e e g e n e r a l l y 3 W a y n e R . L a F a v e , S e a r c h & S e i z u r e § 7.5( b )

- 4 4 -
 1 ( 3 d e d . 1 9 9 6 ) . T h e q u e s t i o n t h u s b e c o m e s w h e t h e r O f f i c e r

2 B l a c k w e l l ’ s t a c t i l e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e p i l l b o t t l e g a v e h i m , w i t h o u t

3 f u r t h e r s e a r c h i n g , p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h e o b j e c t f e l t w a s

4 c o n t r a b a n d .

5

6 A n a f f i d a v i t f i l e d a s a n e x h i b i t t o t h e s u p p r e s s i o n

7 h e a r i n g g i v e s t h e f o l l o w i n g a c c o u n t o f O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l ’ s p a t d o w n

8 o f t h e d e f e n d a n t :

9

10 F o r m y p r o t e c t i o n I i m m e d i a t e l y i d e n t i f
i e d
11 m y s e l f a n d f r i s k e d B r i d g e s f o r w e a p o n s . W h e n I
12 t o u c h e d h i s r i g h t j a c k e t p o c k e t I i m m e d
i a t e l y
13 r e c o g n i z e d a p i l l b o t t l e , i n t h a t p o c k e
t , t h a t
14 i s u s e d b y t h e m a j o r i t y o f c r a c k d e a l e r
s t o h o l d
15 t h e i r c r a c k c o c a i n e . I c o n t i n u e d t h e f
r i s k a n d
16 f o u n d a k n i f e i n B r i d g e s ’ b a c k p o c k e t . T h e p i l l
17 b o t t l e c o n t a i n e d c r a c k c o c a i n e . I c h a r g e d h i m
18 a n d a l s o f o u n d a s m a l l b a g o f c r a c k c o c a i n e i n
19 t h e s a m e p o c k e t .

20

21 O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l a l s o t e s t i f i e d a t t h e s u p p r e s s i o n h e a r i n g

22 r e g a r d i n g h i s d i s c o v e r y o f t h e b o t t l e :

23

24 Q . A l l r i g h t ; w h a t a c t u a l l y d i d y o u t a k e i n t o
25 p o s s e s s i o n r e g a r d i n g c o n t r o l l e d s u b s t a n c e s ?
26
27 A . T o o k c r a c k c o c a i n e w h i c h w a s i n a n a m o u n t - -
28
29 Q . W e l l , y o u d o n ’ t h a v e t o g i v e m e t h e a m o u n t .
30 W h e r e w a s i t l o c a t e d o n t h e d e f e n d a n t ?
31
32 A . I t w a s i n h i s r i g h t j a c k e t p o c k e t .
33
34 Q . I n w h a t k i n d o f c o n t a i n e r ?
35
36 A . P a r t o f i t w a s i n a p l a s t i c b a g , p a r t o f i t
37 w a s i n a p i l l b o t t l e . T h a t ’ s w h e n I s e i z e d i t .
38 W h e n I w a s f r i s k i n g h i m I f e l t a n d i m m e d i a t e l y
39 f e l t t h e p i l l b o t t l e a n d k n e w t h a t i t w a s t h e
40 k i n d t h a t a l o t o f o t h e r d e a l e r s w i l l u s e t o
41 k e e p t h e i r c r a c k i n .

- 4 5 -
1
2
3 I n s u m m a r y , t h e e v i d e n c e s h o w s t h a t O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l f e l t a n o b j e c t

4 t h a t h e i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d a s a p i l l b o t t l e w h e n h e t o u c h e d t h e

5 d e f e n d a n t ’ s j a c k e t i n t h e c o u r s e o f t h e T e r r y w e a p o n s f r i s k .

6

7 T h e c o u r t s m u s t c a r e f u l l y s c r u t i n i z e s e i z u r e s s u p p o r t e d b y

8 t h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e . A s t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t

9 a c k n o w l e d g e d i n D i c k e r s o n , 5 0 8 U . S . _ _ _ _ , 1 1 3 S . C t . a t 2 1 3 7 , t o t h e

10 e x t e n t t h a t t h e s e n s e o f t o u c h m a y b e l e s s r e l i a b l e i n c e r t a i n

11 c i r c u m s t a n c e s , o f f i c e r s w i l l l e s s o f t e n b e a b l e t o j u s t i f y s e i z u r e s

12 o f u n s e e n c o n t r a b a n d . C o u r t s s h o u l d n o t s u r r e n d e r t h e i r c o m m o n

13 s e n s e a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e s e n s o r y c a p a c i t i e s o f h u m a n t o u c h t o a n

14 o f f i c e r ’ s a s s e r t i o n t h a t h e o r s h e “ i m m e d i a t e l y k n e w ” t h e n a t u r e o f

15 t h e o b j e c t t o u c h e d . S e e , e . g . , J o n e s v . S t a t e , 6 8 2 A . 2 d 2 4 8 , 2 5 2

16 ( M d . 1 9 9 6 ) ( “ i t ’ s n o t j u s t a q u e s t i o n o f b e i n g a n e x p e r t a n d c o m i n g

17 i n a n d s a y i n g t h e m a g i c w o r d s ” ) . T h e o f f i c e r ’ s s u b j e c t i v e b e l i e f

18 t h a t t h e o b j e c t i s c o n t r a b a n d i s n o t s u f f i c i e n t u n l e s s i t i s

19 o b j e c t i v e l y r e a s o n a b l e i n l i g h t o f a l l t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s k n o w n a t

20 t h e t i m e o f t h e s e a r c h . S t a t e v . T r i n e , 6 7 3 A . 2 d 1 0 9 8 , 1 1 0 9 ( C o n n .

21 1 9 9 6 ) . A n o f f i c e r ’ s t e s t i m o n y i s a f a c t o r i n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

22 l e g a l i t y o f a s e i z u r e u n d e r t h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e , b u t i t i s n o t

23 d i s p o s i t i v e a n d d o e s n o t e n d a c o u r t ’ s i n q u i r y . S t a t e v . W o n d e r s ,

24 9 2 9 P . 2 d a t 7 9 9 .

25

26 P r a c t i c a l a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n a l c o n c e r n s r e q u i r e t h a t t h e

27 p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e b e a p p l i e d w i t h c a u t i o n . T h e d o c t r i n e h a s b e e n

28 c r i t i c i z e d s i n c e i t m a y e a s i l y a l l o w

29

- 4 6 -
 1 a l a w o
f f i c e r t o s e i z e a n y t h i n g a s l o n g a s h e i s
2 a b l e t o
c o n t e n d t h a t h e c o u l d i d e n t i f y t h e
3 c o n t r a b
a n d b y m e r e l y t o u c h i n g t h e s u s p e c t ’ s
4 c l o t h i n
g . R e a l i s t i c a l l y , n o m a t t e r h o w a b s u r d
5 o r u n s u
p p o r t a b l e s u c h a c o n t e n t i o n m a y b e , a
6 d e f e n d a
n t w i l l n o t b e a b l e t o s u c c e s s f u l l y
7 c h a l l e n
g e i t . T h e “ p l a i n t o u c h ” d o c t r i n e w i l l
8 e n c o u r a
g e o f f i c e r s t o i n v e s t i g a t e a n y l u m p o r
9 b u l g e n i a p e r s o n ’ s c l o t h i n g o r p o c k e t s t h a t
10 a r o u s e s
t h e i r c u r i o s i t y d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f a
11 p a t d o w n
s e a r c h . I f t h e i t e m t u r n s o u t t o b e
12 c o n t r a a n b d , t h e n i t s s e i z u r e c a n b e
13 r e t r o s e c p t i v e l y j u s t i f i e d . I f i t t u r n s o u t t o
14 b e s o m t h e i n g e l s e , t h e n t h e r e i s n o c a s e a n d t h e
15 m a t t e r e n d s t h e r e . I n t h e i n t e r i m , a c i t i z e n i s
16 s u b j e c t t o a n u n w a r r a n t e d i n t r u s i o n i n t o h i s
17 p e r s o n a l p r i v a c y f a r b e y o n d t h e i n t r u s i o n
18 c o n t e m p l a t e d b y t h e w e a p o n s p a t d o w n s e a r c h .
19
20

21 P e o p l e v . M i t c h e l l , 6 5 0 N . E . 2 d 1 0 1 4 , 1 0 2 5 ( I l l . 1 9 9 5 ) ( H e i p l e , J . ,

22 d i s s e n t i n g ) . O v e r a q u a r t e r o f a c e n t u r y a g o , t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s

23 S u p r e m e C o u r t s i m i l a r l y w a r n e d t h a t “ t h e ‘ p l a i n v i e w ’ d o c t r i n e m a y

24 n o t b e u s e d t o e x t e n d a g e n e r a l e x p l o r a t o r y s e a r c h f r o m o n e o b j e c t

25 t o a n o t h e r u n t i l s o m e t h i n g i n c r i m i n a t i n g a t l a s t e m e r g e s . ” C o o l i d g e

26 v . N e w H a m p s h i r e , 4 0 3 U . S . a t 4 6 6 , 9 1 S . C t . a t 2 0 3 8 . T h i s

27 a d m o n i t i o n a p p l i e s e q u a l l y t o t h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e , w h i c h , i f

28 l o o s e l y a p p l i e d , c o u l d , a s i t s c r i t i c s p r e d i c t , e x p a n d l i m i t e d

29 p r o t e c t i v e s e a r c h e s f o r w e a p o n s u n d e r T e r r y i n t o g e n e r a l e x p l o r a t o r y

30 r u m m a g i n g s o f s u s p e c t s ’ p e r s o n s f o r c o n t r a b a n d . S e e B a r b a r a A .

31 D o t y , N o t e , M i n n e s o t a v . D i c k e r s o n : P l a i n T o u c h D o c t r i n e - -

32 A u t h o r i z i n g a T e r r y S t o p a n d S e a r c h f o r D r u g s ? , 1 9 9 4 W i s . L . R e v .

33 1 3 0 3 ( 1 9 9 4 ) .

34

35 T h e d e f e n d a n t d i d n o t c o n t e n d t h a t t h e T e n n e s s e e

36 C o n s t i t u t i o n a f f o r d s g r e a t e r p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t s e a r c h e s a n d

37 s e i z u r e s t h a n d o e s t h e f e d e r a l c o n s t i t u t i o n w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e p l a i n

- 4 7 -
 1 f e e l d o c t r i n e . T h e p l a i n f e e l d o c t r i n e a s f o r m u l a t e d b y t h e U n i t e d

2 S t a t e s S u p r e m e C o u r t i n D i c k e r s o n i s n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

3 p r i n c i p l e s e n u n c i a t e d b y t h i s C o u r t i n i n t e r p r e t i n g A r t i c l e I ,

4 S e c t i o n 7 . S e e e . g . , S t a t e v . R o o d e , 6 4 3 S . W . 2 d 6 5 1 , 6 5 3 ( T e n n . 1 9 8 2 ) .

5 C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h a t d o c t r i n e , w i t h t h e e x a c t i n g l i m i t a t i o n s s t a t e d i n

6 D i c k e r s o n , w i l l b e a p p l i e d i n a p p r o p r i a t e c a s e s i n t h i s s t a t e .

7

8 H o w e v e r , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e p r i n c i p l e s t o t h e r e c o r d

9 i n t h i s c a s e r e q u i r e s t h e f i n d i n g t h a t O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l d i d n o t

10 h a v e p r o b a b l e c a u s e t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e o b j e c t h e f e l t w a s

11 c o n t r a b a n d . B a s e d o n h i s t e s t i m o n y , h e h a d a s u s p i c i o n t h a t t h e

12 b o t t l e c o n t a i n e d c o n t r a b a n d , b u t e v e n a r e a s o n a b l e s u s p i c i o n i s

13 i n s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a s e i z u r e u n d e r t h e p l a i n v i e w d o c t r i n e ,

14 A r i z o n a v . H i c k s , 4 8 0 U . S . a t 3 2 6 - 2 7 , 1 0 7 S . C t . a t 1 1 5 3 , a n d t h u s ,

15 b y a n a l o g y , i t i s i n s u f f i c i e n t t o s u p p o r t a s e i z u r e u n d e r t h e “ p l a i n

16 f e e l ” d o c t r i n e . W h i l e O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l t e s t i f i e d t h a t h e

17 “ i m m e d i a t e l y r e c o g n i z e d ” t h e i t e m a s a p i l l b o t t l e , u n l e s s h e w a s

18 c l a i r v o y a n t t h e c o n t e n t s c o u l d n o t b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m m e r e l y

19 t o u c h i n g t h e c o n t a i n e r . S u c h a b o t t l e , o r o n e r e s e m b l i n g i t b y

20 t o u c h , m a y e n c l o s e l e g a l m e d i c a t i o n , c a n d y , p i n s , f i l m o r a n y n u m b e r

21 o f o t h e r s m a l l i t e m s . N o t h i n g i n t h e o f f i c e r ’ s t e s t i m o n y o f f e r s a n

22 o b j e c t i v e b a s i s f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n t a i n e r i t s e l f o r i t s

23 p o s s i b l e c o n t e n t s a s c o n t r a b a n d . N o t h i n g i n t h e r e c o r d e x p l a i n s h o w

24 h i s t o u c h i n g t h e c o n t a i n e r r e v e a l e d i t s c o n t e n t s “ s o u n q u e s t i o n a b l y ”

25 t h a t n o w a r r a n t r e q u i r e m e n t e x i s t e d “ m e r e l y b e c a u s e t h e r e i s a

26 c o n t a i n e r b e t w e e n t h e o f f i c e r a n d t h e s e i z a b l e o b j e c t . ” 3 L a F a v e ,

27 S e a r c h & S e i z u r e § 5 . 5 (f ) . A l t h o u g h t h e C o u r t o f C r i m i n a l A p p e a l s

28 w r i t e s t h a t O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l ’ s i d e n t i f i c a t i o n w a s b a s e d u p o n h i s

- 4 8 -
 1 e x p e r i e n c e , t h e r e c o r d c o n t a i n s l i t t l e e v i d e n c e o f O f f i c e r

2 B l a c k w e l l ’ s e x p e r i e n c e i n d r u g c a s e s a n d n o e v i d e n c e a s t o h o w h e

3 c o n n e c t e d t h e c o n t a i n e r w i t h t h e p o s s e s s i o n o f c o c a i n e . C o m p a r e ,

4 S t a t e v . T r i n e , 6 7 3 A . 2 d a t 1 1 1 1 - 1 2 ( o f f i c e r t e s t i f i e d a s t o h i s

5 e x p e r i e n c e w i t h n a r c o t i c s ) ; P e o p l e v . C h a m p i o n , 5 4 9 N . W . 2 d . 8 4 9 , 8 5 9

6 ( M i c h . 1 9 9 6 ) ( o f f i c e r ’ s t e s t i m o n y a b o u t 2 0 y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e i n

7 n a r c o t i c s w o r k ) . U n d e r t h e p r o o f i n t h i s r e c o r d , i t i s e v i d e n t t h a t

8 i t w a s n o t a p p a r e n t t o O f f i c e r B l a c k w e l l t h a t t h e b o t t l e c o n t a i n e d

9 c o n t r a b a n d u n t i l i t w a s r e m o v e d f r o m t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s p o c k e t . T h i s ,

10 h o w e v e r , i s t h e v e r y t y p e o f f u r t h e r m a n i p u l a t i o n f o r b i d d e n b y

11 D i c k e r s o n . S e e U n i t e d S t a t e s v . R o s s , 8 2 7 F . S u p p . a t 7 1 9

12 ( m a t c h b o x ) ; S t a t e v . P a r k e r , 6 2 2 S o . 2 d 7 9 1 , 7 9 5 ( L a . A p p . 1 9 9 3 )

13 ( m a t c h b o x ) ; S t a t e v . A b r a m s , 4 7 1 S . E . 2 d 7 1 6 , 7 1 8 ( S . C . A p p . 1 9 9 6 )

14 ( T y l e n o l b o t t l e ) ; C a m p b e l l v . S t a t e , 8 6 4 S . W . 2 d 2 2 3 , 2 2 6 ( T e x . A p p .

15 1 9 9 3 ) ( f i l m c a n i s t e r ) ; D a v i s v . S t a t e , 8 2 9 S . W . 2 d 2 1 8 , 2 2 0 ( T e x . C r .
1 1
16 A p p . 1 9 9 2 ) ( m a t c h b o x ) ; c o n t r a P e o p l e v . C h a m p i o n , 5 4 9 N . W . 2 d a t

17 8 5 8 - 5 9 ( p i l l b o t t l e i n g r o i n ) ; S t a t e v . R u s h i n g , 9 3 5 S . W . 2 d 3 0 ( M o .

18 1 9 9 6 ) ( e n b a n c ) ( c y l i n d r i c a l m e d i c i n e b o t t l e ) .

19

20

21

22 V I

11
C o m p a r e c a s e s w h e r e t h e o f f i c e r a c t u a l l y f e l t t h e c o n t r a b a n d
i t s e l f o r f e l t t h e c o n t r a b a n d t h r o u g h p a c k a g i n g t h a t d i d n o t c o c n e a l t h e
c o n t e n t s ’ n a t u r e , e . g . , U n i t e d S t a t e v . C r a f t , 3 0 F . 3 d 1 0 4 4 , 1 0 5 4 ( 8 t h
C i r . 1 9 9 4 ) ( b u l g e s o f h e r o i n e p a c k a g e s a r o u n d d e f e n d a n t ’ s a n k l e ) s ; U n i t e d
S t a t e s v . H u g h e s , 1 5 F . 3 d 7 9 8 , 8 0 2 ( 8 t h C i r . 1 9 9 4 ) ( “ s m a l l l u m p ” s o f
c r a c k c o c a i n e ) ; S t a t e v . T r i n e , 6 7 3 A . 2 d a t 1 1 1 1 ( r o c k o f c o c a i e n i n
p o c k e t ) ; P e o p l e v . M i t c h e l l , 6 5 0 N . E . 2 d 1 0 1 4 , 1 0 2 4 ( I l l . 1 9 9 5 ) ( i p e c e o f
“ r o c k ” c o c a i n e i n s i d e b a g g i e ) ; S t a t e v . W i l s o n , 4 3 7 S . E . 2 d 3 8 7 , 3 8 9 ( N . C .
A p p . 1 9 9 3 ) ( “ l u m p s ” i n p a c k a g e i n b r e a s t p o c k e t ) ; C o m m o n w e a l t h v . D o r s e y ,
6 5 4 A . 2 d 1 0 8 6 , 1 0 8 7 ( P a . S u p e r . 1 9 9 5 ) ( “ l u m p ” i n p l a s t i c b a g ) ; S t a t e v .
B u c h a n a n , 5 0 4 N . W . 2 d 4 0 0 , 4 0 4 ( W i s . A p p . 1 9 9 3 ) ( p l a s t i c b a g c o n t a i n i n g
c o c a i n e i n w a i s t b a n d ) .

- 4 9 -
1 I n c o n c l u s i o n , I w o u l d h o l d t h a t t h e d e f e n d a n t ’ s i n i t i a l

2 d e t e n t i o n w a s n o t a v a l i d T e r r y s t o p a n d , f u r t h e r , b e c a u s e t h e

3 s e a r c h c a n n o t b e s u s t a i n e d u n d e r t h e “ p l a i n f e e l ” d o c t r i n e , t h e

4 s e a r c h w a s n o t r e a s o n a b l e u n d e r t h e F o u r t h A m e n d m e n t a n d A r t i c l e I ,

5 S e c t i o n 7 .

6

7 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8 R e i d , J .

- 5 0 -